energy resources. geothermal energy: a free lunch? environmental problems of geothermal energy it is...
TRANSCRIPT
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Energy Resources
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Geothermal Energy: A Free Lunch?Environmental Problems
of Geothermal Energy• It is Finite • Heat Sources Can Be
Exhausted (Geysers, California)
• Sulfur Emissions• Disposal of Mineralized
Brines
Technical Problems of Geothermal Energy
• Corrosion• Mineral Deposition in
Pipes• Non-Productive gases
(Carbon dioxide, methane, etc.)
• Low Temperatures • Low Thermodynamic
Efficiency
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Thermodynamic Efficiency
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Thermodynamic Efficiency
• Eff. = (Ti - Tf)/Ti
• T = Degrees Kelvin = Degrees C + 273• Ti = initial temperature• Tf = final temperature
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Thermodynamic Efficiency
Automobile Engine• Ti = 1200 C = 1473 K • Tf = 500 C = 773 K • Eff = (1473 - 773)/1473 = 48%
Typical Steam Power Plant• Ti = 700 C = 973 K • Tf = 200 C = 473 K • Eff = (973 - 473)/973 = 51%
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Thermodynamic Efficiency
Geothermal Power Plant• Ti = 150 C = 423 K • Tf = 80 C = 353 • Eff = (423 - 353)/423 = 17%Actual achieved efficiencies• Automobile on Highway: about 5% • Geothermal Plant: 5% or So, Sometimes
less than 1%
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Nuke-u-lar Energy• U-235 fissions to lighter nuclei• Naturally 0.7% in uranium ore• Must be enriched to 3-4% for reactors• Mining is conventional metal mining• Radium (decay product) is principal
problem in mine wastes
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Radiation Hazards• Problem in the body is ionization and creation of
free radicals• Alpha particles (He nuclei) have +2 charge– Do not penetrate skin– Worst ionization problem if ingested
• Beta particles (Electrons)– Weak penetration ability– Moderate ionization problem
• Gamma Rays (High Energy photons)– Great Penetrating ability– Lowest ionization ability
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Plutonium• Produced in small amounts in civilian
reactors• Toxicity of Plutonium is a Myth– Chemically it is comparable to U, Th– Ra and Rn are worse radiation hazards– Chemical plus Radiation hazard high
• Main Problem: Long-lived waste product• Security issue: Can be Chemically Separated
from Uranium
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Nuclear Waste• Contain until radiation decays to negligible
levels (Pu = 24,000 years)• Possible Containment Schemes– Yucca Mountain– Crystalline Rock– Salt Domes– Subduction Zones?– Space?
• Breeder Reactors?– Security Concerns
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Fossil Fuels
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Coal Seams, Utah
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Coal
• Delta, continental environments– Autochthonous: Grew in Place– Allochthonous: Transported Log Mats
• Carbonized Woody Material• Often fossilized trees, leaves present
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Plant Fragments Are Often Visible in Coal
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Coal Forms From Wood
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Petroleum
A hydrocarbon molecule
What organisms make these?Answer: None
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Petroleum
• Lots of organisms make these, however
• Fatty Acids• Probable source: Marine plankton
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Hydrocarbons CnH2n+2
Name Formula Melts C Boils C
Methane CH4 -182 -164
Ethane C2H6 -183 -88
Propane C3H8 -190 -42
Butane C4H10 -138 0
Pentane C5H12 -130 36
Hexane C6H14 -95 69
Octane C8H18 -57 126
Decane C10H22 -28 174
Eicosane C20H42 37 343
Triacontane C30H62 66 450
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Hydrocarbons• Methane = Natural Gas• Propane-Butane = Bottled Gas• Iso-octane (2,2,4 Trimethylpentane) = Gasoline• Cetane (Hexadecane = C16 H34) = Diesel Fuel
• Kerosene = 12-15 Carbons• Mineral oil, petroleum jelly, paraffin wax = 20-40
Carbons• Bitumen (Asphalt) ~ 50 Carbons
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Iso-Octane (Gasoline)
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Abiogenic Petroleum?• 18Mg2SiO4 + 6Fe2SiO4 + 26H2O + CO2 →
12Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 4Fe3O4 + CH4
• Olivine + Water → Serpentine + Magnetite + Methane
• nCH4 + nFe3O4 + nH2O → C2H6 + Fe2O3 + HCO3 + H+
• Methane + Magnetite → Ethane + Hematite• Minority view in Russia• Resurgence among U.S. Right Wing
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Petroleum-Bearing Rocks, Utah
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Petroleum Traps
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Seismic Reflection Profile
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MethaneHydrate
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Gas Hydrates
• Hydrocarbons trapped in cage of water molecules
• Freeze above 0 C under moderate pressure• Solid gas hydrates occur in marine
sediments (“yellow ice”)• Potentially huge energy resource• Possible role in climate change?
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Energy Use, California, 1972
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Energy Use, California, 1979
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Energy Use, California, 1993
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Energy Use, California, 1994
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Energy Use, California, 2003
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All You Need to Know
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Economics• 2000 WINNEBAGO CHIEFTAIN
SERIES M-36LP-DSL• Average Retail Price: $51,600 • Suggested List: $140,851• Source: NADAGuides.com (23 April 2010)• Ten-Year Cost: $89,251• @$300/day = 297 days = 30 days/year
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Planning for the future has long-term benefits
Procrastination pays off Now
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An Oil Drilling Bit
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“World’s Richest Acre”
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Offshore Oil Rig
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Offshore Oil Rig
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Offshore Oil Rig
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Deep-Water Oil Rig
(Houston for Scale)
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Anchor Link for Deep Water Rig
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Ocean Star, Galveston, Texas
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Cutaway of Drill Bit
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Soft Rock Bits
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Derrick
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Pipe Grappler
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Drilling Floor
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“Christmas Tree”
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“Christmas Tree”
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Well Completion
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Rocker
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Oil Recovery
• Primary: Natural Pressure Forces Oil to Surface– Recovery Rate 5 – 15%
• Secondary: Pumping and Pressurized Fluids– Total After Secondary Recovery: 35-45%
• Tertiary: Solvents, Steam, Carbon Dioxide– Total After Tertiary Recovery: 50-60%
• No Underground Resource Recovery Gets All of the Resource
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Where Does The Oil Go?
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Oil Refinery
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Where the Oil Is
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The Geography of Oil
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Why So Much Oil?
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Hubbert Curves
• In 1956, Oil geologist M. King Hubbert noted that rates of oil production follow a bell-shaped curve.
• Cumulative production follows a slanting S- curve• Production lags discovery by about ten years.
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Hubbert’s 1956 Prediction
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Where We Stand Today
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What if We Find More Oil?
• Even a huge increase in total oil has very little effect on the peak and decline of production.
• Why? We waste most of it on inefficient uses.
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One Solution: Limit Production
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Is There a Lot More Undiscovered Oil?• 80 per cent of oil being produced today is from fields
discovered before 1973. • In the 1990's oil discoveries averaged about seven
billion barrels of oil a year, only one third of usage.• The discovery rate of multi-billion barrel fields has
been declining since the 1940's, that of giant (500-million barrel) fields since the 1960's.
• In 1938, fields with more than 10 million barrels made up 19% of all new discoveries, but by 1948 the proportion had dropped to only 3%.
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Oil Discovery Rates
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U.S. Petroleum Use• 2009 - 7,121,644,500 barrels• 2007 - 6,257,125,000 barrels• 2006 - 6,384,780,000 barrels• 2005 - 6,470,457,000 barrels• 2004 - 6,410,770,000 barrels• 2003 - 6,175,244,000 barrels• 2002 - 5,945,585,000 barrels• = 19,498,000 barrels a day• = 1 billion barrels in < two months
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Global Petroleum Usage• 2008 projection: 87 million barrels/day• = 31.8 billion barrels per year• = 1 billion barrels in 11.5 days• = 1000 barrels/second• U.S. = 25% of total
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Oil Fantasies“America is sitting on top of a super massive 200 billion barrel Oil Field that could potentially make America Energy Independent and until now has largely gone unnoticed. Thanks to new technology the Bakken Formation in North Dakota could boost America’s Oil reserves by an incredible 10 times, giving western economies the trump card against OPEC’s short squeeze on oil supply and making Iranian and Venezuelan threats of disrupted supply irrelevant” (Next Energy News, 13 February 2008)
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Realty Check• 200 billion barrels @ 20 million barrels a
day = 10,000 days = 27 years• Then what?• Reality: maybe 10% of the oil is recoverable
with known technology• The Bakken is a “tight” formation• Horizontal drilling can increase yields
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Canadian Oil Sands • 170 billion recoverable barrels• 10 x larger total amount• Current production: 1.2 million barrels/day• Projected production in 2015 = 3 million
barrels per day• 3 million barrels = 4 hours of U.S.
petroleum consumption
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Some Relevant Quotes
The internal-combustion engine used for automobiles is a fragile device compared with other prime movers -- even compared with the internal combustion engines used for diesel- electric locomotives that have been known to go over a million miles without mechanical overhauling.
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Some Relevant Quotes
... the energy-system efficiency of the motor car with petroleum motor fuel is, thus, 5 percent ... no one is proud of this accomplishment -- least of all the automotive-design engineers ... The trouble is, every time the design engineer manages to save a few BTU it is more than spent answering the clamor for softer tires, for radio, for better heaters, more lights, cigarette lighters and possibly even air conditioning.
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Some Relevant Quotes
Histories written a few centuries hence may describe the United States as a nation of such extraordinary technologic virility that we succeeded in finding ways of dissipating our natural wealth far more rapidly than any other nation. At any rate, we are having a wonderful time doing it. From the discussions in the earlier chapters of this book it is clear that the problem of energy for the United States is not one of the dim future. It is upon us now.
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Some Relevant Quotes
Our imports of petroleum are small but each year they become larger. By 1960 they are likely to be quite substantial. By 1970 they will almost certainly be huge -- if foreign oil is still available then in sufficient quantity... This tiny period of earth's life, when we are consuming its stored riches, is nearly over ... Fortunately for us there is still time for fundamental research [on alternative energy sources]. But not too much time.
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Some Relevant Quotes: Source
Eugene Ayres and Charles A Scarlott, 1952; Energy Sources -- The Wealth of the World, McGraw-Hill, 344p.
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Petroleum is a Syllogism
• There is a finite amount of it in the world• We are using it and not replacing it• Therefore we will eventually run
out of it• Any of this not clear?
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The End of Cheap Oil
• Known petroleum can last at least a couple of centuries more, but…
• It only flows through the rocks so fast.• No amount of drilling will make it flow faster,
and careless drilling can shorten the lifetime of an oil field.
• Sometime in the 21st century, global demand will outpace production capacity and…
• Oil will go to the highest bidder.