entomologia 01
DESCRIPTION
entomologia agraria (6 cfu), corso di laurea in scienze e tecnologie agrarie (d.m. 270). 1)INTRO 2)MORFOLOGIATRANSCRIPT
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Francesco Porcelli DiBCA sez. Entomologia e Zoologia, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro
Entomologia Agraria (6 cfu), Corso di Laurea in Scienze e Tecnologie Agrarie (d.m. 270)
Curriculum "Produzione vegetale e Protezione delle colture"
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Obiettivi Formativi Scopo del corso è di qualificare lo studente a riconoscere i principali insetti fìtofagi di interesse agrario della regione mediterranea con i loro ausiliari ed antagonisti, valutarne e prevederne il danno, suggerire efficaci interventi di controllo integrato del le loro popolazioni.
Argomenti Introduzione a.l corso. Morfologia e Biologia degli insetti; etologia ed ecologia applicata; controllo integrato delle popolazioni; Sistematica e Tassonomia. Aspetti di entomologia generale ut ili al controllo delle singole specie vengono proposti di volta in volta, secondo opportunità. Fitofagi dell'Olivo: Saissetia oleae, Euphilfura olivina, Zeuzera pyrina, Prays oleae, Bactrocera oleae, Otiorrhynchus spp., Rhynchites cribripennis, Phloeotribus scarabaeoides, Cicadidae. Fitofagi della Vite: Franklinie/la occidentalis, Thrips spp., Asymmetrasca decedens, Scaphoideus titanus, Daktulosphaira vitifo/iae, Lobesia botrana, Vesperus luridus. Fitofagi degli Agrumi: Aleurothrixus noccosus, Toxoptera aurantii,lcerya purchasi, Planococcus citri, Aonidie/la aurantii, Phy/locnistis citre/la, Ceratitis capitata. Fitofagi delle erbacee: Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Myzus persicae, Phtorimaea opercule/la, He/icoverpa armigera, Gortyna xanthenes, Uriomyza huidobrensis, Delia spp., Agriotes spp. Fitofagi degli altri fruttiferi: Monosteira unicostata, Pentatomidae, Miriade, Cimicoidea, Cacopsyl/a pyri, Eriosoma lanigerum, Aphis gossypii, Hyalopterus pruni, Pseudaulacaspis pentagono, Comstockaspis perniciosa, Anarsia lineate/la, Archips rosanus, Cydia molesta, Rhagoletis cerasi, Capnodis tenebrionis, Hoplocampa nova. Insetti dannosi nelle case e nei magazzini: Dermestes undulatus, Lasioderma serricome, Sitophilus granarius, Formicidae, Vespula spp.
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Parte generale
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Gli insetti e l'uomo L'interesse dell'uomo verso gli
insetti è ant i ch i ss i mo e profondamente radicato nella cultura e nella storia del popoli. Molti insetti sono stati sfruttati dall'uomo a fini commerciai, le api mellifere sono conosciute ed allevate fino dalla civiltà Mlnolca. Le cocciniglie del carminio sono responsabili dell'esportazione di fico d'india in tutto il mondo cd l bachi da seta hanno stimolato l'esplorazione dell'oriente.
Questo corso si occupa, però, degli insetti dannosi alle coltur-e.
Un interessante esempio di "controllo biologico", forse il primo noto, è que.llo che vede un Sacerdote formulare un esorcismo contro de i bruchi c h e, evidentemente, i nfestavano i campi.
•
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Il Danno ..• Durante questo corso ricorreranno espressioni come "danno trascurabile", "danno estetico", "diminuzione della produzione", "riduzione dei prezzi al commercio", "minore commerciabilità", "declassamento del prodotto", "incommerciabilità", "danno importante", "perdita totale del prodotto", "morte di branche e della pianta". Si tratta sempre di danno economico, e sempre le considerazioni che faremo riguardo agli interventi seguono un giudizio di economicità dell'intervento rispetto al danno causato dal fìtofago. In altre parole la domanda che ogni volta dovrete porvi è: dato un danno stimato di "X" (X= a: danno attuale + b: danno futuro) il costo del trattamento "Y" è maggiore del danno futuro "b"?
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MANCA CONCETTO DI ZONALITA'
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"" = 8' '-" = ·-~ o -e "' -= o u
100 50
20
16
13,5
12
l L
IO
8.5
7,5
-IO o 20
gt·mtina"Zione 100
batteri
90
80 muffe
70
60~ ~
msc:tll 50
-IO
30
20
40 60 so Temperatura •c
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Succession dynamique Biomasse
60
50
30
20 \
10 20 30 GO 50 ro 10 ao go ~o age
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Curve logistiche
400
350 K-- --- ---- - --<: 300 · -~ 250 Exponential ·---o 200 Logistic ..... (].)
150 .c E :::J 100 z
50 ·
o o 10 20 30 40
Time (days)
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ELEVATA
I..EPRE SCARPA OA NEVE L
l,.INCt.
CARIBU
Gl l LEPR~ BASSA ARTICA
1680 1890
PAlMO MA$$1M0 DELLA LEPAE
SCARPA DA NEVE
AL TEANANlA Ot PREDE
1900 1910 1920
Lìt din.um h:a di J)Qpuha:t.ione d c l.la lcpn::scarpa da •H~~ e. ddla linee. d el clilribii é d ella h~ p re !4rticA indiC~tno t' h c 1:. tona m otrict! del s-is te111.:il di alt~rn:iln '-"' di prNic- ~ il ric:lo deccn naJe proprio d e Ua lepre sl.'arpa da ucv~. Il s•rimo lll iiiM ÌIIH ) n u m e rico d<"UM popolazione di ques-l"uhhna lesm.~ 11 Tt•rnenQVII ~ st:~~to 11 ph) allo: l s:u« ('Ssfvl sono s t.af.i u n a•oeo p iù b~~i. Prima ddl'arrlvo sull'b~ola dcii~ lca•ri ~aran• dJ:~ neve. le linc:i enm o talmente rar(' <'hi." si d ubita ;~neon:a che qu4."St i 11n inudi ~i11no u n i.l :;p cC"i(' indlg.,.na, A Ol{ul aum éuto dclt. popola~ione di lepri s csupa dse
"'"" ne' c hu ~mprç W r't'i.l'I)U:>IO u u rupidu i nercwcnlv dcl.lc U.~td. Nel 1900 erano p~~nd scull'isola dre11 40 000 caribù: nel 1915, 11 scguho dcU:a pl'eda .. dun~ ddl-.- lind e dcl.lM ~uc:<-bl pnalic:.iiUI d1o!U' u tnuu, ess.i eN!ortù p robabihnenle rldotli • 1000 ~~mpl~l'i o 1ué u o. La p <fpOI.adoné di 'l l'prl Ul'ti('ht! ~ n e Ua • f triSa d~l predatore• : nmlinua u cSiSh~re pé rd•t è ~n,.a t: rum può u~be da t(UC$1M s ituazione. Se t!.ol~ll aurnent11~~ nunu~ricamt:nlc, le lin d i n brew~ te mpo la rid.,rrcbbt·l'~l, n (ln »ppena ll'·t'~C ini?.iU l)l'J le lepri $C81'plll da IICVé l• raSI." declinant e dd c;ido.
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40
1 8
• . ... - . -~ ~- - , . . _..... ,.--- . . . .. ···· ·•· .. - • .. . .......... . ... . .... ... -~"'o _ .. -. - .. _
20
. -· -. -,.. - . ,. - -- • -' -- • - .. A ""' ,_ ...... • -•- •
0~----~::~~====~==~~~======~~~-;;·==~~~~·-:;~-~·::~::::::·~::====~~·~-::~~.J •
60 o.
! l A
•
• •
• • 20 • • •
• • .j. .. ·-·-·- .,· ... 0~~~~~~~~#4~~~ A 11 •s 26 ) 1& Z6 1 11 n ~ 1~ 2~ • 16 26 6 •& v 6 11 n 1 $ u e 2o3o 9 19 2 1a 2} 2 c•
APR1l MAY JUNE JUlY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. OEC. J AN . HB. MAR. APR.
PREOATOR •--•-- • PREY ---
Fig. 1.2 Changes in dcnsity of Tanonemus pallidus ( = prey) in predator-present and predatorinhibited (free) plots a nd Typhlodrom1.lS ( = prcdalOr) freque ncics. One p lot ( l H) with full predator presente; the other ( l A) with the predators largely removed with parathion {P) treatments. See Huffaker and Kennett ( 1956) for d etail s and further data .
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Fitn ess o/o d el potenziale teorico
LO 20 l 30 l 40 50 60 70 80 170 160 .sq lO 100 ;' -~ ' \ ' l l l l l \ \ ' ' l l l l ...
\ ' l ... \ \ l l l
' \ ' \ 90 l l l \ \ ' l l l \ \ ' ' l l \ \ ' ' l
80 l \ ' \ ' l : 30
\ ' ' ' 10 l 20 40 50 60 70 80 ' ' ' ' l
d \ ' ' \ 70 l l l ' l l l ' l l l l l l l l l l l
60 l l l l l l l l l
c:: l l l l
::0 l l l l l
~ 50 \ l l l l \
l l l l \ l l l
\ l l l \ 40 ' l l l
' \ l l l
' \ l l
' \ l l
30 ' \ l l
' \ l l
' >v' l ' ' 60 , ,' ' ' ' .. ' .. 20 .. ' .. ... , .. ' ...... ,.-'59' ... ' .. ... .. .. ... .. ,, , ... ... ' ~
~~-... .. .. --- , IO ; ... ... ... ; .. ... .. ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ...
...... ~ ......... , ... ... o 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tempe1·a t m ·a oc
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egg pupa
t ime
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Fi,g. -1 . Optimum sinecolof?ico (SO) di una s pecie fitofa,ga monofaga. ii: dcte rmi · nato dalla sovrapposiz.ione spa:t.iale incompleta della z.ona di diffusion e d c ll·ospite c lki suoi nemici dficaci . KP = z.o na di diffusione climaticamente poten:t.ialc dci fiwfagi . VN = z.ona di diffusione delle piante. KO = 7.on a climaticam<.>nte otti · male. CSO = 7.ona climaticamente subottimalc. EF = diffusione dcii<.> spcci<.> t:ffi ·
c:aci dci n emici naturali (da Franz. 1964b).
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14 Aprile 2000
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MAASITtS ()(~-+SOli. OONOITIOHOt$ ... ~ ., ..,."".,_, .. ,.. r.,q Boe-1t00,F~ 8«1•011
MUT\MUST$ t 0 M,COO!Nflll fw;
""' ..,. '*"' ..
4·--A,----~ Cltorips bMsskt» ò l
4--··A,····i llitwoliMb - (J l
/l-'"'·~ Ali:n.
"'~~ ' ',
' ' ' ' ' ' SIIIGRIN ' \
' ' "
ISOlltOC'tliHATE
CAIIOFER H0ST PLANT ~IFER HOST F'lANT
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L
---- INFESTANTI SECONDARI ---~~!W-!~~~ - -INFESTANTI PRIMARI -- ... ..,
' «
Carklsskfo
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Acaro ed entomocenosi dell'olivo
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Rispetto alla presenza di un orologio interno capace di fissare il numero di generazioni annuali di una certa specie, distinguiamo specie
omodiname (senza diapause)
da specie
eterodiname (con diapause).
Lo sviluppo delle specie omodiname dipende quindi solo dalle condizioni ambientali, mentre quello delle specie eterodiname prima dalla diapausa, determinata geneticamente, poi dalle condizioni ambientali
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L . ' ecomuruta
La più semplice definizione di comunità e: "un gruppo di popolazioni di specie differenti che si trovano neUo stesso tempo e neO o stesso luogo".
Questa definizione non indica esplicitamente che vi siano interazioni fra le specie coesistenti. Una definizione più utile per i nostri usi può essere: "un gruppo di popolazioni di specie differenti che..interagiscono neUo stesso tempo e neUo stesso luogo ".
Preferiamo la seconda definizione anche se sembrerebbe assai strano che popolazioni nello stesso habitat (=ecosistema) non interagiscano in un qualche modo.
Nella pratica si usa il termine "associazione" per riferirsi ad organismi che interagiscono decisamente (simbionti).
Comunque, "popolazioni" ed "associazioni" hanno confini definiti a seconda delle nostre convenienze.
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Interazioni Popolazioni/ Comunità
La competizione principale delle agroecosistemi.
per le risorse disponibili è il fluttuazioni di popolazione
fattore negli
Negli agroecosistemi le poche specie presenti possono creare poche interazioni. I fattori dipendenti dalla densità non contribuiscono in modo determinante alla stabilità d eli' ecosistema.
- Viceversa, gli ecosistemi naturali contengono molte specie capaci di creare molte interazioni stabilizzanti.
La competizione per le risorse disponibili è collegata alla struttura trofica delle popolazioni. Maggiore complessità significa maggiore stabilità dell'ecosistema.
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Strutture trofiche
Le strutture trofiche sono basate sul cibo. Infatti alcuni organismi sono in grado di trasformare direttamente l'energia solare per crescere e riprodursi, mentre altri, incapaci di tanto, sono costretti ad utilizzare risorse di altri. In questo modo distinguiamo i produttori ed i conswnatori.
Il livello di base costituito da produttori, mentre molti livelli di consumatori sono possibili.
Una generale schematizzazione può essere:
Produttori primari <Autotrofi) - Producono sostanza organica da energia esterna
Consumatori primari (Erbivori.Fitofagi) - Consumano il prodotto primario
Cosnmatori secondari (Predatori, Parassitoidi, Parassiti) -consumano i Consumatori primari
Consumatori terziari- Etc. Etc.
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Le Nicchie
Sebbene il concetto di nicchia si sia raffinatonel corso degli anni, ha sempre riguardato organismi nel loro ambiente. La definizione originaria recita che la nicchia consiste: "nel ruolo funzionale e neUa posizione di un organismo neUa sua comunità". Attualmente possiamo ritenere che una nicchia sia: "il complesso totale deUe condizioni sotto /e.-quali un individuo, una popolazione o una specie vive e si riproduce.--".
Descrivendo la nicchia di un organismo descriviamo tutte le condizioni (biotiche ed abiotiche) di un ambiente che influiscono sulla capacità di un organismo di sopravvivere. Per definizione una nicchia contiene una sola specie, ma nicchie molto vicine possono sovrapporsi originando competizione fra le specie che le occupano. Tale sovrapposizione di nicchie conduce a competizione ed a stabilizzazione degli ecosistemi creando rapporti orizzontali o diagonali nella catena trofica.
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Comunque, tutte le situazioni che possiamo osservare abitualmente hanno in comune l'equilibrio.
Questa stato può essere descritto anche come bilancio netto pari a zero fra produzione e consumo
all'interno dell'ecosistema.
D'altronde l'agroecosistema non è un ecosistema innaturale, possiamo invece configurarlo come un
ecosistema naturalmente contenente l'uomo, che consuma sottraendo il prodotto agli altri consumatori.
Questa concezione permette l'uso del razionale ecologico all'agroecosistema.
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Interazioni fra livelli trofici
Predatori
·0 Parassitoidi <J:: g ;:l ~ Fitofagi ·-...l
Piante
Stabile Poco stabile
Ecosistema naturale Agroecosistema
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Analisi dei fattori chiave con l'uso di "Life table" modificate
Permette di conoscere la tendenza della
popolazione fra una generazione e la seguente
Permette di identificare i principali fattori di
regolazione delle popolazioni
Permette di identificare i fattori principali di
mortalità e di prevedere cambiamenti e la
necessità di controllo artificiale nel controllo
integrato.
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Life table Le tavole vitali (Life table) forniscono una visione
sintetica di alcuni aspetti delle popolazioni utili a:
• Prevedere le esplosioni demografiche dei fitofagi;
• Controllare le popolazioni e ritardare il ritorno delle
popolazioni a livelli dannosi;
• Identificare fattori di mortalità naturale (biotici o abiotici) delle
popolazioni;
• Identificare potenziali fattori di controllo biologico;
• Incoraggiare l'uso e la diffusione del controllo biologico.
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Costruzione di una tavola vitale
• Si inizia con una Coorte (un gruppo di individui della stessa età);
• chiamiamo "x" l' intervallo di età che, nel nostro caso può essere uno stadio dello
sviluppo;
• "lx" è il numero di individui vivi all' inizio dell' intervallo "x" · ,
• individuiamo "dxf'' , il fattore "f' chiave responsabile della morte di un certo numero di
individui "d" individui in un certo stadio "x" ;
• Individuiamo "dx" ossia il numero di morti in ciascun stadio o intervallo;
• calcoliamo "qx" la mortalità percentuale dello stadio "x" ("dx" come% di "lx");
• calcoliamo la mortalità per ogni stadio: " lOO*dx/N" dove "N" è lo stadio considerato;
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x
Uova (N1)
larve
aisalidi
adulti
Uova (N2)
Esempio: lepidottero delle gemme sul melo
lx dxf dx IOO*qx IOO*dx/N
100
60
5
2 aex ratio =1 (100 uova per coppia)
100
Parassitoide
Predatori
Gelo
Parassiloidl
etc. etc. etc ...
30
10
55
3
30%
10%
92%
60%
30%
10%
55%
3%
Calcolo della tendenza delle popolazione "T"
"T" = N2/Nl = l La popolazione è stabile se ''T" = l
La popolazione è in crescita se ''T" > l La popolazione diminuisce se ''T" <l
35
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Western Com Rootworm in Europe 2007 RUSSIA
GERMANY UKRAINE
O Range or Ac1ivity 2007
RAN E •
SPAIN
•• J\VGO by C. R. Edwards .u.nd J. Kiss, bascd on d~111 from Bnufcld, Smossa, Boriani, ~. Cobo$. Cot11, Eyrc, Furlan, Grabenwcger.lqn; Bu.rcic, Jvano\·a, Karic, Kubik, Konefal Konsumtinova, Melnik. Palmicri, Poning, Ripka, Schaub, Sivccv, Strcito, Urck, Vahala, Van EcS1cr, and laruba
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Assessment ol mottall1y in eaeh me stage
.... diap;:~use .... Ovet•
wlntering .. .. POSI• die>!»UM ....
Mo<M ntet papet& Cflti'Yil'l!l a tlfeQ&e nvmoer ot S<l to200hn.,llhy IJ99S
lnMtt4KIInto ....... .......... -~nd .-dO $1etfo .-nte potn-(<02tnml ..... IIShi!S
ii\~CUI)S ·-{q)O!IMIOP wt1 I<IWII '90 tdlliln. 90mmt botlom.~ &O IMI) illnQ '"'""" fiiWI\ 1001"!!1 hQfll ""' """" -· '"" ......... Mid ,... .. ,...,.,.._,_ E;vty
'"11 In tleltl &01 lna,CMOf lnaJ:>\I!(It , ..
(70· 120mm ··""' 24: 18"C undW Wtll>eot} ,...,..,. Jo-90"1. t .h
·-· .;r., 30 • ·- ·- ::c.. Uflfil &tJe ~~~ IMI.f t.tte
~ - ..,.,.
Flrsl lnsLJr "-l'VII<!
""'" ins~r/ ·-In 20CH IO laf'V<te l)lacecl 0tt l)i90$$ ()l flllet
Pill* cb5$ IO tAch tOOl Ol )'OIIIg 1'1.'111119 ~nl$ ( llllllhtagc)
~
tn 2002: A pteci&e nvnoet Of50to tOOtleelll"f '995 pl.lc9d on tlltor ~, cJcoM 10 ...n 1001
(Dfall50n &. Suttcr 1995)
I.M'<~e reçovery l))' l/lsuilt MOIIt(tl in SOII'mot umples (OOfllf;
cli.lt!'loW HOmm. HO m""" TOIPIIW l J(~ 20(W),
atld di Bel'le!òe· T uiiUrt\1'1 SCteen. (l(rywlf. Wltc IO&$)
Caleulation of the apparent mort<tlity in each age inlcrval
.... 681)ause ....
(mort11i!y llnd MtcHng)
0...· ... iflt$11110 .... ,,..,
W.lllb)
Posl~iai)Ot.ISI& .... (motlllllly llnd
hfll(hii!Ql CJ L--~-~":._'...JL:__~,~_:_J L_;,;.,T'_...J
Con.struetlon of llf«t • table
![Page 38: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
T ab/t• J. Gmerttli:t·(/ ltg•"'!peti]ir life--wblt of Diabrotica \'. \'irgifcra in {tt/df A tmd B i11 sowlrmt Hun~ary ltttWt>~·n 1000 10 ){)(J} (mtmt of 1hre~· 1/fl'·tab/e$: 11, of /000 as .\ltlflùlg poim J
No. ll''ng: :n ~tpnDIIIJ r-.·o ..i)IOlf dunoll M"rtnu.l <1~·;1\h R.-.1 lnl~l'l\ll) • • eJ ~no.:r..lll(l!»l
Ai!•' rllltf\,11 l1l\lkJI,I tiOIII\'Iflll.'hl)ll r.kt\lt ,., llltt t\f)I~>•Nnl mou~llt) nMt.ebt~ mcorl;r,ht) lt'IOIII,IIet)'
(•) ,,,,(1 .,,, (fl,) (Wl,) '• '"'·' ·· ,, " (r ,) • • !k,) (II'~M., K)
l~~;_:> l.tl..t li)()(). Q
'" l"r(·ll111fi,UI-.: l*'llltl..l!it)' 17J. \ 17. \.l I?Jl \ ~1 71 17.} 1 {I l)\.\ ~. l1 ~~ .. lf.a!'lu'o(' h.l•.hms n~ no; oos nos Il< (U)S (U)IX'I2 (I,IU SllbM.e1 (hN <"Q k"'-•) In l\ 11J~ 17J!< (Il~\ l1.J
Pft·dil~e~,,OO f';UI li~IU ,, O•rrwmtcnn~ IUOfiJ.ht) ~82.~ 46JI) l.$ 54 1.8.25 (U10 IO ... O~lf),,U~d Cjl~ 44l7 ,,: Ej;p 001 h.ltdX\1 n6 183~ 18.'0 l ().l 70 1.;,16 (1.~ 3.56
l bl~ho.'l.l from '!o«Ond c»tr~~tnteru~J -<16 -<liS -0.1-1 000 ~~ -0.06 -00007 -00) Subt01al (H:ttchl.tli! los...(l 81.0 18.~6 1.().1 S. IO 0.0&> HJ
rmtmstar bu;~c ~62 i
d Un~tlOV.n dc<~tb 3ii.S YHJ ~.1] 100 61 l-1.1::. I. ~J9 <9.~1 Si.'«<nd 111-t11r l"r\llC Zl•9 ,J U11ln0\ln d~'"o~tb 9.n "'6.5-.\ 46.53 3l.9~ 61 (1.97 0.!11 10.96 lb1rd n~llr IJn~ ~~ ~
} ,J UnknòV.n d>:.1th <.0 \6.~) !<>.00 l2.UI 61 (1,41) 0.19-1 7.Sl Pupac ,. l)nln•w.n d.:.uh \dult~ l.'ll'lt'f!\-"d u ,, 8<-' ro~l n' l~ ~lX1 ~\.Il? OH "' (IN (l J..~<~ Il t! \dutt ft111.1"' l ~l ,,
l•utmtlill (cx"tlu~h t) 956 237 J~ I'OC4'1!1Mll'f\18CII) l l 56
UnttJiu.-.:1 fl!\:u!IJil) 2~.N ~O . .&.l ,..., :-xl.oi.J (1.7uQ 22.~1 R(',tlih*\1 f\'l.'undJI) 1!1 1.$.1 71
Realutxl ru'-p.'tl) ilt • mJ, /WIIffl'lst~·· (,17_4
RealuOO lk1 f('Jlfodlll:ll\(' rat(' R,1 0.611 r. Gro .... th rJic (cm.et ... )~.lr -tHS 99611 2.<1SI:
1TOUIIti\Mt;lllly: 2Totlll ~\'~'1"J.IJC'ltliii 1Mft.!.lil) .
![Page 39: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Pro·dlapausa fOOrtallty 10 oggs 3.3%
Overwintering monallty In eggs 11 .3%
No hO.tchln.g lrom oggs in ap,lng 3.4%
Mortallly In l l IO l2 48.6%
Mortatily in L2 10 1.3 11 .9%
Mortahty 1n L3 to adutts 8 .5%
Sex ratio o f adults 13.1%
Unroahsed fOCUJld1ty 25.7%
o 10 20 30 40
Poputation rcductlon factor Mottallty k_, as
% Gènerational mortality
Eggs laid
210-476
Pre.·diapaused èggs 164-404
,_ _ _,olapausoo ows, _ _, 61-251
tst lnstor lorvno ,__..., 49 - 207 ...........
2nd instar Jarvaa 2.1! 14
3rd 11\Star larvaa
" 2.2-5.6
Adutts emerged • 2.2 -2.8
Aduli fémalé • 1
300 200 100 o 100 200 300
Age .. spcclflc survlvorshlp pyramld (#)
Fig. 3. Popula fion reduction foNors . 1heir nwrginal dea l h rtaes p(!r age inten,al ( as intensity ofnurrgùwl dea11t rate k .. in pt•r cent, t/w fo la/ generationalnwrtalily, K Tm(l/ and the age·.\peciflc pyramid t~fsun•il•orsltip tifOiahroliC~t v. virgi rcno (m ecm <!f tl1ree l{(e-tahles in southem Hungary . 2000/2001 to 2001{2002: error bars reprcsent sl(mdard errors
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rç ,;
)\-' -/' 1. l ~ . \
' '
![Page 44: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Come istinguere pre otori, porossitoi i e
parassiti uno proposto basato sul comportamento
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Si trotto di comporto mento, premesso che:
--[ le simbiosi considerate non sono mutualistiche;
--[ nelle simbiosi considerate alcune specie sono attive altre passive;
--[ non consideriamo canoni come ecto/endo, idiojkoino, i Taxa di appartenenza, l'esistenza di cicli, etc. etc.
![Page 46: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Si trotto di comportamento, premesso che:
----{ la specie affiva usa quella passiva come cibo;
- utilizziamo il momento della riproduzione l mo ione della specie affiva rispeffo alla vitalità dell'individuo della specie passiva usato, come primo canone di distinzione;
- utilizziamo il numero di individui della specie passiva usati da ciascun "individuo" della specie affiva come secondo canone di distinzione
![Page 47: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Il comporto mento sorò do:
----{ parassita quando lo specie attivo si riproduce/moltiplico prima della morte degli individui della specie passiva utilizzati;
il parassita induce sempre malaHia che sia conclamato o silente;
corollario: il parassita è anche patogeno;
![Page 48: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
----{
Il comporto mento sorò do:
predatore o parassitoide quando lo specie attivo si riproduce/moltiplico dopo la morte degli individui della specie passiva utilizzati;
predatore quando un individuo della specie attiva utilizza più di un individuo della specie passiva per diventare adulto;
parassitoide quando un individuo della specie attiva utilizza un solo individuo della specie passiva per diventare adulto;
![Page 49: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Si trotto di comporto mento:
Lo stesso specie attivo può comportarsi come predatore, porossitoide o porossito o secondo dei momenti dello proprio biologia;
![Page 50: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
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' / m; -~ .. ""' -• • .~ ... ' \. -
l '' .,. )
J • . • ... " ..
f . l ••
l (
Harmonia axirides
•
l ·" · l -~ ~
, , l ti •• ' ... • ••••• , .... -·'(
' • ,
n F
A
![Page 52: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Metodi e mezzi di controllo delle popolazioni di insetti fitofagi
Naturale
Biologico
Chimico
Guidato
Integrato
![Page 53: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
"!\,.;..,.,...CO< lll<OllllaA o""""'
11<11r liiNrlt ~in<rJ>i r ~~~>onom • kfib.m. 6""·• ....,_ ~QIIIipiAJdid,pol"""oro~ou®-ULVl~•dJ.
me\ df-CII !p<illi-1"-,"''"""""''"""' 1111 ' ''" 1"1'0 n<lllaiOSIIli:ila.II>IÌmllill' <Isili_ "!ii -l'i-·-""'""'''"""'-u ...... ,~--... &tilli""c6>:awMllli· doli; "" inJI!:r """" .,.,.;..,. k oça~o """"' , """"' b r •. .... ,_ 11<1"•--l" di'"' cbtlpMi ~. ~qomlo""'""''"'" ..............
N<llt-btic ·~•...-p;noMfil.i>l.i6t ~ ~ILI>Ilt clw {iriniplo>mcélc.
SciQe 'fmllt-. f'I'Ì"' i"'"" !jWdle ........ "'I".,,.,. n•lollodi•.t .,... __ dm in"""'k """'"tt -&lh--""'ci"''!Pi ......... fiil""*• lo»'l"'-lt,•ttmi<lt,..~lbil!uDrldfmN<dt-"""""'-
lnill<,l""""' di""'""'""-. pri.'dm 'l»i< ~ pillooclllll> lObi t-,,.,_ oclbU.f<1111>l1t6f'<''lillllpllioit
•li .... s ..... ,,...~ ....... Il imnlla>. ...., .. '~~"'" """'""-"" ,;,., ...,. , ""'' .mb. """"a iiJolcll'"' '!')l'l'rià •-illp> ci< r ogdl>l ""'..,..,.,.;
f'l'Ù'I'l! """"""' r ""!"ilo< 111 pmblo ""' o1 """"""""'1\nt ~o:;;;;,;r..tuiml;,;; ' prMWI)Olbli lmddliaci.: '..;.L ----l
Il/ Il l l
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•
-.. . .. . . . ' / • ~\ • • • •
•
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• n '' Il •\
l
t
l
t..""""""""'?':~Y-. . ------ .= .= = ~ ----
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-· lo '·;~ •••. ~ . ....... ·~·l.:,... ')~·., .. ~ .
. -. ...... ·~ ,,":· ... . .
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1/U IIP 6"""'~
1.'4-1 HJ' C~V.."'P r~t"--.t .... « (l 1"1•~•
t t t
top\-
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Entomologia Generale Morfologia esterna ed Anatomia
Premessa: animali affini agli insetti
![Page 63: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Morfologia ed
Anatomia (il concetto di omologia ... )
![Page 64: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
A
l'lgw'c JO n.~ ft(WVOOIJ •>~• ot ~.w.., in l.c.r<-d (A) • .,., olorul (l) ..;,,.,. No!~ !h111M tt~l>o o.l $-m~iGoo ;, )oul:lrd ~i...t lht bali. • d"'dOI'WAII•ppolltflll7 UJ~dMlt\1 to'ldlo IINI.I(Ilool bo ~$fU ol ~bot ~"""· ctwu .... ''"' ,.,,r.,., _._J U
Figure 1..3 (Dru11C:.J und IJm.'w::•. 1990}
Flgur~ 1,4 (D,_.,. a1111 o~ 1990)
·-·-
![Page 65: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Cuticle Ecclys,ial lino
l ntemal ridgo Arthrodial membrane l:las;ementmembranc
Figure 2.1 Oiagram of integumenlal féaturcs. (ModiliCKI from MstCAI/81 al., 1962. by psrmission o/ McGraw·Hill
Bool< Compsny. )
Figure 2.13 (Daly et al. 1987)
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TM3000_0608 2011/03/30 16:20 N 07.1 x500 200 um
![Page 68: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
• •
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~ • • o '-1
o ~ w o
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• • x co o o
• • .....
o ~
o o o c
3 c 3 •
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1729 N SD5.5 x800
SD6.0 x1.0k
![Page 72: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Epiculiclt
.... ~ Ctrnt>l l l \ Oritottd hpod ne m .
, ' ··t 1. IV Epoc•t~lt ,. . • ~ """)OJ '" ! ~
•· ·..:: ·- Dense loyer V
Loost ttatwtd '~""VI
~+ WOJ. coro! hlomont
lP::::J-Mtlan•n
Ntwly secrtltd endocutklt (S<Miidl\ IOJtr)
PloS1110 "'"""'"""
H-+-4- Otsmosomes
A
Oe:nse loytr
--~lox canal
B
![Page 73: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
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NATO ANTE ~IMILE
M IFIIAPOOOI
![Page 78: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
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l M3UOU_U~Otl :.!011/U//Uts 1 1 :~ H U4.:L X1t.U
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~ s~ -.. - .
t 'e .. --
® ~
® -- ex
fe
~v~ @
re
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· ·~ ~NUl
CUI1
. .._.. • NU~
' N~ ,
'~ se
• ' NU . ..,
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JJ.__o
() o
o
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p
, DB
eu
eu
![Page 89: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
0{S) ee6 ([)o cD\ ~0 e eB [;G,....-,..-
A Sa D OR SAL 1mm
Figure 25.9 (Gnatzy & Gnmert, 1987)
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f:lil
l l
S:.'1XIU!li ..&Q.s oo.m .d br:l:te~~ ;!.t dc-~ m 6.s l c& ~ .od d>t Ol'l>·
c:w:c « alll<\-!.t"lOSIO!OI)" c:pn B &-.\ orrr• -''' m~ cl f.xu cl. ex:~ fmaum< mochtr tdl•-bile' cilia,-. •:nx:urt dt~clops (rom Ùlt ll'J:<miOil c& l, tciOOj'
ing tdl; l,'"'~ «ll; l,stm:o~ cdi. l; cilia~ tdl: S.1o:mo0m cd]; 6, trichosl'll ctU, 7. ~gencdl; 8, neuron.
![Page 92: Entomologia 01](https://reader038.vdocuments.mx/reader038/viewer/2022102608/5592f6b21a28aba3708b46c5/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
. .
•• • . . . . .
•
D
Ontogenesis of rhe cuticular ducr in class 3 cells: rhe terga! glands of rhc cockroach Blat· te/la. A ciliary process develops from rhe innermost celi of rhe tetrad of each glandular unit (A), the three other cells secrete the conducring canal (B). 1l1cn, rhe innermost cell or ciliary celi develops a muff around rhe basal part of the ciliary process and secretes the receiving canal (C). Afterwards, rbe ciliary ceU resorbs while tbe upper ceU or enveloping celi begins to degeo· erate (0). One day after adulr moulr, rhe secretory unir is composed only of two funcrional ceUs (E). l , enveloping ceU; 2, canal ceU; 3, secrerory cell; 4, ciliary celi; mf, moulting fluid; (modiiìed from Sreng and Quennedey, 1976).
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lONGITUDIN A,L FliGHT MUSCtE
THORA.CIC SAUVAU GLANO
FIGURE.S 1.1 1 a nd 1.12. Dingrams showing cer1ain organ systems of an adult re mole bee .. The: o bjcccive is to show as many or the rnnjor organs as possible for any bee, but some o( thC' glands are specifically th o:;e or honeybees or the genus
Figure 19.6 (Michenc:-r, 1974)
OUFOUR' S GLANO OVIOUCT
S'ERMATHECA
Apls. tf.r(Jbic numerals indicate s.lfUctUJ'(S associ:ned witb tho· racic scgments; roman numerals indicale abdom inal segments. (Origioal dtawings by Ba.rry 5ilcr.)
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Ftg. 56. The wa.x g!ands.
~if-*fif' 1 -lft'SM··i -&n•~
~iMI t IO rJ;fllftt!llli!lll fflJlièl.s:.
'---s~..--..--=----.ss ';:;::;:----------~
c A, stemum of segment VI of worlc:er, ventral, showing polished "mirrors"
beneath wa.x glands. B, lengthwise section through two wax glands with overlying ma.sse3 of fat cells and oenocytes ( from Ri:isch, 1930). C, stages in the development and regression of a wax gland ( from Ri:iscb, 1927a).
For explanat.ion of abbreviations see pages 168-167.
Figure 19.5 (Snodgrass, 1956)
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r11 12 "'t \IN wJMU !L,J • • frw.l., lu'rilt J.wrluu.• W~tp.ad tb: uudal ~· >nc•f llli''"l
lult 1tn1v.W IO 1how tbt donai .t.domhul Jlu&: fpur oi re:d, ._..,. .~pvU. i•d! .. tted by •t~W'l. ~ d!t thlnl ~t•~r.e .nJ é:lt f«~rthi. 1t bi) .;l 1hf .. mc.
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Addome
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Stn3 A Figure 3.1 (Snodgrass 1935, p.25 1)
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\
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•
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\l PSEUDOZAMPE PRESENn N EL 3° - 6" E 10° URITE (IN ALTO) E NEL 6" E 10" QN BASSO)
vncJn/
t> LaJVa di Lepidottero (regola generale)
l> LaNa d i Lepldottero Geometride
--
·.
'---,---'1 l
7{Jmpe tcraclche
\l PSEUOOZAMPE PRESEN TI N EL 2" - a• E 1 o• UAITE
\ l. ' (··-~
i l> Larva di Imenottero Sinfito (regola generale) \'--.,---'/
pseudoZamptt
t ., l ..
... -., , ....... /' ...... ,-. -\
100 urite
1fr utite
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V REGIONI MORFOLOGICHE, APPENDICI E PROCESSI NEL MASCHIO (SOPRA) E NELLA FEMMINA (SOTTO)
d
J• uriUJ tr urlUJ g> urire ffP 4N'I!C
sttçma
.------ ut.l!l oregen#afl ----~-ut1fi ~n!! ai/
1~ urire
MJprocro
l""""'• """""' <!eGI 1' urite)
cerco
- """ Q . ' •• '
\ •
l ' l
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V PARTE POSTERIORE DELL'ADDOME DEL MASCHIO CON APPARATO COPULATORE (FALLO) ESTROFUESSO
'P urite 9' urite 1(/' (Jrita cercc
e,oiprocto (sc!erJte dorsaJ& ds/!'11° un~eJ
-- p.t.lf3j)r0do (sclerite fa!erovemra,e dello 11 11 urite)
--------tcil;ouerna
spermatozof
apparato coputatcfot (fallo)
valva (gcncrx>tiiYe)
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-
$-_-
-r-·
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• • • •
0.5 mm
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V 0\QPOSITORE DI SOSTITUZIONE (ESTROFlESSO)
P Vl'ite
l lf' wite membl&11a
l!ttersegmemlllé
ovopositore ai sostituzione
po urite
---ano
$!ilo
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"V OVOPOSITORE MORFOLOGICO (CON LE PARTI ARilACIALMENTE SEPARATEj
f1.i urlte
.
sligma~~--1''-'
vaMfero dell'a"
1(J' urite
ano
c-==--------- P8/aPfOC!O
valvl!ero de! g:~ urite ovopos.:tors morfo!Q9ico
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- ............ ~ v-·- _<IW,._
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V OAfOMfiO OQlFI() t$PIIXAn Olll~ ~ t..:N rtmGòtiOf-,ltt MSSO A.SN61AA E t~ 1M QAUI)f, IN ~ 14 COlmO)
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L jl'l
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~SANOTTEROTEAEBRANTE (SPACX!ATO IJELL'<Mlf'OOITORE)
•talvule de/1° paio
8° urite 9" urite
+--- vafvule del 2• paio
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V IMiNOTTeAI SINffil CSPAOCATO 0CU. ~rOM:
PAOPAIA.-.40fl€ DETTO. IN BAI$0-'&.. C(NTAO)
a• vrite
• •
V TetCredìrtil
Cll/lSie dslr!JOVO
va/vu/6 del ,. paio
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"il JJ>I>AAATO PU'fGENTE INPOStZIOI'.E OIAJ'OSO t'o~ E t.emE INlllOCllU l 'loCU.fO Na. CORPO CB1A '-'"lJIA "' CESTRAJ
--~0...,~ --
'
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The bee has just started the stinglng process. Thls wor ker i s r ather weak, so the sting did not penetr ate per pendicu lar to the skln surface and the stlng i s not deep.
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A worker bee trylng to get away after stlnging. The sting has borbs prcvcnting tho stlng to be pullcd out1 parto( hcr digestive systcm ls seen dragglng behind her.
The Jling ls l eft behlnd and che bee ls now free. Thc compte~e left behind (the sting, t:he venom Qllnd, ond mustiC!S eontrolllnglng thc gland) wlll work outonomousty to pump venom lnto d'le vlctlm. Alarm phoromone 11 also relcased to "mark• the vlctim, so t!x~ct more bces to Stln\) you lf you ha ve got onc.
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o- ll•cl l• JUo c --
~--\:;_~':'": .:.~ loUI - ,_ . ...... ·- ~
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'----,'.!.!:' .. -----.
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Torace
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-
V NOTO"' SNSflW E SlUII\0 ~~ ta TOIW:E AU~SUtetw;aONE INSC1a:m tia::Ot«W\ 1.(4.t.n H. ~N:lflEnO OEUf i'U
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,_
\ - ,
/
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Coleoptera torace
torace
·-te more
Adephaga Polyphaga
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,.PIR.
- Pl
s A
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Fm '
T n ' ..... ,
Cx Tr FIG. 104.-Middle leg of a grasehopper, anterior view.
Fi ure 5.4 M iddle lego fa grasshopper (Snodgrass, 1935).
-Mer PlS _ _.
cxs
R A
F igure 5.5 GJ'3Sshoppet coxa. di.:.grnrnatic (A) and actuaJ (B) (Snodgrass. 1935).
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Figure S. 7 &~•rinsic lcg musdc;s (SnodJfl'$$. 1 9)5).
Fro. 116.-Mu,elet ol t.be hind lea: ()f" gr"esbopper, Di.uoftti.M carolino~ JSI. 131.. levt.to111 of U'Qc.hanter; 1334. ooxa.l brsnch or deprMl!Or of tl'O~IIliU!r; 134, 1M.Ievatoaor tibia: I!JtJ. depre11110r of Lib~: J$1'. ISB. levator snd deprCMOr o! t.am~': 1$11. dcprestOr or prt~W.n\1• (retraetor of <::lJ)w•>·
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Fw. 118.-Pretarsus of a grasshopper, Disso!teira carolina.
A
Figure 5.6 Pretarsusofagrasshopper(Snodgrass, I935).
A. t!\fS!lS and prctarsus disjointed, showing tendonlike apodeme (110Ap) of depressor or pretarsus.
B, prctarsus and end of tarsus, dorsal view. C, same, ventral view. Ar, arolium; t'In, pianta; Tar,tarsus; U/, unguifer; Un, ungues; Utr, unguitractor plat~.
--Uf
Tar
B C
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--- -__ l ---" ---
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~.......;.>
----------
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-----~·-··--·--:::J: ~=:.-=-
p, ............. ...-uMt.A'O --... <Jo lllloiCII:Q, 'lo L*UO,,a "«ID t. -... ..... !ltA. ... l) Cl""
---·· ---9 ..,_ .. _ -·---·----........... .. _ ...... _...,.. .. __
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· ----1,'101. ~-· __ .... _ !:'--·~ ~~~-·~ --
-
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A returning pollen forager in flight. September 2001. Zach's back yard.
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(a) (b)
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V FASI E MODALITÀ DI ACCUMULO DEL POWNE NELLE CFSTELLE
v Ape che 1"'1 volo lraslerisce il polline dalla spazzola di una zampa alla ceslella di Quella opposla strofinando allernaiivamente le zampe
~ COtl se!ole e /11;/l"lt tlefllo(O/azioro e/le lmQedlSOOtlo la cadula dfll IXJII•ne nel passayglo doliO stesso dalle spazzole a11e ces/e!le
V distacco del polline dalla spazzola di una zampa con il penine di quella opposla e convogliamenlo del polline nella cestclla ad opera dell'auricola
V aooumulo del oo line medianle il movimento pendolare del basitarso che pressa 11 polline con t'auricola nella ceslella
ocste>• --+---
l
' l • l l
l l ' , . ,
-~--., .... l \
\ '· ,, .... ' '
avriccla
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'""""" m.rote osr.tlCOi.UiO.'!f
~ PO$T[A()f!IE \4SfA tw.lATO ..,...,CON_ P(R·t.~m ·-... PClWE
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-...,~-·--
--
V SOiE-W\fONI)I.Mfl'fTPL( OO.L( M:R\'A.NRE LON3!lU:l~EtP~IEOOlE~oVIFII
"''bW• /' --
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• •
•
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------·•
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•
......... ~ .. ~ '
. . ... ... . .....
f.IGS . 2 - 1. Re!puscn ta tivc fOr<l! ""ings, sJ1owinc th e! p~itions o f tlu: media n fledon-Une, etaval flmow 11nd f'-'&31 (C)Id. No t 10 sc-ale. (~) Pt:rt()du mt>rUm.i (P1ecopcer.1): (3) SWII# luf4rla (Mcsalopteta): (4) CIII')' IO(XJ C#mN ( Neuropttra); (S) V~1pul4 ftrmaniu (HymenOpltra); (6) S,·'l''u.u ribtJii (Di piena); (1) Nott)m:ct.ll tlauca (Heceroplc.-.). juz:. Od: jt.l;;3l (C) Id.
Figure 10.4 (Woouon, 1979)
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A B
C+Sc •R.1
FIG. 127.-Exarnplés or wing vona.tion. A, lYlo.qicicada 8t:ptt.m.dccim, hind wing, extended. B. s oet ion of s.:.mo n.long lino a--b when foldcd. C. A1U4co dom<1atica, wing and ca.Iypter ea. D , Epicauta pcmnaylvant:ca.
F ig ure 10.5 (Snodg rass. 1935. p.228)
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l •
•
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4t5
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- --- ... __ _
A
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II III
A
~ c
'f D l
B Fig. 43. The wings. A, B, fore and hind wing of a drone. C, hook of hind w ing of a worker.
D, hook of hind wing of a c!Tone. E, the interlocked wing margins. f, fold on posterior margin of forewing; h, hooks on anterior margin of hind
wing; l -IV, main veins of wing. For explanation of abbreviations see page 133.
Figure l 0.8 Hamuli --in the Hymenoptera (Snodgrass 1956, p. 116)
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wing
A
wing
notum
second axillla ry sclerite
muscle
notum notum
B c Fig. 135 Oi~grammatic sectìcn through the wing base of a fiy ìlluscrating the click mechanism in rhe wing movement. A. Wing stable io the up positìoo. B. Unstable position with the system XYZ in a straight line aod under pre.ssure between the arrows. C. Wing stable
in che down positioo (panly from Priogle, 1957)
Figure 10.10 Click .nechnuism in llte wing base or Sarcophago (from Cbaptnan. 1982)
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"
FJG, 131.- Diagrums of sueeeesivc positions of tbe wings in ftigbt and the corrcsponding movements of tbe tergum.
Figure 8.3 (Snodgrass, 1935)
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dorsal longitudinal muscle
"ç dorso· ventral musclecontracted
A
tergum- wmg tergumraised
depresse d fulcrum
ligament
N--pleural process
o
B
dorso-ventral muscle- relaxed
point of action of basalar muscle
wmg
r-t--- basalar musclecontracted
Fig. 132 Diagrammatic cross-section of the thorax illustrating the wing movements in an insect, such as a dragonfty, in which the direct wing muscles cause depression of the wings
Figure 8.5 (Chapman, 1982)
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lllT •
IT IIT 215
us E
Fig. 30. Thorax and base of abdomen of a worker bee. e, occipital process of prothoracic cpisternum. For explanation of abbreviations
see pagcs 92-93.
Figure 6.8 honey bee thorax (Snodgrass, 1956)
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r= ----'-:....t:::-~ -- LlttJ~ F:ln• Ani
.... ~ -------
c ' '
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Ala...._
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