English Language

SECTION A

Audience

Key aspects that would have been chosen to appeal to the target market:• Presentation: colour, pictures, diagrams, front style and

size• Language: level of difficulty, variety of vocabulary,

sentence structure• Content and style• Target audiences can be characterized by:- Age- Background- Gender- Interests- Location- Beliefs

Purposes

Purposes of texts include:InformExplainDescribeArgueEntertainsAdvisePersuadeReview

By identifying the purpose and audience, it will be easier to understand why certain language or presentational features have been used.

Reading between the lines

• You need to not only analyse the words on the page but the:

- Use of colour, fonts and images- Position or layout of particular

features or information- Headlines, sub-headings, pull quotes

Selecting and using information

• To support points made in your answers, you need to refer directly to the text

• Any ideas you put forward must come from the text itself (interpret the meaning of the text)

• Avoid long quotes. Use short, snappy and purposeful evidence.

How to quote

• Quotations that are fluently ‘embedded’ into sentences are more stylish and sophisticated.

• For longer quotes, place a colon at the end of your comment. Then start a new line and indent the quotation.

Perspective

• Perspective means ‘attitude’ or ‘standpoint’. You can establish the view point of a well-written text by reading the first and last paragraphs and the topic sentence of each paragraph.

• They should guide the reader through their argument through the careful structure of their writing.

What to look for:- Emotive language- Strong first sentence clearly portraying view point- Sarcasm- Criticism- Presenting other view point (to disprove) - Sentence structure/length for effect

Reports

• A report is usually written for a specific audience

• The purpose of a report is to pass on specific information about a particular issue or investigation, so that others may take action using the findings of the report.

• A newspaper report gives information

Formal reports

• Formal reports follow a clear structure:

Introduction -> explanation of the research undertaken-> summary of findings-> conclusions or points for actionWhat to look for:- Percentages used to emphasize

strength of feelings- Result summaries for readers- Solutions

Newspaper reports

• Newspaper reports are normally written in an impersonal style

• The writer will provide facts- opinions will often come from ‘sources’ or people whose words are being reported through direct quotation

What to look for:- Emotive language which engages the reader- Quotes in headlines which can indicate bias- Summing up in last paragraph- Quotations from ‘the other side’ to balance

argument

Feature articles

• Feature articles provide more of a considered view or interpretation of an event or issue

What to look for:- Pronouns ‘we’, ‘our’- Strong opening sentence- shows

view- Emotive language- Concluding sentence

Advertisements- presentation

• If the form of the advert is an advert, the purpose will be clearly to persuade, however the target audience will need to be considered

Presentational features to look for:- Use of images- Use of colour- Font style, size and colour- Use of text- layout, organisation and language- Logos , slogans, shapes• You need to show you are able to evaluate the

presentational features

Advertisements

Structuring your answer1. Links purpose to presentation2. Analyse features and their effects3. Explain effect of reader4. Show connection between

presentational features and written text/ purpose

Leaflets

• Presentational features such as sub-headings and bullet point lists are often used to break the information down into short pieces of text. The use of images and colour also helps to convey the message

• Leaflets use presentational features in order to allow the information to be read very quickly

• Commenting on the effect of individual language choices and layout features is necessary but it if you can demonstrate how elements of the text, use colour and image, etc. connect and work together, you will gain more marks.

Leaflets

• Start by analysing the leaflet’s purpose and audience.What to look for:- Images- What do they show, how does it connect to the

subject of the leaflet, does the size of the image have any significance?

- Information- What information is given, where is it displayed, how is it displayed, does the font have an impact on the reader, are capital letters used for emphasis?

- Colours- How does this appeal to the target market, does it help enforce the message of the leaflet, does it reinforce the company’s purpose, does it help the leaflet to achieve its purpose?

Diaries

• Personal diaries are written in the first person and are informal in style. They include personal recollections.

• Diaries written for publication, record events of public interest and can be more formal in style but are usually in the first person.

What to look for:- Purpose to the diary entry- Opinions- Emotive language- Exaggeration

Blogs

• Unlike diaries, blogs can have more colloquial language and the writer has a sense of the wider audience and the content and tone of the blog matches this, rather than being more personal and private

Biographies and autobiographies

• A biography will be written in third person and an autobiography will be written in first person and organisation is normally chronological.

• Biographies contain events from the person’s past• The purpose of biographical writing is usually a mixture

of entertaining and informing the reader.What to look for- Imagery- Sentence structure/length for effect- Dramatic language- Language style (formal/informal)- Why e.g. colloquial

language to remind the reader that it is a childhood anecdote

Travel writing

• Travel writing can be factual but can also give individual interpretations of the experience

• Travel writing entertains and informs the reader• Although factual in content, there will be an element

of bias in travel writingWhat to look for:- Different language techniques that the travel writer

uses to convey information to the reader- Be aware of the attitudes or feelings that the travel

experience causes in the writer.- The first sentence- it usually sets the tone of the

writing and can be quite dramatic.

Reading reviews

• The first thing to look for in a reviews is at whether it is biased or unbiased

• A review provides a description and an evaluation of an event, an object or publication.

• The purpose of a review is to provide a clear overview and an evaluative judgement or recommendation.

• They are written for a clear audience.What to look at:- Language and structure and how they are used to present a particular point of view

Web Page

• A web page uses particular layout conventions and presentational features to help you skim and scan the page for specific information

• A webpage has to be immediately appealing and accessible otherwise the reader will just skip to another site

What to look for:- Images- Colours- bright colour used to highlight offers?- Live links to help find information faster- Contact details- Where are they placed, how are they

presented?- Logos- Use of celebrities

Information texts

• Often use sub-headings or other organisational features to guide the reader easily through the material

• Its main purpose is to provide information. The language is usually impersonal, quite direct and clearly organised.

• They will have a target audience

Analysing presentational features

• When commenting on presentational features, you need to explain how they work with each other to create an overall effect, not just what effect they have individually.

Headline The main heading in a newspaper story, designed to draw the reader’s attention

Strapline A second, introductory headline, below the main one, adds more information to the headline

Subheading Often used to summarise sections of the text or break it up into smaller sections, allowing the reader to skim over the text and see the overall point

Font Style and colour can vary throughout a text. Often it us possible to draw conclusions from the choice of colour-scheme or font style

Capitals Capitals are often used to stress and reinforce particular words or phrases

Caption The text under a photograph or diagram which explains it

Standfirst The introductory in an article or report, which could be in bold print or with the first word capitalised

Pull-quote A quotation which is lifted from the article and set apart, in larger or bold type

Bold, italics, underline

Different ways of making certain words stand out

Slogan A memorable word or phrase, designed to create interest

Logo Emblem to represent a product or company

Photographs and graphics

Used to add depth to the story or more information

Inference

• There are a variety of ways in which language can be used to infer meaning other than the surface meaning. One technique to look for is IRONY. Irony can be created through:

- Rhetorical techniques- Exaggeration and understatement- Quotations

Inference

• Another technique to look for is HUMOUR.

Ways to infer meaning:- Language- Structure and organisation of text- Pictures and other presentational

features. • Pictures and the layout of text can

imply meaning the same way that language does

Analysing language- Key features

Language features to analyse- Sentence and paragraph types- Significant vocabulary- Punctuation- Imagery- Imagery and other linguistic devices- Style of language

Analysing language- Sentences

• Short sentences can suggest speed or excitement e.g. He ran forward. The ball fell at his feet. He shot.

• They can also indicate surprise or despair e.g. Her inspiration stopped. Her career ended.

• Long sentences can indicate calm e.g. The sergeant reported that right along the river, teams of men and women were at last preparing to return to their headquarters for a much needed break.

• Or they can build to a climax e.g. The crowds gasped as the top of the mountain blew away, clouds of ash shot hundred of feet into the sky and rivers of lava, terrifying in the early daw, shot upwards, then cascaded down into the valley.

Analysing language- Paragraphs

• Very short paragraphs can be used to attract the reader’s attention, to attract the reader’s attention, to pick out the main details in an article or to offer a ‘punchy’ idea. Popular newspaper articles often have short paragraphs so that they can be read more easily.

• Longer paragraphs provide more detail and analysis. Articles in more serious newspapers often have longer paragraphs.

Analysing language- Significant vocabulary

• The kind of vocabulary can tell you about the purpose of the text- Imperative verbs such as ‘follow’ and ‘begin’ suggest

instructional or advisory writing- Connectives like ‘since’ and ‘because’ are typical of

explanatory writing because these connectives link ideas together- Connectives such as ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’ and ‘indeed’

tend to be used in persuasive or argumentative writing where are point of view is being expressed

• The kind of vocabulary can also tell you about the audience for the text.

- More complex language indicates that the text is aimed at a more intelligent readership

- A text containing specialist vocabulary will be aimed at those with a special interest in that area

- Slang and colloquialisms could indicate a teenage target audience.

PunctuationTEENAGER ‘TORTURED TO DEATH’

Lets focus on… improving your home

HOLLY HITS OUT!!

The inverted commas indicate it may not have happened, but show that someone has offered that opinion

Ellipsis indicates that there are many things we could do. An ellipsis can also end a sentence leaving the conclusion to our imagination.

The double exclamation mark is to attract attention and suggest excitement, humour or even surprise.

Similes, metaphors, linguistic techniques and style

• Look for similes, metaphors, alliteration and onomatopoeia.• Text can have a formal or informal styleStylistic techniques- Rhetoric- Emotive language- Irony (subtle mockery)- Exaggeration- Contrast- Colloquial language- Ambiguity- Examples, anecdotes or quotations- Humour- Lists

Comparing language

• When comparing language, consider:- Levels of difficulty- The different tones- The different kinds of language features required for

different purposes• Decide how the writer has used language to meet

the needs of the form, purpose and audience. Look at:

- Sentences and paragraphs- Significant vocabulary- Punctuation- Imagery and linguistic features

Comparative response- paragraph structure

- The conclusion should NOT be long and should sum up your ideas whilst still focusing on the question

Connectives

Comparative connectives

Cause, effect, emphasising and illustrating connectives

Similarly In contrast While the first text

Just as

Whereas The second text

Likewise On the other hand

When we turn to

Also But In comparison

So However The second text, though

AlternativelyBecause So Therefore

Thus

Consequently

For example

Such as

For instance

As revealed by

In the case of

Above all

In particular

Especially Significantly

Indeed Notably

What to expect• The whole paper is 2 hours 15 minutes long.• It is divided into 2 sections• Section A is the reading section• You will be given 3 sources in an extract book

and asked to answer 4 questions using the source material

• Questions 1-3 are worth 8 marks and focus on 1 f the source texts. You should spend 12 minutes answering each of these questions

• Question 4 is worth 16 marks and will ask you to compare 2 of the source texts. You should spend 24 minutes answering this question

Types of questions

• The questions will usually test your ability to:

- Find information (Information retrieval) 8 marks

- Write about presentational features 8 marks

- Analyse what is being suggested or inferred 8 marks

- Compare how language is used in two texts 16 marks

APPLE- General analysis of non-fiction texts

A PPLE

audience- who is it for? How do you know

purpose- Why has is been created? What message(s) is given?

presentation- Features, images, layout. How do they relate/ support the text?language- Consider vocabulary, tone, stylistic devices, phrasing used and structure of sentences.effect on audience- Has the writing achieved its purpose for the audience?

A FOREST- Language Devices to look for:

A F O

R E

S T

alliteration

acts

pinions

repetition

exaggeration and Emotive language

statistics

triples

CODFISH

CODFISH- Presentational features to look at:

colours

organisation

data/ diagrams

font/ Italics/ Bold

images/ Pictures

slogans/ catchphrases

headings/sub-headings

FIFAT- How reliable and authoritative is the text

Very 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very

F Factual Opinionated

I Impersonal(Unbiased)

Personal(Biased)

F Formal Informal

A Authoritative

Unreliable

T Trustworthy

Untrustworthy

Find non-fiction texts such as articles, adverts, flyers, leaflets etc. and practice using this grid to find how reliable and authoritative the text is.

SECTION B

What to expect

• You will be asked to complete 2 non-fiction writing tasks; the first worth 16 marks and the second 24 marks

• Aim to spend 25 minutes on the shorter writing task and 35 minutes on the longer task.

• A clear purpose, form and audience will be given in each task, however if no audience is mentioned, then use the examiner as your audience (formal writing)

Structure and paragraphs

• Start each new paragraph with a topic sentence.• The remaining sentences in the paragraph should

develop the idea in more detail• Link your paragraphs using connectives to make the

shift from one idea to the next smoother• Start by introducing what you intend to discuss in

tour writing in a way which engages the reader.• Develop your response in the next 3 or 4

paragraphs, expanding your ideas• Sustain your view point• Keep the same style throughout• End by emphasising your view point.

Sentences

• Use a mixture of sentence structures; simple, compound, complex, questions and exclamations

Simple sentences- Can be used one after another to add

excitement- Can be used to build tension- Can also relieve tension- A simple sentence after a series of longer

sentences can pull the reader up short and make a quick but powerful point

Compound sentences

Compound sentences- A compound sentence is 2 simple

sentences joined together with either a semi-colon or a conjunction. Each part of the sentence could stand on its own.

- The second part of a compound sentence is linked to the first part by the subject matter as well. It is used to add extra information about the first part of the sentence.

Complex Sentences

Complex sentences- A complex sentence has one main

clause, which contains the main point of the sentence, and at least one subordinate clause. A subordinate clause links to the main clause but cannot stand on its own as a sentence. It often starts with ‘who’ or ‘which’

e.g. The boy, who was alone at last, walked across the field that led to the farm.

Questions, commands and exclamations

• Questions, commands and exclamations should be used sparingly, so that they have an impact.

• They can be used very effectively in writing to argue, persuade or advice.

• In a piece of writing to argue, persuade or advice, you should try to open or end the piece with a rhetorical question.

• Commands are a good way of addressing the reader directly.

• Exclamations show strong emotional reactions

Punctuation

Commas- Used to separate a list- To add clauses or phrases- To separate a phrase that adds extra

information or detail.Speech marks- Punctuation at the end of speech is placed

before the final speech mark- There should be only one speaker for each

paragraph

Punctuation

Apostrophes- Used to show possession- To show a contraction (can’t)Colons- Used to introduce a list- Introduce an explanation e.g. “I’m sorry I didn’t

show up: I had a heavy cold and my head hurt.”Semi colons- Used to indicate a short pause between 2 clauses

or simple sentences that are equally important.- To separate phrases in a complicated list

Punctuation

Ellipses- Used to create an idea that a

situation will continue forever.e.g. It seems that tis cycle of bullying will continue forever…- To allow the reader to decide what might fill the space

Language to engage reader

• Select vocabulary that is appropriate to the form, the purpose and the audience.

• Use a wide range of vocabulary• Use a range of connectives• Use adverbs to provide more

information• Try to avoid nouns and verbs that

sound very general

Using language creativelyImagery- Similes make a comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’- Metaphors state things that are not literally true, but the

comparison has a strong effect- Personification is a particular type of metaphor, giving

inanimate objects ‘life’, often human characteristicsClichés- Avoid clichés. A cliché is an over-used phrase and this makes

them less effective.Stylistic techniques- Onomatopoeia is a way of capturing sounds in words. It is the

term we use when a word sounds like the sound it is describing- Alliteration is when words begin with the same letter or soundIrony- It can be used in a humorous way - It can be used for serious effect

Evidence, statistics and quotations, Rhetoric and humour

• Using material which seems factual and the result of research really makes your writing sound powerful

Rhetoric and humour - Using humour engages your reader and is very effective in writing to argue and persuade as it helps to ‘break down’ any barriers between you and the readerRhetoric is used to engage and persuade.

Rhetorical devices

• Rhetorical questions• Lists of 3(sometimes adjectives for powerful

effect)• Direct address with use of the inclusive pronoun

‘we’ and ‘us’• Assuming your audience’s agreement• Appearing to agree with, or flatter, your

opposition to help win them the round• Repetition of key words or phrases• Exaggeration to make your point more strongly

The opening and ending

• Try to open your writing with:- A short piece of conversation- An anecdote- A description- A rhetorical question• Your final paragraph should always leave

your reader with a clear impression of your ideas and your point of view. It should link back to the introduction to round off your writing.

Writing letters

• Put your address at the top right hand side• Put their address on the top left hand sideSigning off- If you are writing to someone you don’t

know, you should use ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ and end with ‘yours faithfully’

- If you are writing to a named person or someone you know formally you should use Dear Mrs Jones or Dear Customer Services Manager and end with yours sincerely.

Writing reports

• A report is usually a mainly factual account of a recent event or set of circumstances

• It should be a mixture of facts and opinions

Writing articles

• An article has a clear purpose: to discuss or express ideas, usually from a particular point of view

• You should also consider layout and presentational features such as a headline, strapline and subheading

Writing to argueIntroduction

• Where the writer states what their view point is

Development

• Where anecdotes or experiences are used as evidence

Counterargument rebuttal

• Where the other side of the argument is mentioned, only to be dismissed or disproved

Conclusion

• Where the writer ends the argument with a ‘punch’

Writing to persuade

• Use techniques such as:- Effective structuring of ideas- Emotive language- Examples and anecdotes- Rhetoric devices

Writing to persuade

Introduction

• Catch your readers attention straight away• State why you are writing in an interesting and friendly way• Involve the reader and make sure that what you say is relevant to them• Show that you have the authority to write on this topic (sound reasonable and trustworthy)• Uses rhetorical question• Choose your vocab with precision and care

4/5 Body paragraphs

• Introduce each paragraph with a clear and interesting topic sentence• Think of using one further rhetorical question but make it subtle• Discuss only ONE point per paragraph• In one paragraph use an anecdote• Be personal• Link your points and develop them fully• Acknowledge the main opposing view but with care, subtlety and tact- counter it • Add authority- quote an expert, a survey or something to prove it works• Use vivid description• Add power by adding a few rhetoric devices

Conclusion

Writing to persuade

Conclusion

• Re-emphasize the common ground and why your review is worthy of consideration

• Make sure your reader knows precisely what you would like to happen next• Only if appropriate to your audience and for your purpose, end with an

emotional plea

Writing to inform• You should concentrate on:- Choosing information to suit your purpose- Organising your ideas into clear - Writing an effective opening and ending- Including facts and opinions- Creating the right tone for your audience and purposeWhat is the examiner looking for?- Have you provided your audience with what it needs, wants, or might like

to know and nothing more?- Have you given relevant details that are clear, fair and balanced – whether

as facts or opinions?- Are the details given in a straightforward and unambiguous manner? -

Language that informs should rely on its denotation for meaning, i.e. its literal meaning, rather than

- connotation, i.e. suggested meaning.- Are the relevant '5W+H' questions being answered, i.e. who, what, why,

where, when and how?- Is the writing engaging and interesting to its audience, i.e. is its style

lively?- Is the detail given sufficient (i.e. not too much or too little).

Writing to inform

• CREATE A STRONG OPENING- Begin with humour to engage your

audience- Or an account from personal

experience which gives a context for your writing

Writing to explain

• Give reasons for what happened, or how you feel, or why something is important.

• You need to use casual connectives such as:

Present a situation

Explain the

cause

Explain the effect

it had.As a result of this It might be

This meant that The reason could have been

This is because It may be that

As a consequence Perhaps

Therefore Possibly

Writing to reviewFirst part

Explains the topic for review in a short summary or synopsis

Second part

Goes into more detail giving some examples that provide more information about your topic and why you liked or didn’t like it. You might also like to compare the topic with others

Final part

Give your overall recommendation- your view on whether or not your reader will appreciate the item you are reviewing.

Writing to reviewPositive General Negative

Irresistible Plot Bewildering

Hilarious Type Disappointing

Classic Form Superb

Hype Unbelievable Effects

Imitation Suspense Mood

Captivating Typical Clichéd

Impressive Scenes Excessive

Writing to advisePresent the subject clearly

Offer advic

e which is logic

al and

convincing

Demonstrate

benefits of following your advic

e• Your tone needs to fit your purpose and audience. YOU

ARE ADDRESSING YOUR READER DIRECTLYLanguage Features you can use- Commands e.g. Make sure you add… Don’t forget to visit…- Verbs like must and should which encourage the reader to

act- Softer verbs like can and may or could and might which

give suggestions- If…. (then)… sentences shows what would happen if you

follow the advice.

RHETORIC- Used to engage and persuade

RHETORIC

Rhetorical questionsHyperbole

Emotive LanguageTriples

Opinion as fact

Repetition

Involve the audienceComments from experts

A COAST MAP- Used for writing and analysing a piece to describe

ACOAST

MAP

Alliteration

Colours

Onomatopoeia

Assonance

Similes

Triples

Metaphors

Adjectives

Personification