english as a global lang sample

8/12/2019 English as a Global Lang Sample

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English as a global language

Second edition

DAVID CRYSTAL


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PUB L IS HE D BY T H E PRE S S SYN D ICAT E ! TH E U NI VE R SI TY ! CA " BR ID #E

The Pitt Building$ T%u&'ington St%eet$ Ca&b%idge CB( )RP$ United *ingdo&

CA " BR ID #E U NIV E R SI TY PR E SS

The Edinbu%gh Building$ Ca&b%idge$ CB( (RU$ U*

+, -est (,th St%eet$ Ne. Yo%/$ NY ),,))0+())$ USA+11 -illia&sto.n Road$ Po%t "elbou%ne$ VIC 2(,1$ Aust%alia

Rui3 de Ala%c 4on )2$ (5,)+ "ad%id$ S'ain

Doc/ House$ The -ate%6%ont$ Ca'e To.n 5,,)$ South A6%ica

htt'788...9ca&b%idge9o%g

C Da:id C% ;stal )


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Contents

List of ta&les pa#e (ii

)reface to t%e second edition i>

)reface to t%e rst edition >ii

) -h; a global language )

-hat is a global language 2

-hat &a/es a global language 1

-h; do .e need a global language ))

-hat a%e the dange%s o6 a global language )+

Could an;thing sto' a global language (?

A c%itical e%a (1

( -h; English The histo%ical conte>t (a&'le$'%esenting to the .o%ld an unco&'licated scena%io sug0

gesting the uni:e%salit; o6 the languages s'%ead and the li/elihoodo6 its continuation9) A state&ent '%o&inentl; dis'la;ed in the

bod; o6 the associated a%ticle$&e&o%able chie ; 6o% its allite%ati:e

ingenuit;$%ein6o%ces the initial i&'%ession7 The B%itish E&'i%e

&a; be in 6ull %et%eat .ith the hando:e% o6 Hong *ong9 But 6%o&

Bengal to Beli3e and Las Vegas to Laho%e$the language o6 the

sce't%ed isle is %a'idl; beco&ing the %st global lingua 6%anca9

"illennial %et%os'ecti:es and '%ognostications continued in the

sa&e :ein$.ith se:e%al &a=o% ne.s'a'e%s and &aga3ines nding

in the sub=ect o6 the English language an a't s;&bol 6o% the the&es

o6 globali3ation$di:e%si cation$'%og%ess and identit; add%essed in

thei% s'ecial editions9( Tele:ision '%og%a&&es and se%ies$too$ad0

d%essed the issue$and achie:ed .o%ld0.ide audiences92 Ce%tainl;$

b; the tu%n o6 the centu%;$the to'ic &ust ha:e &ade contact

) #lobe and "ail$To%onto$)( Jul; )


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EN#LISH AS A #LBAL LAN#UA#E

.ith &illions o6 'o'ula% intuitions at a le:el .hich had si&'l; not

e>isted a decade be6o%e9

These a%e the /inds o6 state&ent .hich see& so ob:ious that

&ost 'eo'le .ould gi:e the& ha%dl; a second thought9 6 cou%se

English is a global language$the; .ould sa;9 You hea% it on

tele:ision s'o/en b; 'oliticians 6%o& all o:e% the .o%ld9 -he%e:e%

;ou t%a:el$;ou see English signs and ad:e%tise&ents9 -hene:e%

;ou ente% a hotel o% %estau%ant in a 6o%eign cit;$the; .ill unde%0

stand English$and the%e .ill be an English &enu9 Indeed$i6 the%e

is an;thing to .onde% about at all$the; &ight add$it is .h; suchheadlines should still be ne.s.o%th;9

But English is ne.s9 The language continues to &a/e ne.s dail;

in &an; count%ies9 And the headline isnt stating the ob:ious9 !o%

.hat does it &ean$e>actl; Is it sa;ing that e:e%;one in the .o%ld

s'ea/s English This is ce%tainl; not t%ue$as .e shall see9 Is it

sa;ing$then$that e:e% ; count%; in the .o%ld %ecogni3es English

as an o6 cial language This is not t% ue eithe%9 So .hat does it

&ean to sa; that a language is a global language -h; is English

the language .hich is usuall; cited in this connection Ho. did

the situation a%ise And could it change % is it the case that$

once a language beco&es a global language$it is the%e 6o% e:e%

These a%e 6ascinating uestions to e>'lo%e$.hethe% ;ou% %st

language is English o% not9 I6 English is ;ou% &othe% tongue$

;ou &a; ha:e &i>ed 6eelings about the .a; English is s'%eading

a%ound the .o%ld9 You &a; 6eel '%ide$that ;ou% language is the

one .hich has been so success6ulK but ;ou% '%ide &a; be tinged

.ith conce%n$.hen ;ou %eali3e that 'eo'le in othe% count%ies &a;

not .ant to use the language in the sa&e .a; that ;ou do$and

a%e changing it to suit the&sel:es9 -e a%e all sensiti:e to the .a;othe% 'eo'le use it is o6ten said$abuseF ou% language9 Dee'l;

held 6eelings o6 o.ne%shi' begin to be uestioned9 Indeed$i6 the%e

is one '%edictable conseuence o6 a language beco&ing a global

language$it is that nobod; o.ns it an; &o%e9 % %athe%$e:e%;one

.ho has lea%ned it no. o.ns it has a sha%e in it &ight be &o%e

'a%t o6 a '%og%a&&e to the conseuences 6o% endange%ed languages see

belo.$'9 (,F9 The se%ies beca&e a:ailable$.ith e>t%a 6ootage$on DVD in(,,(7 ...9in6onation9o%g9u/9

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%y a #lo&al lan#$a#e

accu%ate and has the %ight to use it in the .a; the; .ant9 This

6act alone &a/es &an; 'eo'le 6eel unco&6o%table$e:en :aguel;

%esent6ul9 Loo/ .hat the A&e%icans ha:e done to English is a not

unco&&on co&&ent 6ound in the lette%0colu&ns o6 the B%itish

'%ess9 But si&ila% co&&ents can be hea%d in the USA .hen 'eo'le

encounte% the so&eti&es st%i/ing :a%iations in English .hich a%e

e&e%ging all o:e% the .o%ld9

And i6 English is not ;ou% &othe% tongue$;ou &a; still ha:e

&i>ed 6eelings about it9 You &a; be st%ongl; &oti:ated to lea%n it$

because ;ou /no. it .ill 'ut ;ou in touch .ith &o%e 'eo'le thanan; othe% languageK but at the sa&e ti&e ;ou /no. it .ill ta/e a

g%eat deal o6 e66o%t to &aste% it$and ;ou &a; beg% udge that e66o%t9

Ha:ing &ade '%og%ess$;ou .ill 6eel '%ide in ;ou% achie:e&ent$

and sa:ou% the co&&unicati:e 'o.e% ;ou ha:e at ;ou% dis'osal$

but &a; none the less 6eel that &othe%0tongue s'ea/e%s o6 English

ha:e an un6ai% ad:antage o:e% ;ou9 And i6 ;ou li:e in a count% ;

.he%e the su% :i:al o6 ;ou% o.n language is th%eatened b; the

success o6 English$;ou &a; 6eel en:ious$%esent6ul$o% ang%;9 You

&a; st%ongl; ob=ect to the nai:et; o6 the 'o'ulist account$.ith

its si&'listic and o6ten suggesti:el; t%iu&'halist tone9

These 6eelings a%e natu%al$and .ould a%ise .hiche:e% language

e&e%ged as a global language9 The; a%e 6eelings .hich gi:e %ise

to 6ea%s$.hethe% %eal o% i&agina% ;$and 6ea%s lead to con ict9

Language &a%ches$language hunge%0st%i/es$language %ioting and

language deaths a%e a 6act$in se:e%al count%ies9 Political di66e%ences

o:e% language econo&ics$education$la.s and %ights a%e a dail;

encounte% 6o% &illions9 Language is al.a;s in the ne.s$and the

nea%e% a language &o:es to beco&ing a global language$the &o%e

ne.s.o%th; it is9 So ho. does a language co&e to achie:e globalstatus

What is a global language?

A language achie:es a genuinel; global status .hen it de:elo's

a s'ecial %ole that is %ecogni3ed in e:e%; count%;9 This &ight

see& li/e stating the ob:ious$but it is not$6o% the notion o6

s'ecial %ole has &an; 6acets9 Such a %ole .ill be &ost e:ident in

count%ies .he%e la%ge nu&be%s o6 the 'eo'le s'ea/ the language

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as a &othe% tongue in the case o6 English$this .ould &ean the

USA$Canada$B%itain$I%eland$Aust%alia$Ne. ealand$South

A6%ica$se:e%al Ca%ibbean count%ies and a s'%in/ling o6 othe% te%%i0

to%ies9 Ho.e:e%$no language has e:e% been s'o/en b; a &othe%0

tongue &a=o%it; in &o%e than a 6e. count%ies S'anish leads$in

this %es'ect$in so&e t.ent; count%ies$chie ; in Latin A&e%icaF$so

&othe%0tongue use b; itsel6 cannot gi:e a language global status9

To achie:e such a status$a language has to be ta/en u' b; othe%

count%ies a%ound the .o%ld9 The; &ust decide to gi:e it a s'ecial

'lace .ithin thei% co&&unities$e:en though the; &a; ha:e 6e.

o% noF &othe%0tongue s'ea/e%s9

The%e a%e t.o &ain .a;s in .hich this can be done9 !i%stl;$a

language can be &ade the o6 cial language o6 a count% ;$to be used

as a &ediu& o6 co&&unication in such do&ains as go:e%n&ent$

the la. cou%ts$the &edia$and the educational s;ste&9 To get on

in these societies$it is essential to &aste% the o6 cial language as

ea%l; in li6e as 'ossible9 Such a language is o6ten desc%ibed as a

second language$because it is seen as a co&'le&ent to a 'e%0

sons &othe% tongue$o% %st language9+ The %ole o6 an o6 cial

language is toda; best illust%ated b; English$.hich no. has so&e

/ind o6 s'ecial status in o:e% se:ent; count%ies$such as #hana$

Nige%ia$India$Singa'o%e and Vanuatu9 A co&'lete list is gi:en at

the end o6 cha'te% (9F This is 6a% &o%e than the status achie:ed b;

an; othe% language though !%ench$#e%&an$S'anish$Russian$

and A%abic a%e a&ong those .hich ha:e also de:elo'ed a consid0

e%able o6 cial use9 Ne. 'olitical decisions on the &atte% continue

to be &ade7 6o% e>a&'le$R.anda ga:e English o6 cial status

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to adults .ho 6o% .hate:e% %eason ne:e% lea%ned it$o% lea%ned

it badl;$in thei% ea%l; educational ;ea%s9 Russian$6o% e>a&'le$

held '%i:ileged status 6o% &an; ;ea%s a&ong the count%ies o6 the

6o%&e% So:iet Union9 "anda%in Chinese continues to 'la; an i&0

'o%tant %ole in South0east Asia9 English is no. the language &ost

.idel; taught as a 6o%eign language in o:e% ),, count%ies$such

as China$Russia$#e%&an;$S'ain$Eg;'t and B%a3il and in &ost

o6 these count%ies it is e&e%ging as the chie6 6o%eign language to be

encounte%ed in schools$o6ten dis'lacing anothe% language in the

'%ocess9 In )'edienc;$and the desi%e 6o%

co&&e%cial$cultu%al o% technological contact9 Also$e:en .hen

chosen$the '%esence o6 the language can :a%; g%eatl;$de'end0

ing on the e>tent to .hich a go:e%n&ent o% 6o%eign0aid agenc; is

'%e'a%ed to gi:e adeuate nancial su''o%t to a language0teaching

'olic;9 In a .ell0su''o%ted en:i%on&ent$%esou%ces .ill be de:oted

to hel'ing 'eo'le ha:e access to the language and lea%n it$

th%ough the &edia$lib%a%ies$schools$and institutes o6 highe% ed0

ucation9 The%e .ill be an inc%ease in the nu&be% and ualit; o6

teache%s able to teach the language9 Boo/s$ta'es$co&'ute%s$

teleco&&unication s;ste&s and all /inds o6 teaching &ate%ials

.ill be inc%easingl; a:ailable9 In &an; count%ies$ho.e:e%$lac/ o6

go:e%n&ent su''o%t$o% a sho%tage o6 6o%eign aid$has hinde%ed

the achie:e&ent o6 language0teaching goals9

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Distinctions such as those bet.een %st$second and 6o%eign

language status a%e use6ul$but .e &ust be ca%e6ul not to gi:e

the& a si&'listic inte%'%etation9 In 'a%ticula%$it is i&'o%tant to

a:oid inte%'%eting the distinction bet.een second and 6o%eign

language use as a di66e%ence in uenc; o% abilit;9 Although .e

&ight e>'ect 'eo'le 6%o& a count% ; .he%e English has so&e so%t

o6 o6 cial status to be &o%e co&'etent in the language than those

.he%e it has none$si&'l; on g%ounds o6 g%eate% e>'osu%e$it tu%ns

out that this is not al.a;s so9 -e should note$6o% e>a&'le$the :e% ;

high le:els o6 uenc; de&onst%ated b; a .ide %ange o6 s'ea/e%s6%o& the Scandina:ian count%ies and the Nethe%lands9 But .e

&ust also be.a%e int%oducing too sha%' a distinction bet.een

%st0language s'ea/e%s and the othe%s$es'eciall; in a .o%ld .he%e

child%en a%e being bo%n to 'a%ents .ho co&&unicate .ith each

othe% th%ough a lingua 6%anca lea%ned as a 6o%eign language9 In the

E&i%ates a 6e. ;ea%s ago$6o% e>a&'le$I &et a cou'le a #e%&an

oil indust%ialist and a "ala;sian .ho had cou%ted th%ough thei%

onl; co&&on language$English$and decided to b%ing u' thei%

child .ith English as the '%i&a%; language o6 the ho&e9 So he%e is

a bab; lea%ning English as a 6o%eign language as its &othe% tongue9The%e a%e no. &an; such cases a%ound the .o%ld$and the; %aise a

uestion o:e% the cont%ibution that these babies .ill one da; &a/e

to the language$once the; g%o. u' to be i&'o%tant 'eo'le$6o%

thei% intuitions about English .ill ine:itabl; be di66e%ent 6%o&

those o6 t%aditional nati:e s'ea/e%s9

These 'oints add to the co&'le>it; o6 the '%esent0da; .o%ld

English situation$but the; do not alte% the 6unda&ental 'oint9

Because o6 the th%ee0'%onged de:elo'&ent o6 %st0language$second0language$and 6o%eign0language s'ea/e%s it is ine:itable

that a global language .ill e:entuall; co&e to be used b; &o%e

'eo'le than an; othe% language9 English has al%ead; %eached this

stage9 The statistics collected in cha'te% ( suggest that about a

ua%te% o6 the .o%lds 'o'ulation is al%ead; uent o% co&'etent

in English$and this gu%e is steadil; g%o.ing in the ea%l; (,,,s

that &eans a%ound )9? billion 'eo'le9 No othe% language can

&atch this g%o.th9 E:en Chinese$6ound in eight di66e%ent s'o/en

languages$but uni ed b; a co&&on .%iting s;ste&$is /no.n to

onl; so&e )9) billion9

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What makes a global language?

-h; a language beco&es a global language has little to do .ith

the nu&be% o6 'eo'le .ho s'ea/ it9 It is &uch &o%e to do .ith

.ho those s'ea/e%s a%e9 Latin beca&e an inte%national language

th%oughout the Ro&an E&'i%e$but this .as not because the

Ro&ans .e%e &o%e nu&e%ous than the 'eo'les the; sub=ugated9

The; .e%e si&'l; &o%e 'o.e% 6ul9 And late%$.hen Ro&an &ilita% ;

'o.e% declined$Latin %e&ained 6o% a &illenniu& as the inte%na0

tional language o6 education$than/s to a di66e%ent so%t o6 'o.e%

the ecclesiastical 'o.e% o6 Ro&an Catholicis&9

The%e is the closest o6 lin/s bet.een language do&inance and

econo&ic$technological$and cultu%al 'o.e%$too$and this %ela0

tionshi' .ill beco&e inc%easingl; clea% as the histo%; o6 English is

told see cha'te%s ( +F9 -ithout a st%ong 'o.e%0base$o6 .hate:e%

/ind$no language can &a/e '%og%ess as an inte%national &ediu&

o6 co&&unication9 Language has no inde'endent e>istence$li:0

ing in so&e so%t o6 &;stical s'ace a'a%t 6%o& the 'eo'le .ho

s'ea/ it9 Language e>ists onl; in the b%ains and &ouths and ea%s

and hands and e;es o6 its use%s9 -hen the; succeed$on the in0te%national stage$thei% language succeeds9 -hen the; 6ail$thei%

language 6ails9

This 'oint &a; see& ob:ious$but it needs to be &ade at the

outset$because o:e% the ;ea%s &an; 'o'ula% and &isleading be0

lie6s ha:e g%o.n u' about .h; a language should beco&e inte%0

nationall; success6ul9 It is uite co&&on to hea% 'eo'le clai&

that a language is a 'a%agon$on account o6 its 'e%cei:ed aes0

thetic ualities$cla%it; o6 e>'%ession$lite%a%; 'o.e%$o% %eligious

standing9 Heb%e.$#%ee/$Latin$A%abic and !%ench a%e a&ongthose .hich at :a%ious ti&es ha:e been lauded in such te%&s$and

English is no e>ce'tion9 It is o6ten suggested$6o% e>a&'le$that

the%e &ust be so&ething inhe%entl; beauti6ul o% logical about the

st%uctu%e o6 English$in o%de% to e>'lain .h; it is no. so .idel;

used9 It has less g%a&&a% than othe% languages$so&e ha:e sug0

gested9 English doesnt ha:e a lot o6 endings on its .o%ds$no%

do .e ha:e to %e&e&be% the di66e%ence bet.een &asculine$6e&0

inine$and neute% gende%$so it &ust be easie% to lea%n9 In )5+5$

a %e:ie.e% in the B%itish 'e%iodical The Athenaeu& .%ote7

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In its easiness o6 g%a&&atical const%uction$in its 'aucit; o6 in ection$in

its al&ost total dis%ega%d o6 the distinctions o6 gende% e>ce'ting those o6

natu%e$in the si&'licit; and '%ecision o6 its te%&inations and au>ilia%;

:e%bs$not less than in the &a=est;$:igou% and co'iousness o6 its e>'%es0

sion$ou% &othe%0tongue see&s .ell ada'ted b; o%gani3ation to beco&e

the language o6 the .o%ld9

Such a%gu&ents a%e &isconcei:ed9 Latin .as once a &a=o%

inte%national language$des'ite its &an; in ectional endings and

gende% di66e%ences9 !%ench$too$has been such a language$des'iteits nouns being &asculine o% 6e&inineK and so at di66e%ent ti&esand 'laces ha:e the hea:il; in ected #%ee/$A%abic$S'anish and

Russian9 Ease o6 lea%ning has nothing to do .ith it9 Child%en o6all cultu%es lea%n to tal/ o:e% &o%e o% less the sa&e 'e%iod o6 ti&e$

%ega%dless o6 the di66e%ences in the g%a&&a% o6 thei% languages9And as 6o% the notion that English has no g%a&&a% a clai&that is %isible to an;one .ho has e:e% had to lea%n it as a 6o%eignlanguage the 'oint can be dis&issed b; a glance at an; o6 the

la%ge t.entieth0centu%; %e6e%ence g%a&&a%s9 The Co&'%ehensi:eg%a&&a% o6 the English language$6o% e>a&'le$contains )$5,,

'ages and so&e 2$?,, 'oints %eui%ing g%a&&atical e>'osition9?

This is not to den; that a language &a; ha:e ce%tain '%o'e%ties

.hich &a/e it inte%nationall; a''ealing9 !o% e>a&'le$lea%ne%s

so&eti&es co&&ent on the 6a&ilia%it; o6 English :ocabula% ;$

de%i:ing 6%o& the .a; English has o:e% the centu%ies bo%%o.ed

thousands o6 ne. .o%ds 6%o& the languages .ith .hich it has

been in contact9 The .elco&e gi:en to 6o%eign :ocabula% ;

'laces English in cont%ast to so&e languages notabl;$!%enchF

.hich ha:e t%ied to /ee' it out$and gi:es it a cos&o'olitancha%acte% .hich &an; see as an ad:antage 6o% a global language9

!%o& a le>ical 'oint o6 :ie.$English is in 6act 6a% &o%e a Ro&ance

than a #e%&anic language9 And the%e ha:e been co&&ents &ade

about othe% st%uctu%al as'ects$too$such as the absence in English

? La%gel; 'oints to do .ith s;nta>$o6 cou%se$%athe% than the &o%'hological

e&'hasis .hich is .hat &an; 'eo'le$b%ought u' in the Latinate t%adi0tion$thin/ g%a&&a% to be about9 The gu%e o6 2$?,, is de%i:ed 6%o& the

inde> .hich I co&'iled 6o% ui%/$#%eenbau&$Leechand S:a%t:i/ )cluding ent%ies .hich %elated solel; to le>ical ite&s9

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g%a&&a% o6 a s;ste& o6 coding social class di66e%ences$.hich can

&a/e the language a''ea% &o%e de&oc%atic to those .ho s'ea/

a language e9g9 Ja:aneseF that does e>'%ess an int%icate s;ste& o6

class %elationshi's9 But these su''osed t%aits o6 a''eal a%e inciden0

tal$and need to be .eighed against linguistic 6eatu%es .hich .ould

see& to be inte%nationall; &uch less desi%able notabl;$in the case

o6 English$the accu&ulated i%%egula%ities o6 its s'elling s;ste&9

A language does not beco&e a global language because o6

its int%insic st%uctu%al '%o'e%ties$o% because o6 the si3e o6 its

:ocabula% ;$o% because it has been a :ehicle o6 a g%eat lite%atu%ein the 'ast$o% because it .as once associated .ith a g%eat cultu%e

o% %eligion9 These a%e all 6acto%s .hich can &oti:ate so&eone

to lea%n a language$o6 cou%se$but none o6 the& alone$o% in

co&bination$can ensu%e a languages .o%ld s'%ead9 Indeed$

such 6acto%s cannot e:en gua%antee su% :i:al as a li:ing language

as is clea% 6%o& the case o6 Latin$lea%ned toda; as a classical

language b; onl; a schola%l; and %eligious 6e.9 Co%%es'ondingl;$

incon:enient st%uctu%al '%o'e%ties such as a./.a%d s'ellingF do

not sto' a language achie:ing inte%national status eithe%9

A language has t%aditionall; beco&e an inte%national language

6o% one chie6 %eason7 the 'o.e% o6 its 'eo'le es'eciall; thei% 'o0

litical and &ilita%; 'o.e%9 The e>'lanation is the sa&e th%oughout

histo% ;9 -h; did #%ee/ beco&e a language o6 inte%national co&0

&unication in the "iddle East o:e% ($,,, ;ea%s ago Not because

o6 the intellects o6 Plato and A%istotle7 the ans.e% lies in the s.o%ds

and s'ea%s .ielded b; the a%&ies o6 Ale>ande% the #%eat9 -h;

did Latin beco&e /no.n th%oughout Eu%o'e As/ the legions o6

the Ro&an E&'i%e9 -h; did A%abic co&e to be s'o/en so .idel;

ac%oss no% the%n A6%ica and the "iddle East !ollo. the s'%ead o6Isla&$ca%%ied along b; the 6o%ce o6 the "oo%ish a%&ies 6%o& the

eighth centu%;9 -h; did S'anish$Po%tuguese$and !%ench nd

thei% .a; into the A&e%icas$A6%ica and the !a% East Stud; the

colonial 'olicies o6 the Renaissance /ings and ueens$and the .a;

these 'olicies .e%e %uthlessl; i&'le&ented b; a%&ies and na:ies all

o:e% the /no.n .o%ld9 The histo% ; o6 a global language can be

t%aced th%ough the success6ul e>'editions o6 its soldie%8sailo%

s'ea/e%s9 And English$as .e shall see in cha'te% ($has been no

e>ce'tion9


15/32


But inte%national language do&inance is not solel; the %esult

o6 &ilita%; &ight9 It &a; ta/e a &ilita%il; 'o.e%6ul nation to

establish a language$but it ta/es an econo&icall; 'o.e%6ul one to

&aintain and e>'and it9 This has al.a;s been the case$but it be0

ca&e a 'a%ticula%l; c%itical 6acto% in the nineteenth and t.entieth

centu%ies$.ith econo&ic de:elo'&ents beginning to o'e%ate on a

global scale$su''o% ted b; the ne. co&&unication technologies

teleg%a'h$tele'hone$%adio and 6oste%ing the e&e%gence o6

&assi:e &ultinational o%gani3ations9 The g%o.th o6 co&'etiti:e

indust% ; and business b%ought an e>'losion o6 inte%national&a%/eting and ad:e%tising9 The 'o.e% o6 the '%ess %eached

un'%ecedented le:els$soon to be su%'assed b; the b%oadcasting

&edia$.ith thei% abilit; to c%oss national bounda%ies .ith

elect%o&agnetic ease9 Technolog;$chie ; in the 6o%& o6 &o:ies

and %eco%ds$6uelled ne. &ass ente%tain&ent indust%ies .hich

had a .o%ld.ide i&'act9 The d%i:e to &a/e '%og%ess in science

and technolog; 6oste%ed an inte%national intellectual and %esea%ch

en:i%on&ent .hich ga:e schola%shi' and 6u%the% education a high

'%o le9

An; language at the cent%e o6 such an e>'losion o6 inte%national

acti:it; .ould suddenl; ha:e 6ound itsel6 .ith a global status9 And

English$as .e shall see in cha'te%s 2 and +$.as a''a%entl; in the

%ight 'lace at the %ight ti&e '9 15F9 B; the beginning o6 the nine0

teenth centu% ;$B%itain had beco&e the .o%lds leading indust%ial

and t%ading count%;9 B; the end o6 the centu%;$the 'o'ulation o6

the USA then a''%oaching ),, &illionF .as la%ge% than that o6

an; o6 the count%ies o6 .este%n Eu%o'e$and its econo&; .as the

&ost '%oducti:e and the 6astest g%o.ing in the .o%ld9 B%itish 'o0

litical i&'e%ialis& had sent English a%ound the globe$du%ing thenineteenth centu% ;$so that it .as a language on .hich the sun

ne:e% sets9@ Du%ing the t.entieth centu%;$this .o%ld '%esence

.as &aintained and '%o&oted al&ost single0handedl; th%ough

the econo&ic su'%e&ac; o6 the ne. A&e%ican su'e%'o.e%9 Eco0

no&ics %e'laced 'olitics as the chie6 d%i:ing 6o%ce9 And the lan0

guage behind the US dolla% .as English9

@ An e>'%ession ada'ted 6%o& the nineteenth0centu%; a'ho%is& about the

e>tent o6 the B%itish E&'i%e9 It continued to be used in the t.entiethcentu%;$6o% e>a&'le b; Randol'h ui%/ )


16/32


Why do we need a global language?

T%anslation has 'la;ed a cent%al though o6ten un%ecogni3edF %ole

in hu&an inte%action 6o% thousands o6 ;ea%s9 -hen &ona%chs o%

a&bassado%s &et on the inte%national stage$the%e .ould in:a%i0

abl; be inte%'%ete%s '%esent9 But the%e a%e li&its to .hat can be

done in this .a;9 The &o%e a co&&unit; is linguisticall; &i>ed$

the less it can %el; on indi:iduals to ensu%e co&&unication be0

t.een di66e%ent g%ou's9 In co&&unities .he%e onl; t.o o% th%ee

languages a%e in contact$bilingualis& o% t%ilingualis&F is a 'ossi0

ble solution$6o% &ost ;oung child%en can acui%e &o%e than one

language .ith unsel6conscious ease9 But in co&&unities .he%e

the%e a%e &an; languages in contact$as in &uch o6 A6%ica and

South0east Asia$such a natu%al solution does not %eadil; a''l;9

The '%oble& has t%aditionall; been sol:ed b; nding a languageto act as a lingua 6%anca$o% co&&on language9 So&eti&es$

.hen co&&unities begin to t%ade .ith each othe%$the; co&0

&unicate b; ado'ting a si&'li ed language$/no.n as a 'idgin$

.hich co&bines ele&ents o6 thei% di66e%ent languages91 "an; such

'idgin languages su% :i:e toda; in te%%ito%ies .hich 6o%&e%l; be0longed to the Eu%o'ean colonial nations$and act as lingua 6%ancasK

6o% e>a&'le$-est A6%ican Pidgin English is used e>tensi:el;

bet.een se:e%al ethnic g%ou's along the -est A6%ican coast9 So&e0

ti&es an indigenous language e&e%ges as a lingua 6%anca usuall;

the language o6 the &ost 'o.e%6ul ethnic g%ou' in the a%ea$as in

the case o6 "anda%in Chinese9 The othe% g%ou's then lea%n this

language .ith :a%;ing success$and thus beco&e to so&e deg%ee

bilingual9 But &ost o6ten$a language is acce'ted 6%o& outside the

co&&unit;$such as English o% !%ench$because o6 the 'olitical$

econo&ic$o% %eligious in uence o6 a 6o%eign 'o.e%9

The geog%a'hical e>tent to .hich a lingua 6%anca can be used is

enti%el; go:e%ned b; 'olitical 6acto%s9 "an; lingua 6%ancas e>tend

o:e% uite s&all do&ains bet.een a 6e. ethnic g%ou's in one

'a%t o6 a single count%;$o% lin/ing the t%ading 'o'ulations o6 =ust

a 6e. count%ies$as in the -est A6%ican case9 B; cont%ast$Latin .as

a lingua 6%anca th%oughout the .hole o6 the Ro&an E&'i%e at

1 !o% the %ise o6 'idgin Englishes$see Todd )


17/32


least$at the le:el o6 go:e%n&ent :e%; 6e. o%dina% ; 'eo'le in

the sub=ugated do&ains .ould ha:e s'o/en &uch LatinF9 And in

&ode%n ti&es S.ahili$A%abic$S'anish$!%ench$English$Hindi$

Po%tuguese and se:e%al othe% languages ha:e de:elo'ed a &a=o%

inte%national %ole as a lingua 6%anca$in li&ited a%eas o6 the .o%ld9

The '%os'ect that a lingua 6%anca &ight be needed 6o% the .hole

.o%ld is so&ething .hich has e&e%ged st%ongl; onl; in the t.en0

tieth centu% ;$and since the )


18/32


slo.l; beco&ing a %ealit; in &eetings a%ound the .o%ld$as gene%al

co&'etence in English g%o.s9

The need 6o% a global language is 'a%ticula%l; a''%eciated b; the

inte%national acade&ic and business co&&unities$and it is he%e

that the ado'tion o6 a single lingua 6%anca is &ost in e:idence$both

in lectu%e0%oo&s and boa%d0%oo&s$as .ell as in thousands o6 indi0

:idual contacts being &ade dail; all o:e% the globe9 A con:e%sation

o:e% the Inte%net see cha'te% +F bet.een acade&ic 'h;sicists in

S.eden$Ital;$and India is at '%esent '%acticable onl; i6 a co&0

&on language is a:ailable9 A situation .he%e a Ja'anese co&'an;di%ecto% a%%anges to &eet #e%&an and Saudi A%abian contacts in

a Singa'o%e hotel to 'lan a &ulti0national deal .ould not be i&0

'ossible$i6 each 'lugged in to a 20.a; t%anslation su''o%t s;ste&$

but it .ould be 6a% &o%e co&'licated than the alte%nati:e$.hich

is 6o% each to &a/e use o6 the sa&e language9

As these e>a&'les suggest$the g%o.th in inte%national con0

tacts has been la%gel; the %esult o6 t.o se'a%ate de:elo'&ents9 The

'h;sicists .ould not be tal/ing so con:enientl; to each othe% at all

.ithout the technolog; o6 &ode%n co&&unication9 And the busi0ness contacts .ould be unable to &eet so easil; in Singa'o%e .ith0

out the technolog; o6 ai% t%ans'o%tation9 The a:ailabilit; o6 both

these 6acilities in the t.entieth centu% ;$&o%e than an;thing else$

'%o:ided the ci%cu&stances needed 6o% a global language to g%o.9

Peo'le ha:e$in sho%t$beco&e &o%e &obile$both 'h;sicall;

and elect%onicall;9 Annual ai%line statistics sho. that steadil; in0

c%easing nu&be%s a%e nding the &oti:ation as .ell as the &eans

to t%ans'o%t the&sel:es 'h;sicall; a%ound the globe$and sales o6

6a>es$&ode&s$and 'e%sonal co&'ute%s sho. an e:en g%eate% in0

c%ease in those '%e'a%ed to send thei% ideas in .o%ds and i&ages

elect%onicall;9 It is no. 'ossible$using elect%onic &ail$to co';

a &essage to hund%eds o6 locations all o:e% the .o%ld :i%tuall;

si&ultaneousl;9 It is =ust as eas; 6o% &e to send a &essage 6%o& &;

house in the s&all to.n o6 Hol;head$No%th -ales$to a 6%iend

in -ashington as it is to get the sa&e &essage to so&eone li:ing

=ust a 6e. st%eets a.a; 6%o& &e9 In 6act$it is '%obabl; easie%9 That

is .h; 'eo'le so o6ten tal/$these da;s$o6 the global :illage9

These t%ends .ould be ta/ing 'lace$'%esu&abl;$i6 onl; a

hand6ul o6 count%ies .e%e tal/ing to each othe%9 -hat has been so

)2


19/32


i&'%essi:e about the de:elo'&ents .hich ha:e ta/en 'lace since

the )


20/32


thei% attitudes to.a%ds othe% languages9 Pe%ha's those .ho ha:e

such a language at thei% dis'osal and es'eciall; those .ho ha:e it

as a &othe%0tongue .ill be &o%e able to thin/ and .o%/ uic/l;

in it$and to &ani'ulate it to thei% o.n ad:antage at the e>'ense

o6 those .ho do not ha:e it$thus &aintaining in a linguistic guise

the chas& bet.een %ich and 'oo%9 Pe%ha's the '%esence o6 a global

language .ill &a/e 'eo'le la3; about lea%ning othe% languages$o%

%educe thei% o''o%tunities to do so9 Pe%ha's a global language .ill

hasten the disa''ea%ance o6 &ino%it; languages$o% the ulti&ate

th%eat &a/e all othe% languages unnecessa% ;9 A 'e%son needs

onl; one language to tal/ to so&eone else$it is so&eti&es a%gued$

and once a .o%ld language is in 'lace$othe% languages .ill si&'l;

die a.a;9 Lin/ed .ith all this is the un'alatable 6ace o6 linguistic

t%iu&'halis& the dange% that so&e 'eo'le .ill celeb%ate one

languages success at the e>'ense o6 othe%s9

It is i&'o%tant to 6ace u' to these 6ea%s$and to %ecogni3e that

the; a%e .idel; held9 The%e is no sho%tage o6 &othe%0tongueEnglish s'ea/e%s .ho belie:e in an e:olutiona%; :ie. o6 languagelet the ttest su%:i:e$and i6 the ttest ha''ens to be English$

then so be itF o% .ho %e6e% to the '%esent global status o6 thelanguage as a ha''; accident9 The%e a%e &an; .ho thin/ that

all language lea%ning is a .aste o6 ti&e9 And &an; &o%e .ho seenothing .%ong .ith the :ision that a .o%ld .ith =ust one language

in it .ould be a :e%; good thing9 !o% so&e$such a .o%ld .ould beone o6 unit; and 'eace$.ith all &isunde%standing .ashed a.a; a .idel; e>'%essed ho'e unde%l;ing the &o:e&ents in su''o%to6 a uni:e%sal a%ti cial language such as Es'e%antoF9 !o% othe%s$

such a .o%ld .ould be a desi%able %etu%n to the innocence that&ust ha:e been '%esent a&ong hu&an beings in the da;s be6o%e

the To.e% o6 Babel9ieties .hich a%e so s'eculati:e$o%$

in the absence o6 e:idence$to dete%&ine .hethe% an;thing can

< The Babel &;th is 'a%ticula%l; .idel; held$because o6 its status as 'a%t o6

a biblical na%%ati:e #enesis$cha'te% ))F9 E:en in biblical te%&s$ho.e:e%$the%e is no g%ound 6o% sa;ing that Babel int%oduced &ultilingualis& as a

cu%se o% 'unish&ent9 Languages .e%e al%ead; in e>istence be6o%e Babel$

as .e lea%n 6%o& #enesis$cha'te% ),$.he%e the sons o6 Ja'heth a%e listedacco%ding to thei% count%ies and each o6 thei% languages9 See Eco )


21/32


be done to %educe o% eli&inate the&9 The last 'oint can be uite

b%ie ; dis&issed7 the use o6 a single language b; a co&&unit; is

no gua%antee o6 social ha%&on; o% &utual unde%standing$as has

been %e'eatedl; seen in .o%ld histo%; e9g9 the A&e%ican Ci:il

-a%$the S'anish Ci:il -a%$the Vietna& -a%$6o%&e% Yugosla:ia$

conte&'o%a%; No%the%n I%elandFK no% does the '%esence o6 &o%e

than one language .ithin a co&&unit; necessitate ci:il st%i6e$as

seen in se:e%al success6ul e>a&'les o6 'eace6ul &ultilingual coe>0

istence e9g9 !inland$Singa'o%e$S.it3e%landF9 The othe% 'oints$

ho.e:e%$need to be ta/en &o%e slo.l;$to a''%eciate the alte%na0

ti:e 'e%s'ecti:e9 The a%gu&ents a%e each illust%ated .ith %e6e%ence

to English but the sa&e a%gu&ents .ould a''l; .hate:e% lan0

guage .as in the %unning 6o% global status9

% Linguistic 'o.e% -ill those .ho s'ea/ a global language as a

&othe% tongue auto&aticall; be in a 'osition o6 'o.e% co&'a%ed

.ith those .ho ha:e to lea%n it as an o6 cial o% 6o%eign language

The %is/ is ce%tainl; %eal9 It is 'ossible$6o% e>a&'le$that scientists

.ho do not ha:e English as a &othe% tongue .ill ta/e longe% toassi&ilate %e'o%ts in English co&'a%ed .ith thei% &othe%0tongue

colleagues$and .ill as a conseuence ha:e less ti&e to ca%%; out

thei% o.n c%eati:e .o%/9 It is 'ossible that 'eo'le .ho .%ite u'

thei% %esea%ch in languages othe% than English .ill ha:e thei% .o%/

igno%ed b; the inte%national co&&unit;9 It is 'ossible that senio%

&anage%s .ho do not ha:e English as a &othe% tongue$and .ho

nd the&sel:es .o%/ing 6o% English0language co&'anies in such

'a%ts o6 the .o%ld as Eu%o'e o% A6%ica$could nd the&sel:es

at a disad:antage co&'a%ed .ith thei% &othe%0tongue colleagues$

es'eciall; .hen &eetings in:ol:e the use o6in6o%&al s'eech9 The%eis al%ead; anecdotal e:idence to suggest that these things ha''en9

Ho.e:e%$i6 '%o'e% attention is 'aid to the uestion o6 language

lea%ning$the '%oble& o6 disad:antage d%a&aticall; di&inishes9

I6 a global language is taught ea%l; enough$6%o& the ti&e that

child%en begin thei% 6ull0ti&e education$and i6 it is &aintained

continuousl; and %esou%ced .ell$the /ind o6 linguistic co&'e0

tence .hich e&e%ges in due cou%se is a %eal and 'o.e% 6ul bilin0

gualis&$indistinguishable 6%o& that 6ound in an; s'ea/e% .ho has

encounte%ed the language since bi%th9 These a%e eno%&ous i6s$

)@


22/32


.ith costl; nancial i&'lications$and it is the%e6o%e not su%'%ising

that this /ind o6 cont%ol is cu%%entl; achie:ed b; onl; a &ino%it;

o6 non0nati:e lea%ne%s o6 an; languageK but the 6act that it is

achie:able as e:idenced %e'eatedl; b; English s'ea/e%s 6%o& such

count%ies as Den&a%/$S.eden and the Nethe%landsF indicates

that the%e is nothing ine:itable about the disad:antage scena%io9

It is .o%th %e ecting$at this 'oint$on the notion that child%en

a%e bo%n %ead; 6o% bilingualis&9 So&e t.o0thi%ds o6 the child%en

on ea%th g%o. u' in a bilingual en:i%on&ent$and de:elo' co&0

'etence in it9 The%e is a natu%alness .ith .hich the; assi&ilateanothe% language$once the; a%e %egula%l; e>'osed to it$.hich

is the en:; o6 adults9 It is an abilit; .hich see&s to die a.a; as

child%en %each thei% teens$and &uch acade&ic debate has been

de:oted to the uestion o6 .h; this should be the uestion o6

c%itical 'e%iodsF9), The%e is ho.e:e% .ides'%ead ag%ee&ent that$

i6 .e .ant to ta/e the tas/ o6 6o%eign language lea%ning se%iousl;$

one o6 the /e; '%inci'les is the ea%lie% the bette%9 And .hen that

tas/ is ta/en se%iousl;$.ith %e6e%ence to the acuisition o6 a global

language$the elitis& a%gu&ent e:a'o%ates9

% Linguistic co&'lacenc; -ill a global language eli&inate the

&oti:ation 6o% adults to lea%n othe% languages He%e too the '%ob0

le& is %eal enough9 Clea% signs o6 linguistic co&'lacenc;$co&&on

obse%:ation suggests$a%e al%ead; '%esent in the a%chet;'al B%itish

o% A&e%ican tou%ist .ho t%a:els the .o%ld assu&ing that e:e%;one

s'ea/s English$and that it is so&eho. the 6ault o6 the local 'eo0

'le i6 the; do not9 The ste%eot;'e o6 an English tou%ist %e'eatedl;

as/ing a 6o%eign .aite% 6o% tea in a loud %ead &; li's :oice is too

nea% the %ealit; to be co&6o%table9 The%e see&s al%ead; to be agenuine$.ides'%ead lac/ o6 &oti:ation to lea%n othe% languages$

6uelled 'a%tl; b; lac/ o6 &one; and o''o%tunit;$but also b; lac/ o6

inte%est$and this &ight .ell be 6oste%ed b; the inc%easing '%esence

o6 English as a global language9

It is i&'o%tant to a''%eciate that .e a%e dealing he%e .ith

uestions o6 attitude o% state o6 &ind %athe% than uestions o6

), !o% bilingual acuisition$see De Hou.e% )


23/32


abilit; though it is the latte% .hich is o6ten cited as the e>'lana0

tion9 I& no good at languages is '%obabl; the &ost .idel; hea%d

a'olog; 6o% not &a/ing an; e66o%t at all to acui%e e:en a basic

/no.ledge o6 a ne. language9 Co&&onl;$this sel60denig%ation

de%i:es 6%o& an unsatis6acto%; language lea%ning e>'e%ience in

school7 the s'ea/e% is 'e%ha's %e&e&be%ing a 'oo% %esult in school

e>a&inations .hich &a; %e ect no &o%e than an unsuccess0

6ul teaching a''%oach o% a not unusual b%ea/do.n in teache%

adolescent %elationshi's9 I ne:e% got on .ith &; !%ench teache%

is anothe% t;'ical co&&ent9 But this does not sto' 'eo'le going

on to gene%ali3e that the B%itish o% the A&e%icans$etc9F a%e not

:e% ; good at lea%ning languages9

These da;s$the%e a%e clea% signs o6 g%o.ing a.a%eness$.ithin

English0s'ea/ing co&&unities$o6 the need to b%ea/ a.a; 6%o&

the t%aditional &onolingual bias9)) In econo&icall; ha%d0'%essed

ti&es$success in boosting e>'o%ts and att%acting 6o%eign in:est0

&ent can de'end on subtle 6acto%s$and sensiti:it; to the language

s'o/en b; a count%;s 'otential 6o%eign 'a%tne%s is /no.n to be

'a%ticula%l; in uential9)( At least at the le:els o6 business and in0

dust%;$&an; %&s ha:e begun to &a/e 6%esh e66o%ts in this di0

%ection9 But at g%ass0%oots tou%ist le:el$too$the%e a%e signs o6

a g%o.ing %es'ect 6o% othe% cultu%es$and a g%eate% %eadiness to

engage in language lea%ning9 Language attitudes a%e changing all

the ti&e$and &o%e and &o%e 'eo'le a%e disco:e%ing$to thei%

g%eat delight$that the; a%e not at all bad at 'ic/ing u' a 6o%eign

language9

In 'a%ticula%$state&ents 6%o& in uential 'oliticians and ad&in0

ist%ato%s a%e beginning to be &ade .hich a%e hel'ing to 6oste%a 6%esh cli&ate o6 o'inion about the i&'o%tance o6 language

lea%ning9 A good e>a&'le is an add%ess gi:en in )


24/32


Ra&'hal9 His title$-o%ld language7 o''o%tunities$challenges$%es'onsibilities$itsel6 contains a co%%ecti:e to t%iu&'halist thin/0

ing$and his te>t %e'eatedl; a%gues against it7)2

It is all too eas; to &a/e ;ou% .a; in the .o%ld linguisticall; .ith

English as ;ou% &othe% tongue 9 9 9 -e beco&e la3; about lea%ning othe%

languages999-e all ha:e to &a/e a g%eate% e66o%t9 English &a; be the

.o%ld languageK but it is not the .o%lds onl; language and i6 .e a%e to

be good global neighbou%s .e shall ha:e to be less condescending to

the languages o6 the .o%ld &o%e assiduous in culti:ating acuaintance

.ith the&9

It %e&ains to be seen .hethe% such a6 %&ations o6 good .ill ha:e

long0te%& e66ect9 In the &eanti&e$it is saluta%; to %ead so&e

o6 the co&'a%ati:e statistics about 6o%eign language lea%ning9

!o% e>a&'le$a Eu%o'ean Business Su%:e; b; #%ant Tho%nton

%e'o%ted in )'and in

those a%eas o6 the .o%ld thought to ha:e g%eatest '%os'ects o6

g%o.th$such as East Asia$South A&e%ica$and Easte%n Eu%o'e

a%eas .he%e English has t%aditionall; had a %elati:el; lo. '%es0

ence9 The issues a%e beginning to be add%essed 6o% e>a&'le$

&an; Aust%alian schools no. teach Ja'anese as the %st 6o%eign

language$and both the USA and U* a%e no. 'a;ing &o%e atten0

tion to S'anish .hich$in te%&s o6 &othe%0tongue use$is g%o.ing

&o%e %a'idl; than EnglishF but .e a%e still a long .a; 6%o& a

.o%ld .he%e the econo&ic and othe% a%gu&ents ha:e uni:e%sall;

)2 Ra&'hal )


25/32


'e%suaded the English0s'ea/ing nations to %enounce thei% linguis0

tic insula%it;9

% Linguistic death -ill the e&e%gence o6 a global language

hasten the disa''ea%ance o6 &ino%it; languages and cause .ide0s'%ead language death To ans.e% this uestion$.e &ust %st

establish a gene%al 'e%s'ecti:e9 The '%ocesses o6 language do&0ination and loss ha:e been /no.n th%oughout linguistic histo% ;$

and e>ist inde'endentl; o6 the e&e%gence o6 a global language9No one /no.s ho. &an; languages ha:e died since hu&ans be0ca&e able to s'ea/$but it &ust be thousands9 In &an; o6 these

cases$the death has been caused b; an ethnic g%ou' co&ing to beassi&ilated .ithin a &o%e do&inant societ;$and ado'ting its lan0

guage9 The situation continues toda;$though the &atte% is beingdiscussed .ith inc%easing u%genc; because o6 the un'%ecedented

%ate at .hich indigenous languages a%e being lost$es'eciall; inNo%th A&e%ica$B%a3il $Aust%alia$Indonesia and 'a%ts o6 A6%ica9

At least ?, 'e% cent o6 the .o%lds @$,,, o% so li:ing languages.ill die out .ithin the ne>t centu%;9)@

This is indeed an intellectual and social t%aged;9 -hen a lan0

guage dies$so &uch is lost9 Es'eciall; in languages .hich ha:ene:e% been .%itten do.n$o% .hich ha:e been .%itten do.n onl;

%ecentl;$language is the %e'osito% ; o6 the histo% ; o6 a 'eo'le9 Itis thei% identit;9 %al testi&on;$in the 6o%& o6 sagas$6ol/tales$

songs$%ituals$'%o:e%bs$and &an; othe% '%actices$'%o:ides us.ith a uniue :ie. o6 ou% .o%ld and a uniue canon o6 lite%atu%e9

It is thei% legac; to the %est o6 hu&anit;9 nce lost$it can ne:e% be%eca'tu%ed9 The a%gu&ent is si&ila% to that used in %elation to theconse% :ation o6 s'ecies and the en:i%on&ent9 The docu&entation

and .he%e '%acticable conse% :ation o6 languages is also a '%io%0it;$and it .as good to see in the )


26/32


Ho.e:e%$the e&e%gence o6 an; one language as global has

onl; a li&ited causal %elationshi' to this unha''; state o6 a66ai%s9

-hethe% So%bian su% :i:es in #e%&an; o% #alician in S'ain has to

do .ith the local 'olitical and econo&ic histo%; o6 those coun0

t%ies$and .ith the %egional do&inance o6 #e%&an and S'anish

%es'ecti:el;$and bea%s no i&&ediate %elationshi' to the standing

o6 #e%&an o% S'anish on the .o%ld stage9)5 No% is it eas; to see

ho. the a%%i:al o6 English as a global language could di%ectl; in0

uence the 6utu%e o6 these o% &an; othe% &ino%it; languages9 An

e66ect is li/el; onl; in those a%eas .he%e English has itsel6 co&eto be the do&inant %st language$such as in No%th A&e%ica$

Aust%alia and the Celtic 'a%ts o6 the B%itish Isles9 The ea%l; his0

to%; o6 language contact in these a%eas .as indeed one o6 con0

uest and assi&ilation$and the e66ects on indigenous languages

.e%e disast%ous9 But in &o%e %ecent ti&es$the e&e%gence o6 En0

glish as a t%ul; global language has$i6 an;thing$had the %e:e%se

e66ect sti&ulating a st%onge% %es'onse in su''o%t o6 a local

language than &ight othe%.ise ha:e been the case9 Ti&es ha:e

changed9 "o:e&ents 6o% language %ights alongside ci:il %ights

in gene%alF ha:e 'la;ed an i&'o%tant 'a%t in se:e%al count%ies$such as in %elation to the "ao%i in Ne. ealand$the Abo%iginal

languages o6 Aust%alia$the Indian languages o6 Canada and the

USA$and so&e o6 the Celtic languages9 Although o6ten too late$

in ce%tain instances the decline o6 a language has been slo.ed$and

occasionall; as in the case o6 -elshF halted9

The e>istence o6 :igo%ous &o:e&ents in su''o%t o6 linguistic

&ino%ities$co&&onl; associated .ith nationalis&$illust%ates an

i&'o%tant t%uth about the natu%e o6 language in gene%al9 The

in the U*$and The Endange%ed Language !und in the USA9 Contactdetails 6o% these and si&ila% o%gani3ations a%e gi:en in C%;stal (,,,7

A''endi>F9)5 The 'oint can be &ade e:en &o%e st%ongl; in such 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld as

Latin A&e%ica$.he%e English has t%aditionall; had negligible in uence9

Thehund%eds o6 A&e%indianlanguages .hich ha:e disa''ea%ed in Cent%aland SouthA&e%ica ha:e donesoas a %esult o6 cultu%es .hichs'o/eS'anish

and Po%tuguese$not English9 Chinese$Russian$A%abic and othe% &a=o%languages ha:e all had an i&'act on &ino%it; languages th%oughout thei%

histo%;$and continue to do so9 The %es'onsibilit; 6o% language '%ese%:a0tion and %e:itali3ation is a sha%ed one9

()


27/32


need 6o% &utual intelligibilit;$.hich is 'a%t o6 the a%gu&ent

in 6a:ou% o6 a global language$is onl; one side o6 the sto% ;9

The othe% side is the need 6o% identit; and 'eo'le tend to

unde%esti&ate the %ole o6 identit; .hen the; e>'%ess an>ieties

about language in=u%; and death9 Language is a &a=o% &eans

so&e .ould sa; the chie6 &eansF o6 sho.ing .he%e .e belong$

and o6 distinguishing one social g%ou' 6%o& anothe%$and all

o:e% the .o%ld .e can see e:idence o6 linguistic di:e%gence

%athe% than con:e%gence9 !o% decades$&an; 'eo'le in the

count%ies o6 6o%&e% Yugosla:ia &ade use o6 a co&&on language$

Se%bo0C%oatian9 But since the ci:il .a%s o6 the ea%l; )ist in a .o%ld united b; a co&&onlanguage9

None o6 this is to den; that the e&e%gence o6 a global language

can in uence the st%uctu%e o6 othe% languages es'eciall; b;

'%o:iding a 6%esh sou%ce o6 loan0.o%ds 6o% use b; these othe%

languages9 Such in uences can be .elco&ed in .hich case$

'eo'le tal/ about thei% language being :a%ied and en%ichedF

o% o''osed in .hich case$the &eta'ho%s a%e those o6 in=u% ;

and deathF9 !o% e>a&'le$in %ecent ;ea%s$one o6 the healthiest

languages$!%ench$has t%ied to '%otect itsel6 b; la. against .hat

((


28/32


is .idel; 'e%cei:ed to be the &align in uence o6 English7 ino6 cial conte>ts$it is no. illegal to use an English .o%d .he%e

a !%ench .o%d al%ead; e>ists$e:en though the usage &a; ha:e.ides'%ead 'o'ula% su''o%t e9g9 co&'ute% 6o% o%dinateu% F9 Pu%ist

co&&entato%s 6%o& se:e%al othe% count%ies ha:e also e>'%essedconce%n at the .a; in .hich English :ocabula%; es'eciall; that

o6 A&e%ican English has co&e to 'e%&eate thei% high st%eetsand TV '%og%a&&es9 The a%gu&ents a%e ca%%ied on .ith g%eat

e&otional 6o%ce9 E:en though onl; a tin; 'a%t o6 the le>icon ise:e% a66ected in this .a;$that is enough to a%ouse the .%ath o6

the '%o'hets o6 doo&9 The; usuall; 6o%get the 6act that Englishitsel6$o:e% the centu%ies$has bo%%o.ed thousands o6 .o%ds 6%o&

othe% languages$and const%ucted thousands &o%e 6%o& the

ele&ents o6 othe% languages including co&'ute%$incidentall;$.hich de%i:es 6%o& Latin$the &othe%0language o6 !%ench9F)onF /ingl;$!%enchF %o;al

and LatinF %egal9 !o% 6u%the% e>a&'les$see the classic sou%ce$Se%=eantson)


29/32


e>'lanation o6 linguistic %ealities9(, The; es'eciall; igno%e the6act that %st .o%ld count%ies .ith st%ong languages see& to be

unde% =ust as &uch '%essu%e to ado't English$and that so&e o6the ha%shest attac/s on English ha:e co&e 6%o& count%ies .hich

ha:e no such colonial legac;9 -hen do&inant languages 6eel the;a%e being do&inated$so&ething &uch bigge% than a si&'listic

conce'tion o6 'o.e% %elations &ust be in:ol:ed9()

These othe% 6acto%s$.hich include the %ecognition o6 global

inte%de'endence$the desi%e to ha:e a :oice in .o%ld a66ai%s$

and the :alue o6 &ultilingualis& in att%acting t%ade &a%/ets$allsu''o%t the ado'tion o6 a 6unctionalist account o6 English$.he%ethe language is seen as a :aluable inst%u&ent enabling 'eo'le to

achie:e 'a%ticula% goals9 Local languages continue to 'e%6o%& ani&'o%tant set o6 6unctions chie ;$the e>'%ession o6 local identit;Fand English is seen as the '%i&a%; &eans o6 achie:ing a global

'%esence9 The a''%oach %ecogni3es the legac; o6 colonialis&$as a&atte% o6 histo%ical 6act$but the e&'hasis is no. on discontinu0

ities$a.a; 6%o& 'o.e% and to.a%ds 6unctional s'eciali3ation9((

It is a &odel .hich sees English 'la;ing a cent%al %ole in e&'o.0e%ing the sub=ugated and &a%ginali3ed$and e%oding the di:ision

bet.een the ha:es and the ha:e nots9 Those .ho a%gue 6o% this

'osition ha:e been dis&issed as dis'la;ing nai:e libe%al idealis&

and ado'ting a libe%al laisse306ai%e attitude9(2 Rathe%$it is the

linguistic i&'e%ialis& 'osition .hich is nai:e$dis%ega%ding the

(, T.o '%o&inent 'ositions a%e Philli'son )'lanation9 It is %ein6o%ced b; the lite%atu%e on lan0guage endange%&ent$.hich has &ade it :e%; clea% that the su%:i:al o6

a language de'ends la%gel; on 6acto%s othe% than 'olitical 'o.e% e9g9B%en3inge% )a&'le$!ish&an$Con%ad and Rubal0Lo'e3 )a&'le o6 .hat &ight eu'he&isticall; be called debate$see Philli'son )


30/32


co&'le> %ealities o6 a .o%ld in .hich a histo%ical conce'tion

o6 'o.e% %elations has to be seen alongside an e&e%ging set o6

e&'o.e%ing %elationshi's in .hich English has a ne. 6unctional

%ole$no longe% associated .ith the 'olitical autho%it; it once held9

I6 .o%/ing to.a%ds the abo:e goal is idealis&$then I a& ha'';

to be an idealistK ho.e:e%$it is b; no &eans laisse306ai%e$gi:en

the a&ount o6 ti&e$ene%g; and &one; .hich ha:e been de:oted

in %ecent ;ea%s to language %e:itali3ation and %elated &atte%s9 Ad0

&ittedl;$the '%og%ess .hich has been &ade is tin; co&'a%ed .ith

the disast%ous e66ects o6 globali3ation on global di:e%sit;9 But to'lace all the bla&e on English$and to igno%e the &o%e 6unda0

&ental econo&ic issues that a%e in:ol:ed$is$as t.o %ecent co&0

&entato%s ha:e 'ut it$to attac/ the .%ong ta%get$to indulge in

linguistic luddis&9(+ Solutions a%e &o%e li/el; to co&e 6%o& the

do&ain o6 econo&ic 'olic;$not language 'olic;9 As L;sand%ou

and L;sand%ou conclude7

I6 English can 6acilitate the '%ocess o6 uni:e%sal dis'ossession and loss$

so can it be tu%ned %ound and &ade to 6acilitate the cont%a%; '%ocess o6uni:e%sal e&'o.e%&ent and gain9

Could anything stop a global language?

An; discussion o6 an e&e%ging global language has to be seen in

the 'olitical conte>t o6 global go:e%nance as a .hole9 In Janua% ;

)


31/32


that can onl; tal/ in the tongues o6 &an; .as not a neighbou%hood that

.as li/el; to be cohesi:e o%$'e%ha's$e:en coo'e%ati:e 9 9 9 And the; .e%e

%ight in one %es'ectK but the; .e%e .%ong in the sense that .e ha:e a

.o%ld language9 It is not the language o6 i&'e%ialis&K it is the language

.e ha:e seen that has e:ol:ed out o6 a histo%; o6 .hich .e need not

al.a;s be '%oud$but .hose legacies .e &ust use to good e6 6ect9

And at anothe% 'lace$he co&&ents7 the%e is no %et%eat 6%o&

English as the .o%ld languageK no %et%eat 6%o& an English0

s'ea/ing .o%ld9St%ong 'olitical state&ents o6 this /ind i&&ediatel; '%o&'t

the uestion$Could an;thing sto' a language$once it achie:es a

global status The sho%t ans.e% &ust be ;es9 I6 language do&0

inance is a &atte% o6 'olitical and es'eciall; econo&ic in uence$

then a %e:olution in the balance o6 global 'o.e% could ha:e conse0

uences 6o% the choice o6 global language9(@ The%e is no sho%tage

o6 boo/s chie ; .ithin the gen%e o6 science ction .hich 6o%e0

see a 6utu%e in .hich$6ollo.ing so&e catacl;s&ic scena%io$the

uni:e%sal language is Chinese$A%abic o% e:en so&e Alien tongue9

But to end u' .ith such a scena%io$the %e:olution .ould indeedha:e to be catacl;s&ic$and it is di6 cult to s'eculate sensibl; about

.hat this &ight be9(1 S&alle%0scale %e:olutions in the .o%ld o%de%

.ould be unli/el; to ha:e &uch e66ect$gi:en that as .e shall

see in late% cha'te%s English is no. so .idel; established that it

can no longe% be thought o6 as o.ned b; an; single nation9

A %athe% &o%e 'lausible scena%io is that an alte%nati:e &ethod o6

co&&unication could e&e%ge .hich .ould eli&inate the need 6o%

a global language9 The chie6 candidate he%e is auto&atic t%ansla0

tion &achine t%anslationF9 I6 '%og%ess in this do&ain continuesto be as %a'id as it has been in the 'ast decade$the%e is a dis0

tinct 'ossibilit; that$.ithin a gene%ation o% t.o$it .ill be %outine

6o% 'eo'le to co&&unicate .ith each othe% di%ectl;$using thei%

%st languages$.ith a co&'ute% ta/ing the st%ain bet.een the&9

(@ #%addol )


32/32


This state o6 a66ai%s can al%ead; be seen$to a li&ited e>tent$on theInte%net$.he%e so&e %&s a%e no. o66e%ing a basic t%anslation

se%:ice bet.een ce%tain language 'ai%s9 A sende% t;'es in a &es0sage in language $and a :e%sion o6 it a''ea%s on the %ecei:e%s

sc%een in language Y9 The need 6o% 'ost0editing is still conside%0able$ho.e:e%$as t%anslation so6t.a%e is cu%%entl; :e% ; li&ited in

its abilit; to handle idio&atic$st;listic$and se:e%al othe% linguistic6eatu%esK the &achines a%e no.he%e nea% %e'lacing thei% hu&an

counte%'a%ts9 Si&ila%l;$not.ithstanding the %e&a%/able '%og%essin s'eech %ecognition and s;nthesis .hich has ta/en 'lace in %ecent

;ea%s$the state o6 the a%t in %eal0ti&e s'eech0to0s'eech auto&atict%anslation is still '%i&iti:e9 The Babel sh$inse%ted into the ea%$

thus &a/ing all s'o/en languages in the gala>;F intelligible$is no

&o%e than an int%iguing conce't9(5

The accu%ac; and s'eed o6 %eal0ti&e auto&atic t%anslation is

undoubtedl; going to i&'%o:e d%a&aticall; in the ne>t t.ent;0

:e to 6t; ;ea%s$but it is going to ta/e &uch longe% be6o%e this

&ediu& beco&es so globall; .ides'%ead$and so econo&icall; ac0

cessible to all$that is 'oses a th%eat to the cu%%ent a:ailabilit; anda''eal o6 a global language9 And du%ing this ti&e 6%a&e$all the e:i0

dence suggests that the 'osition o6 English as a global language

is going to beco&e st%onge%9 B; the ti&e auto&atic t%anslation

&atu%es as a 'o'ula% co&&unicati:e &ediu&$that 'osition .ill

:e%; li/el; ha:e beco&e i&'%egnable9 It .ill be :e%; inte%esting

to see .hat ha''ens then .hethe% the '%esence o6 a global lan0

guage .ill eli&inate the de&and 6o% .o%ld t%anslation se% :ices$o%

.hethe% the econo&ics o6 auto&atic t%anslation .ill so unde%cut

the cost o6 global language lea%ning that the latte% .ill beco&e

otiose9 It .ill be an inte%esting battle ),, ;ea%s 6%o& no.9

A critical era

It is i&'ossible to &a/e con dent '%edictions about the e&e%0

gence o6 a global language9 The%e a%e no '%ecedents 6o% this /ind

o6 linguistic g%o.th$othe% than on a &uch s&alle% scale9 And the

s'eed .ith .hich a global language scena%io has a%isen is t%ul;

(5 E>'lo%ed b; Douglas Ada&s ) at a ti&e .hen the .o%ld

nancial cli&ate can least a66o%d it9!unda&ental decisions about '%io%ities ha:e to be &ade9 Those

&a/ing the decisions need to bea% in &ind that .e &a; .ell be

a''%oaching a c%itical &o&ent in hu&an linguistic histo%;9 It is

'ossible that a global language .ill e&e%ge onl; once9 Ce%tainl;$

as .e ha:e seen$a6te% such a language co&es to be established it

.ould ta/e a %e:olution o6 .o%ld0shatte%ing '%o'o%tions to %e'lace

it9 And in due cou%se$the last ua%te% o6 the t.entieth centu%; .ill

be seen as a c%itical ti&e in the e&e%gence o6 this global language9

!o% the %easons '%esented in the ne>t th%ee cha'te%s$all thesigns suggest that this global language .ill be English9 But the%e

is still so&e .a; to go be6o%e a global lingua 6%anca beco&es

a uni:e%sal %ealit;9 Des'ite the %e&a%/able g%o.th in the use o6

English$at least t.o0thi%ds o6 the .o%ld 'o'ulation do not ;et

use it9 In ce%tain 'a%ts o6 the .o%ld &ost o6 the states o6 the

6o%&e% So:iet Union$6o% e>a&'leF$English has still a :e%; li&ited

'%esence9 And in so&e count%ies$inc%eased %esou%ces a%e being

de:oted to &aintaining the %ole o6 othe% languages such as the

use o6 !%ench in se:e%al count%ies o6 A6%icaF9 Not.ithstanding the

gene%al .o%ld t%end$the%e a%e &an; linguistic con6%ontations stillto be %esol:ed9

#o:e%n&ents .ho .ish to 'la; thei% 'a%t in in uencing the

.o%lds linguistic 6utu%e should the%e6o%e 'onde% ca%e6ull;$as the;

&a/e 'olitical decisions and allocate %esou%ces 6o% language 'lan0

ning9 No.$&o%e than at an; ti&e in linguistic histo% ;$the; need

to ado't long0te%& :ie.s$and to 'lan ahead .hethe% thei% in0

te%ests a%e to '%o&ote English o% to de:elo' the use o6 othe%

languages in thei% co&&unit; o%$o6 cou%se$bothF9 I6 the; &iss

this linguistic boat$the%e &a; be no othe%9

(5

english as a global lang sample

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