emmel 2015 copticmanuscripts libre

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies

An Introduction

Edited by

Alessandro Bausi (General Editor)

Pier Giorgio Borbone

Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet

Paola Buzi

Jost Gippert

Caroline Mac

Marilena Maniaci

Zisis Melissakis

Laura E. Parodi

Witold Witakowski

Project editor

Eugenia Sokolinski

COMSt

2015

Emmel 2015 =Emmel, Stephen. Coptic Manuscripts. In: Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction, edited by Alessandro Bausi et al., 4446 (with bibliography on pp. 583654 passim). Hamburg: Tredition, 2015. [Complete volume available for download at: http://www1.uni-hamburg.de/COMST/handbookonline.html.]NOTE: .pdf version: 31.i.2015.

Copyright COMSt (Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies) 2015

COMSt Steering Committee 20092014:

Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (Sweden)

Alessandro Bausi (Germany)

Malachi Beit-Ari (Israel)

Pier Giorgio Borbone (Italy)

Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (France)

Charles Genequand (Switzerland)

Review body: European Science Foundation, Standing Committee for the Humanities

Typesetting, layout, copy editing, and indexing: Eugenia Sokolinski

Contributors to the volume:

Felix Albrecht (FA)

Per Ambrosiani (PAm)

Tara Andrews (TA)

Patrick Andrist (PAn)

Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (EBW)

Alessandro Bausi (ABa)

Malachi Beit-Ari (MBA)

Daniele Bianconi (DB)

Andr Binggeli (ABi)

Pier Giorgio Borbone (PGB)

Claire Bosc-Tiess (CBT)

Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (FBC)

Paola Buzi (PB)

Valentina Calzolari (VC)

Alberto Cantera (AC)

Laurent Capron (LCa)

Ralph M. Cleminson (RMC)

Marie Cornu (MCo)

Marie Cronier (MCr)

Lorenzo Cuppi (LCu)

Javier del Barco (JdB)

Johannes den Heijer (JdH)

Franois Droche (FD)

Alain Desreumaux (AD)

This book is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No-

Derivatives 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) (www.creativecommons.

org).

Printed by: Tredition, Hamburg

ISBN 978-3-7323-1768-4 (Hardcover)

ISBN 978-3-7323-1770-7 (Paperback)

ISBN 978-3-7323-1769-1 (Ebook)

Antonia Giannouli (Cyprus)

Ingvild Gilhus (Norway)

Caroline Mac (Belgium)

Zisis Melissakis (Greece)

Stig Rasmussen (Denmark)

Jan Just Witkam (The Netherlands)

Renate Nller (RN)

Denis Nosnitsin (DN)

Maria-Teresa Ortega Monasterio (MTO)

Bernard Outtier (BO)

Laura E. Parodi (LEP)

Tamara Pataridze (TP)

Irmeli Perho (IP)

Delio Vania Proverbio (DVP)

Ira Rabin (IR)

Arietta Revithi (AR)

Valentina Sagaria Rossi (VSR)

Nikolas Sarris (NS)

Karin Scheper (KS)

Andrea Schmidt (AS)

Denis Searby (DSe)

Lara Sels (LS)

David Sklare (DSk)

Wido van Peursen (WvP)

Annie Vernay-Nouri (AVN)

Franois Vinourd (FV)

Sever J. Voicu (SV)

Witold Witakowski (WW)

Jan Just Witkam (JJW)

Ugo Zanetti (UZ)

Arianna DOttone (ADO)

Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (DDM)

Stephen Emmel (SE)

Edna Engel (EE)

Antonia Giannouli (AGi)

Jost Gippert (JG)

Alessandro Gori (AGo)

Oliver Hahn (OH)

Paul Hepworth (PH)

Stphane Ipert (SI)

Grigory Kessel (GK)

Dickran Kouymjian (DK)

Paolo La Spisa (PLS)

Isabelle de Lamberterie (IL)

Hugo Lundhaug (HL)

Caroline Mac (CM)

Marilena Maniaci (MMa)

Michael Marx (MMx)

Alessandro Mengozzi (AM)

Manfred Mayer (MMy)

Joseph Moukarzel (JM)

Sbastien Moureau (SM)

Mauro Nobili (MN)

Table of Contents

Contributors ...................................................................................................................................................xi

Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ xiii

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................xv

Notes to the reader .......................................................................................................................................xvi

Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................................................xvi

Tables, figures, and maps ............................................................................................................................xviiMaps ..................................................................................................................................................xviiTables .................................................................................................................................................xviiFigures ...............................................................................................................................................xvii

General introduction, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Jost Gippert ..............................................................11. Scope of COMSt (ABa) ............................................................................................................................1

1.1. The background of COMSt ..............................................................................................................11.2. The notion of oriental in the COMSt perspective ...........................................................................21.3. Oriental studies and the role of orientalism....................................................................................41.4. The comparative approach ...............................................................................................................91.5. Structure of the book .......................................................................................................................9

2. Digital and scientific approaches to oriental manuscript studies ............................................................122.1. Digital approaches to oriental manuscript studies (JG) ...................................................................122.2. Instrumental analysis in manuscript studies (IR) .............................................................................272.3. Methods in palimpsest research (FA) ..............................................................................................31

3. The manuscript traditions ......................................................................................................................343.1. Manuscripts in Arabic script (VSR) .................................................................................................343.2. Armenian manuscripts (DK) ............................................................................................................383.3. Avestan manuscripts (AC) ...............................................................................................................403.4. Caucasian Albanian manuscripts (JG) .............................................................................................433.5. Christo-Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD) ...............................................................................433.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE) .................................................................................................................443.7. Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa) .............................................................................................................463.8. Georgian manuscripts (JG) .............................................................................................................493.9. Greek manuscripts (MMa) ...............................................................................................................513.10. Hebrew manuscripts (MBA) ...........................................................................................................543.11. Slavonic manuscripts (RMC) ..........................................................................................................553.12. Syriac manuscripts (PGBFBC) .......................................................................................................57

4. Ethical and legal aspects of manuscript research ...................................................................................604.1. Ethics in research and conservation of oriental manuscripts (SI) .....................................................604.2. Legal framework for manuscript protection (MCo) ..........................................................................614.3. Some recommendations on good practice (IL) ................................................................................66

Chapter 1. Codicology, edited by Marilena Maniaci ....................................................................................691. Introduction (MMa) ................................................................................................................................69

1.1. Materials and tools (MMaSEIROHRN) .........................................................................................711.2. Book forms (MMa) ..........................................................................................................................771.3. The making of the codex (MMa) ......................................................................................................781.4. The layout of the page (MMa) ..........................................................................................................821.5. Text structure and readability (MMa) ...............................................................................................841.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (MMa) ...............................................................851.7. Bookbinding (NSKS) ......................................................................................................................86

2. Arabic codicology (FDVSRAVN) ...........................................................................................................892.1. Materials and tools (FDVSR) ..........................................................................................................892.2. Book forms (FDLEP) ......................................................................................................................952.3. The making of the codex (FDVSR) .................................................................................................972.4. The layout of the page (VSR) .........................................................................................................1012.5. Text structure and readability (VSRAVN) .......................................................................................1042.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (VSR) ..............................................................108

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

COMSt 2015 ISBN (Hardcover) 978-3-7323-1768-4

vi

2.7. Bookbinding (FD) ......................................................................................................................... 1133. Armenian codicology (DK) ................................................................................................................... 116

3.1. Materials and tools ...................................................................................................................... 1163.2. Book forms ..................................................................................................................................1203.3. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................1213.4. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................1233.5. Text structure and readability .......................................................................................................1243.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work ......................................................................1273.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................128

4. Christian Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD) ..................................................................................1324.1. Materials and tools ......................................................................................................................1324.2. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................1344.3. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................1354.4. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................136

5. Coptic codicology (PBSE) ...................................................................................................................1375.1. Materials and tools (PB) ...............................................................................................................1375.2. Book forms (SE) ...........................................................................................................................1405.3. The making of the codex (SEPB) .................................................................................................1415.4. The layout of the page (PB) ..........................................................................................................1475.5. Text structure and readability (PB) ................................................................................................1475.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (SEPB) ..........................................................1505.7. Bookbinding (SE) .........................................................................................................................151

6. Ethiopic codicology (EBWABaDNCBT) ...............................................................................................1546.1. Materials and tools ......................................................................................................................1546.2. Book forms ..................................................................................................................................1586.3. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................1596.4. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................1636.5. Text structure and readability .......................................................................................................1656.6. The scribe and the painter at work ...............................................................................................1686.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................171

7. Georgian codicology (JG) ....................................................................................................................1757.1. Materials and tools ......................................................................................................................1757.2. Book forms ..................................................................................................................................1787.3. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................1797.4. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................1817.5. Text structure and readability .......................................................................................................1817.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work ......................................................................1847.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................185

8. Greek codicology (MMa) ......................................................................................................................1878.1. Materials and tools ......................................................................................................................1878.2. Book forms ..................................................................................................................................1938.3. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................1968.4. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................2018.5. Text structure and readability .......................................................................................................2028.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work ......................................................................2058.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................206

9. Hebrew codicology (MBA) ...................................................................................................................2089.1. Materials and tools ......................................................................................................................2089.2. Book forms ..................................................................................................................................2139.3. The making of the codex ..............................................................................................................2149.4. The layout of the page .................................................................................................................2279.5. Text structure and readability .......................................................................................................2289.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work ......................................................................232

10. Slavonic codicology (RMC) ................................................................................................................23510.1. Materials and tools..................................................................................................................... 23510.2. Book forms ................................................................................................................................23910.3. The making of the codex ............................................................................................................241



vii

10.4. The layout of the page ...............................................................................................................24210.5. Text structure and readability .....................................................................................................24310.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work .....................................................................24710.7. Bookbinding ..............................................................................................................................250

11. Syriac codicology (PGBFBCEBW) ......................................................................................................25211.1. Materials and tools (PGBFBC) .....................................................................................................25211.2. Book forms (PGBFBC) ................................................................................................................25511.3. The making of the codex (PGBFBC) ............................................................................................25511.4. The layout of the page (PGBFBC) ................................................................................................25811.5. Text structure and readability (PGBFBCEBW) ..............................................................................25811.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (PGBFBC) .....................................................26211.7. Bookbinding (EBW)..................................................................................................................... 265

Chapter 2. Palaeography, edited by Paola Buzi and Marilena Maniaci .....................................................2671. Introduction (DB) .................................................................................................................................2672. Arabic palaeography (ADO) ..................................................................................................................2713. Armenian palaeography (DK) ...............................................................................................................2774. Coptic palaeography (PB) ....................................................................................................................2835. Ethiopic palaeography (ABaDN) ..........................................................................................................2876. Georgian palaeography (TP) .................................................................................................................2927. Greek palaeography (DB) .....................................................................................................................2978. (Mediaeval) Hebrew palaeography (EE) ...............................................................................................3069. Slavonic palaeography (RMC) ..............................................................................................................31010. Syriac palaeography (AS) ...................................................................................................................316

Chapter 3. Textual criticism and text editing, edited by Caroline Mac et alii .........................................3211. Introduction (AMCMABaJGLS) ...........................................................................................................321

1.1. Textual criticism and oriental languages ......................................................................................3211.2. Structure and scope of the chapter ...............................................................................................3231.3. Bibliographical orientation ..........................................................................................................324

2. Steps towards an edition (CMMCrTAJdHPLSAGiSMLS)......................................................................3282.1. Heuristics of manuscripts and witnesses (MCr) .............................................................................3282.2. Collation (CMTA) .........................................................................................................................3312.3. Witness classification and history of the text (CM)........................................................................3362.4. Establishing and presenting a scholarly text edition (CMAGiPLSTASMLS) ..................................3412.5. Apparatuses (CMSMAGi) ..............................................................................................................3472.6. Philological introduction, translation, commentary, indexes and appendices (JdHCM) ..................357

3. Case studies ........................................................................................................................................3633.1. The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa. Digital critical edition of an Armenian

historiographical text (TA) ..............................................................................................................3643.2. The Aksumite Collection. Ethiopic multiple text manuscripts (ABa) ..............................................3673.3. Private production of mediaeval Hebrew manuscripts (MBA) ........................................................3713.4. Christian Apocrypha in Armenian (VC) .........................................................................................3733.5. The Zoroastrian long liturgy. The transmission of the Avesta (AC) ................................................3773.6. Greek literary papyri (LCa) ...........................................................................................................3823.7. A Byzantine recension of Dioscorides. Historical analysis of manuscripts and text editing (MCr) .....3843.8. The Septuagint, its Vorlage and its translations (LCu) ...................................................................3883.9. The Turfan fragments (DDM)......................................................................................................... 3923.10. Arabic epics (ZG) ........................................................................................................................3973.11. Palimpsests of Caucasian provenance. Reflections on diplomatic editing (JG) ............................4033.12. Syriac monastic miscellanies (GK) .............................................................................................. 4113.13. Middle Arabic texts. How to account for linguistic features (PLS) ...............................................4153.14. The Nag Hammadi Codices. Textual fluidity in Coptic (HL) .......................................................4193.15. Gregory of Nazianzus Homilies. An over-abundant manuscript tradition in Greek and in

translation (CM) ..............................................................................................................................424MMx) .............................430

3.17. Past and present trends in the edition of Classical Syriac texts (AM) ...........................................435



viii

3.18. Pseudo-Avicennas De anima. The Latin translation of a lost Arabic original (SM) .....................4403.19. Greek collections of wise and witty sayings (DSe) ......................................................................4433.20. The Vidin Miscellany: translated hagiography in Slavonic (LS) ...................................................4483.21. Sacred texts in Hebrew and related languages. Dealing with linguistic features (WvP) ................4533.22. The History JJW) ............................4593.23. Christian liturgical manuscripts (UZSV) .....................................................................................462

Chapter 4. Cataloguing, edited by Paola Buzi and Witold Witakowski .......................................................4671. What a catalogue is and the emergence of scientific cataloguing (PB) ..................................................4672. A summary history of cataloguing .......................................................................................................471

2.1. Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts (IP) ..........................................................................................4712.1.1. Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts from Africa (MNAGo) ...........................................................4732.2. Catalogues of Armenian manuscripts (AS) ....................................................................................4762.3. Catalogues of Coptic manuscripts (PB) .........................................................................................4812.4. Catalogues of Ethiopic manuscripts (WW) ....................................................................................4842.5. Catalogues of Georgian manuscripts (JGBO) ................................................................................4872.6. Catalogues of Greek manuscripts (ABi) .........................................................................................4892.7. Catalogues of manuscripts in Hebrew characters (DSk) .................................................................4922.7.1 Types of catalogues of Hebrew manuscripts (JdBMTO) ...............................................................4962.8. Catalogues of Persian manuscripts (IP) .........................................................................................4992.9. Catalogues of Slavonic manuscripts (PAm) ....................................................................................5002.10. Catalogues of Syriac manuscripts (ABi) ......................................................................................5022.11. Catalogues of Turkish manuscripts (DVP) ...................................................................................504

3. Types and kinds of catalogues .............................................................................................................5063.1. Types of catalogues: checklists, summary catalogues, analytical catalogues,

special catalogues (PB) .................................................................................................................5063.2. Catalogues of decorated manuscripts (EBW) .................................................................................507

4. Syntactical description of manuscripts (PAn) ........................................................................................ 5114.1. Most manuscript books are complex objects ................................................................................ 5114.2. The importance of the awareness of the strata of the manuscripts ................................................5134.3. Recognizing the major historical strata: the physical language of the codex .................................5134.4. Rendering the complexity of the described codex: syntactical types of descriptions .....................5154.5. Illustrated Inventory of Medieval Manuscripts .............................................................................5194.6. Misconceptions about syntactical descriptions .............................................................................5194.7. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................520

5. The physical description (PAn) .............................................................................................................5215.1. Page / folium numbers .................................................................................................................5225.2. Number of folia ...........................................................................................................................5225.3. Writing support ............................................................................................................................5235.4. Quire structure .............................................................................................................................5235.5. Ordering systems .........................................................................................................................5245.6. Ruling (and pricking) ...................................................................................................................5255.7. Layout (besides ruling) ................................................................................................................5265.8. Sample page (for the ruling pattern and the layout) ......................................................................5265.9. Script. ..........................................................................................................................................5275.10. Decoration ................................................................................................................................. 5285.11. Bindings ....................................................................................................................................5285.12. State of preservation ..................................................................................................................5295.13. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................529

6. Catalogues and cataloguing of oriental manuscripts in the digital age (JG) ..........................................5316.1. Database schemes and structures .................................................................................................5316.2. Electronic catalogues and their potentials ....................................................................................5326.3. Challenges and problems of electronic catalogues .......................................................................534

Chapter 5. Conservation and preservation, edited by Laura E. Parodi ....................................................539KS) ............................................................................................................ 539

1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5391.2. Definitions ...................................................................................................................................540



ix

2. Core principles of conservation (KS) ....................................................................................................5412.1. Reversibility ................................................................................................................................5412.2. Integrity of the object ..................................................................................................................5412.3. Retraceability ..............................................................................................................................5412.4. Compatibility ...............................................................................................................................5422.5. A holistic approach ......................................................................................................................5422.6. Book archaeology ........................................................................................................................542

3. Defining the need for conservation (PH) ..............................................................................................5444. Types of decay in manuscripts (PH) .....................................................................................................545

4.1. Manuscript damage caused by natural ageing ..............................................................................5454.2. Manuscript damage caused by human agency ..............................................................................5454.3. Manuscript damage caused by biological factors .........................................................................5464.4. Manuscript damage caused by chemical factors ...........................................................................5474.5. Manuscript damage caused by environmental factors ...................................................................5474.6. Manuscript damage caused by disaster .........................................................................................5504.7. Damage control ...........................................................................................................................550

5. Preservation: a comparative overview (ARFV) .....................................................................................5515.1. Preservation from environmental factors ......................................................................................5515.2. Preservation from superficial dirt and pollution ...........................................................................5545.3. Prevention of damage from biological factors ..............................................................................5555.4. Monitoring conditions.................................................................................................................. 5555.5. Storage ........................................................................................................................................5555.6. Exhibitions ..................................................................................................................................5575.7. Documentation ............................................................................................................................5585.8. Transport ..................................................................................................................................... 5605.9. Security .......................................................................................................................................5605.10. Disaster planning .......................................................................................................................5615.11. Training and human resources ....................................................................................................562

6. Conservation: main contemporary techniques and practices (NS) .........................................................5646.1. Basic principles ...........................................................................................................................5646.2. Conservation of text blocks .........................................................................................................5656.3. Sewing .........................................................................................................................................5686.4. Binding ........................................................................................................................................568

7. Digitization for access and preservation (MMyJMEBW) .......................................................................5707.1. Introduction (MMy) .......................................................................................................................5707.2. Digitization for preservation (MMy) ..............................................................................................5707.3. Preparing for digitization (MMy) ...................................................................................................5707.4. Digitization: handling and equipment (MMy) ................................................................................5737.5. Data format, storage and conservation challenges (JM) .................................................................5747.6. Recording manuscripts in the field (EBW) .....................................................................................576

8. Conclusions (LEP) ................................................................................................................................581

References ..................................................................................................................................................583

Indexes ........................................................................................................................................................655Languages and traditions ....................................................................................................................655Place names ........................................................................................................................................656Persons and works .............................................................................................................................. 659Institutions and projects ......................................................................................................................664Collections and manuscripts ...............................................................................................................665Papyri .................................................................................................................................................672General index .....................................................................................................................................672



General introduction44

consider here Bruce Metzger (1977), and the on-going project Marc multilingue () directed by Christian Amphoux and Jean-Claude Haelewyck (the Christo-Palestinian versions do not yet appear, pending the integration of the manuscripts from the Sinai New Finds).

The Christo-Palestinian script, written from right to left, was based on the Syriac script, in the style of biblical Greek uncial.

Judging by the known inscriptions, the distribution area of the Christo-Palestinian Aramaic docu-ments is limited: Egypt, Sinai, Israel, Palestine, Jordan. The archaeological work of the Samra team (Humbert Desreumaux 1998) and the remarkable historical analysis by Sydney Griffith (1997) brought the communities of Christo-Palestinian Aramaic speakers onto the scene of Late Antiquity in the Byzan-tine provinces of Palestine and Arabia (today Jordan). The centres of manuscript production were only a few: Jerusalem, Castellion (Hyrcania) in Khirbet Mird (Judaean desert), Abud (Samaria), St Catherines Monastery on Mount Sinai and probably Antioch (see the map for Syriac below). A palimpsest inscription (under a Coptic painting) was found in the monastery inside the temple at Edfu in Upper Egypt. Manu-scripts and inscriptions show that the language was used in common life as a lingua franca, in monuments as a public language (churches, monasteries, cemeteries), for liturgical readings as a translation language and as a language of theological works, always within the Chalcedonian communities of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem and Antioch.

References

Adler 1780; Albert et al. 1993; Bar-Asher 1977; Delavault et al. 2010; Desreumaux 1979; Desreumaux

1977; Mller-Kessler Sokoloff 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1999; Schulthess 1924; Vaganay 1934. Web sour-ces: , last access May 2014.

3.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE)

The language called Coptic is the latest stage in the long history of the native Egyptian language, which was originally written using the Egyptian hieroglyphs, a large set of signspartly alphabetic, partly syl-labic, partly logographicthat was used also in cursive forms in the Egyptian Hieratic and Demotic writ-ing systems. The writing system of the Coptic period was distinct from the earlier Egyptian systems in that it made use of the Greek alphabet, supplemented from out of the latest indigenous system (Demotic) by a selection of characters representing sounds that were foreign to Greek, there being usually six or seven supplemental characters, depending on dialect (see also Ch. 2 4).

What survives of Coptic literature is almost entirely religious in character and predominantly Christian by a wide margin. Along with the Greek alphabet, the Copts also took over the Greek scribal practices as well as the book forms that were typical of Christian Late Antique papyrus codex. Almost without exception, Egypt is the provenance of Coptic manuscripts. Unfortunately, the ex-tant remains of their fragmentariness and dilapidation (Crum 1905b, xxixxii; see further Emmel 2007). The number of

are codices of both papyrus and parchment that very likely date from the fourth to sixth centuries, some

that there are at least 4,000 manuscripts and manuscript fragments dating from between the fourth and the

The Coptic alphabet developed out of a history of attempts to write the Egyptian language using the Greek alphabet, beginning soon after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt toward the end of the fourth century BCE. Thereafter, Egypt became a bilingual country, with Greek becoming the dominant language in politics and educated culture. The hieroglyph-based writing systems fell into disuse during the Roman period (which began with Augustuss conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE), and it is fair to say that after about 50 CE there was for most Egyptians only one means of recording things in writing: Greek For two cen-turies or so, until the middle of the third century, Egypt witnessed the striking phenomenon of a majority population with no way of recording anything in its own language in writing (Bagnall 1996, 235236).

The beginning of the history of Coptic literature is marked by the widespread use of a fully devel-oped and more or less standardized writing system employing the supplemented Greek alphabet for the



3. The manuscript traditions 45

purpose of writing Egyptian. The term Coptic used for designating the language of this literature is a word that derives from ancient Greek aigyptios Egyptian, which passed through Coptic itself (as gyptios, or kuptios) into Egyptian Arabic and from there into the European languages (copto, copte, koptisch etc.). The oldest surviving examples of Coptic writing show clearly that the creators (or standardizers) of the Coptic writing system were thoroughly familiar with the conventions of Greek literary scribal practice, but also appropriately sensitive to features of Coptic that distinguished it sharply from Greek, especially in phonology and syllable structures. By means that are not entirely clear, the Coptic languageespe-cially the literary languagecame to borrow a very large number of words from Greek, for the most part adapting the loanwords to Coptic syntax (and sometimes adapting them also orthographically and even morphologically). Thus someone who can read Greek (in the uncial scripts typical of Late Antique literary manuscripts) will be able to sound out a good deal of any Coptic text and will even come across many easily recognizable (Greek) words, without being able to understand even the most basic clauses, for lack of knowledge of Coptic vocabulary and grammar.

Learning to read widely in Coptic literature entails learning multiple dialects, which are distinct from one another not so much in terms of the writing system as such, which remained fairly constant from one dialect region to another, and also through the centuries from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages, but rather in phonology (especially different vocalizations of identical or closely related words), somewhat less often in morphology, sometimes also in syntax. The greatest number of dialects is attested in manu-scripts of the earliest period of Coptics history, from the fourth (or late third) century up until the time of the Arab Conquest of Egypt in the middle of the seventh century. But even in this early period, one relatively neutral dialect, called Sahidic, emerged as a kind of standard Coptic and eventually came to replace the other dialects in the written record of Middle and Upper (southern) Egypt. In Lower (northern) Egypt, two other dialectsFayyumic and Bohairicbecame the standard literary dialects, but by this time the Egyptian populace was (for reasons not entirely clear) beginning to give up speaking Coptic in favour of Arabic.

After the fourteenth century, by which time Arabic had replaced Coptic as the medium of spoken communication for nearly all purposesexcept in parts of the liturgy of the Coptic ChurchCoptic manuscripts were almost always written in the Bohairic dialect, most often with an accompanying Arabic translation. In the present context, Coptic manuscripts are manuscripts that contain, if not exclusively, then at least in large measure, text written in the Coptic language (even if accompanied by texts in Greek or Arabic or any other language). Beginning not long after the turn of the first millennium, Copts had already begun translating selected parts of their ancestral literature into Arabic and composing new theological, pastoral and liturgical texts also in that language. But for the most part, the large number of Copto-Arabic (or Egyptian Christian Arabic) manuscripts of the twelfth and later centuries are not treated here, while Coptic-Arabic bilingual manuscripts have been considered as a part of the Coptic manuscript tradition proper.

On the whole, the Coptic-Arabic bilinguals served liturgical or devotional purposes, and so such books continued to be produced even after Coptic had lost almost all chance of ever again being a lan-guage of ordinary daily life anywhere. Although printing Coptic with movable type became possible in Europe (specifically in Rome) in 1629, by which time type fonts for Arabic also existed, the Coptic Church in Egypt did not begin printing its bilingual liturgical and devotional books until late in the nine-teenth century, at which time the Coptic manuscript tradition proper came to an end.

Surviving Coptic manuscripts from the Middle Ages with a known provenance were mostly preserved in a small number of ancient monasteries, especially those in the the Monastery of St Antony on the Red Sea and the Monastery of St Shenoute in Upper Egypt. Not infre-quently, the older manuscripts in these repositories survived only as the remains of dismembered books that had long since been discarded and treated as waste paper (or waste parchment). Significant numbers of such manuscripts and fragments were acquired, one way or another, by western missionaries and travel-ling antiquaries and scholars, beginning in the sixteenth century. Most of the major European national mu-seums and libraries, as well as a number of universities, own at least some Coptic manuscripts. Very large collections outside of Egypt are in Naples (Biblioteca Nazionale), Rome/Vatican (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana), Vienna (sterreichische Nationalbibliothek), Paris (Bibliothque nationale de France), London (British Library) and New York City (Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum); in Egypt, the most salient



General introduction46

documentary. Such finds are almost always fragmentary, a description that unfortunately applies in one way or another to the remains of Coptic literature in general. For this reason, much of the study of Coptic manuscriptswhether from the point of view of codicology and palaeography, philology and textual criti-cism, digitization, cataloguing or preservationis geared specifically to dealing with fragments, whether they are torn scraps of codex leaves, or leaves deriving from dismemberedand perhaps not otherwise extantcodices, or fragments of some authors otherwise lost work, or a work from an otherwise lost corpus, and so on.

In order for the study of Coptic manuscripts to advance, there is a great need for scholars to organize and to systematize the large quantity of data that has been published during more than two hundred years of scholarship, and to increase the database in a systematic and methodologically informed manner. There is still much basic research to be carried out (in some cases by revising and augmenting work done by previ-ous generations of scholars), both in the form of cataloguing and describing manuscriptswhether in the so often fragmentary condition in which they are now to be found in the many different collections, or as partly notional codices reconstructed from fragments that might now be scattered among any number of those collectionsand in the form of publishing the texts. There are Coptic manuscripts that have been in Europe for up to four hundred years and more that have not yet been (properly) published. Editorial practice in connexion with Coptic texts has more or less gone along with the practices of Greek papyrology, which

Coptic studies in general. In any case, there is urgent need for clarifying what textually relevant information needs to be drawn from the Coptic manuscripts and how that information should be recorded and presented. The application of digital technol-ogy to Coptic texts is partly keeping pace with work in other languages, and there are encouraging signs both of an awareness of the need to coordinate the efforts of widely dispersed Coptologists, and of a will-ingness to try to do so. Given the amount of basic research and publication that has yet to be accomplished, it should occasion little surprise that methodologically sophisticated textual criticism of Coptic sources, carried out in a systematic and well founded manner, has scarcely begun.

References

Bagnall 1996; Crum 1905b; Emmel 2007; see also Ch. 1 5, Ch. 2 4.

3.7. Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa)

Writing was adopted by the Semites settled in Ethiopiameaning the area between the northern highlands of the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea, corresponding to the present-day states of Eritrea and Ethiopia, the

Map 4 Area of Coptic

manuscript production

collections are in Cairo (Coptic Mu-seum, Coptic Patriarchate, Institut Franais dArchologie orientale).

Early mediaeval and also Late Antique Coptic manuscripts, includ-ing the earliest surviving papyrus and parchment codices, have been discovered by means of excavation, very often by treasure-hunters rather than by trained archaeologists, for which reason they are often without provenance. Among the large quan-tities of papyri (sometimes includ-ing parchment)mostly in Greekthat have been excavated from Late Antique and early mediaeval urban sites in Egypt since the beginning of scientific papyrology toward the end of the nineteenth century, there is a relatively small but nonetheless significant amount of Coptic mate-rial, some of it literary rather than



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