emily colborn-roxworthy - 'manzanar, the eyes of the world are upon you' performance and archival...

8/12/2019 Emily Colborn-Roxworthy - 'Manzanar, The Eyes of the World Are Upon You' Performance and Archival Ambivalen

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Copyright 2007 by The Johns Hopkins University Press. All rights reserved.

Theatre Journal59.2 (2007) 189-214

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Access provided by University of Caifornia! "an #ie$o %C&an$e'

%Access artice in #'"Mn!nr the eyes o# the $orldre %pon yo%"&'Per#or(n)e nd Ar)hivl A(bivlen)e t Jpnese A(eri)n *ntern(ent C(p+(ily Colborn,-o$orthyAbstr)t

*n t&is essay! +,iy Coborn-o/ort&y epores t&e sef-conscios constrction of apanese A,ericanidentities and intern,ent perfor,ance in t&e internee-rn Manzanar Free Press! /&ic& epito,ied t&eca,p ne/spapers independenty pbis&ed in eac& of t&e ten U" reocation centers drin$ 3ord 3ar **.*n t&e face of poitica spectacariation and racist ,edia sander! Coborn-o/ort&y ar$es t&atinternee-ornaists created a spectace-arc&ive t&at recorded t&e a,bivaent scrtiny i,posed pont&e, fro, a sides. At t&e sa,e ti,e! s&e s&o/s &o/ internees sta$ed interctra perfor,ance festivasin defiance of t&e $overn,ent6s ,ono-A,ericanist assi,iation poicy! /&ic& pitted second-$enerationNiseia$ainst t&eir apanesey parents and cri,inaied dispays of apanese ctre. avin$ opted otof t&e spectace-arc&ive by receivin$ fe/ ,entions in t&e Free Press pbicity ,ac&ine! t&e festivas6perfor,ed resistance ived on ,ainy t&ro$& e,bodied ,e,ory! /&ic& &as ,eant t&at pro$ressivenarratives of A,erican tri,p& over adversityepito,ied by t&e ationa ar: "ervice6s ceebration ofinternees6 festivity at ;ananar ationa istoric "ite&ave appropriated ony t&e Asian A,erican ,ode,inority interpretation of ca,p perfor,ances as re&earsas for assi,iation and endorse,ents of t&e

$overn,ent6s poicy.

Appase! distant bt on$oin$! is t&e first sond t&at $reets visitors to t&e*nterpretive Center at ;ananar ationa ar: in *nyo Conty! Caifornia. *nationa ar: "ervice (") in$o! t&e operation of sc& interpretive centersfaciitates t&e process of &epin$ eac& par: visitor find an opportnity topersonay connect /it& a pace.2


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$overn,ent interned apanese A,ericans be&ind barbed /ire ,anned byei$&t ,ac&ine-$n-e=ipped $ard to/ers drin$ 3ord 3ar **! t&e "&as been /eco,in$ torists to t&is &istoric site since 2004 t&ro$& t&eadaptivey restored aditori, constrcted by internees to serve as t&eirt&eatre and so,eti,es $y,nasi, in 1944>1945?(fi$. 1). @oday! oncevisitors e,er$e fro, t&e air-conditioned ;ananar $ift s&op t&at serves as/eco,e respite fro, Caifornia6s arid /ens Baey /+nd Pge &1

Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re &A postcard for ;ananar ationa istoric "ite s&o/s t&e t/o $ard&oses att&e ca,p6s entrance (top eft) and t&e internee aditori, prior to its t/enty-first-centry adaptive restoration by t&e ationa ar: "ervice (botto, ri$&t).&otos by i, "trop.

(250 ,ies nort&east of os An$ees)! a recorded oop of biant appaseaccosts t&eir ears /&ie n,eros directiona si$ns for different interpretivecenter t&eatersas /e as a pro,inent e&ibition of t&e restoredprosceni, sta$e for,ery sed for internee perfor,ancescro/d t&evisa fied ot&er/ise reserved for dispays of &istorica facts and fi$res.t&er t&an t&e t/o $ard&oses past /&ic& torists ,ay drive in order toreenact t&e /arti,e eperience of enterin$ t&e intern,ent ca,p! t&einternee-constrcted aditori, is t&e ony ori$ina bidin$ t&at srvives at;ananar.4or t&e ,ost part! ony sa$ebrs& interrpts t&e dst-bo/andscape of /&at beca,e a ationa istoric "ite in 1992. *n a rea sense!t&en! a t&eatre is t&e ony t&in$ t&at re,ains of t&e internees6 &abitation at;ananar! and! indeed! t&is strctre &eped ;ananar ed$e ot t&e ot&ernine for,er intern,ent ca,psites as t&e ,ost viabe $ronds pon /&ic& topreserve and interpret t&e intern,ent eperience in /+nd Pge &10t&efor, of a nationa par:.5@&e "6s strate$y of interpretin$ ;ananart&ro$& its connections to t&eatre and perfor,ance invites t&e =estionD3&at does sc& a festive ens te s abot t&e intern,ent6s pace in U"&istoryE @&is essay &istoricies t&e internee perfor,ances sta$ed at t&e;ananar aditori, and ot&er ca,p venes drin$ t&e /ar in order to

de,onstrate t&e ideoo$ica c&oices ,ade in ter,s of /&ic& $enres ofperfor,in$ arts ,a:e it onto t&e &istorica record and into /&at * /i ca t&espectace-arc&ive re$r$itated at ,e,oria sites i:e t&e ;ananar*nterpretive Center rn by t&e ".

@&e recorded oop of appase e,er$es fro, t&e rear of t&e restored;ananar aditori,! /&ere a dispay co,,e,oratin$ t&e 1988 passa$e oft&e Civi iberties Act s&o/cases a s,a teevision t&at endessy repays


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arc&iva foota$e of resident onad ea$an si$nin$ t&e bi t&at providedredress and F20!000 in reparations to eac& srvivin$ for,er internee. @&eGreat Co,,nicator ea$an6s soft-spo:en speec& is not adibe nessvisitors stand /it&in a fe/ feet of t&e e&ibit! bt every t/o and a &af,intes or so t&e biant appase of for,er internees! apanese A,ericanpoiticians! and ot&er adience ,e,bers present at t&e &istoric si$nin$per,eates ,ost of t&e ;ananar ,se,! astin$ for neary a ,inte eac&ti,e. "c& a tri,p&a sondtrac: s&od not srprise anyone fa,iiar /it&/&at obert ayas&i cas t&e "6s ,ission of retein$ a pro$ressive&istory. ;any &ave been i,pressed by t&e U" $overn,ent6s /iin$ness to,e,oriaie a s&a,ef! nconstittiona poicy t&at fies in t&e face of at&at A,erica cai,s to stand for! bt! as ayas&i &as noted! after redress/as ac&ieved in 1988! t&e ;ananar site &ad ost ,c& of its potentiaycontroversia ,eanin$.


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Cic: for ar$ervie/

As pay/ri$&t-actor Cynt&ia Gates i:a/a! /&ose ate fat&er /asinterned at ;ananar! pt it /&en s&e spo:e at t&e ;ay 2005 ;ananara,iy #ay &osted by os An$ees>based Asian A,erican t&eatreco,pany +ast 3est ayers! a prononced ee,ent of t&e ;ananar*nterpretive Center s$$ests t&at t&e =estion is sti open re$ardin$ t&eseriosness of t&e instice t&at too: pace t&ere drin$ t&e /ar. 7;ananarationa ar: "perintendent ran: ays &as epressed si,iar a/arenessof t&e a,bivaence of t&is site and its co,,e,orative poitics. ays &as/ritten t&at t&e "6s interpretive ,ission /as especiay acte in t&is

case becase it &ad to i,,nie ;ananar fro, t&e frivoity of t&esrrondin$ area6s recreationa activities (t&is part of t&e /ens Baey is avery popar vacation destination for "ot&ern Caifornians on fis&in$!&i:in$! and s:iin$ epeditions) as /e as t&e a/eso,e natra /onders oft&e "ierra evada ,ontains! incdin$ t&e proi,ity of ;t. 3&itney! t&e&i$&est pea: in t&e continenta United "tates. 3&ie sc& recreationa andspectacar si$&ts dra/ torists to t&e re$ion! ays asserts t&at t&isattention can detract fro, t&e &istoric site6s inte$rityD %"'o,e visitors %to;ananar' &ave ,entioned t&at $iven its ocation near sc& beatif,ontains! t&e ca,p eperience codn6t &ave been so bad. or t&ese

visitors! t&e ca,p see,s ,ore i:e a s,,er ca,p in t&e ,ontains t&anan i,portant site in t&e nationa &istory of t&e str$$e for civi ri$&ts. 8

The A(bivlen)e o# the "Mn!nr -elo)tionCenter"


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$oin$ to be a &oiday on ice or /&at it /as $oin$ to be.9aced /it& t&ea,bivaence created by t&ese t/o etre,e caricatresconcentrationca,p and &oiday on ice$overn,ent propa$anda and ,ass ,ediaacconts nderstandaby santed &eaviy to/ard t&e &oiday on ice i,a$e.@a:e! for instance! t&e Apri 1942 San Francisco Newsartice! ;ananarice ace*t


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itte ecept t&e distrbin$ (to Cyndy) fact t&at &e payed bas:etba and /entto socia dances /&ie interned! i:a/a narrates &er e=ay frstratin$atte,pt to tr,p &er fat&er6s ,e,ory of ;ananar /it& a trip to /+nd Pge&14t&e arc&iveD * $o to t&e ibrary. * oo: for boo:s! any boo: on t&esbect. And t&ere6s not&in$.


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Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re 4*nternee ,aorettes pose for p&oto$rap&er Anse Ada,s on ;ananarbeac&ers set a$ainst t&e "ierra evada ,ontain ran$e.

/it& for,er internees! at&o$& t&e pro$ra,6s content is adapted for itsadience and its ever-evovin$ cast! /&ic& &as recenty incded t&e"on$bird of ;ananar &ersef! for,er internee ;ary Ja$eya,a o,ra.o/ in &er ei$&ties! o,ra $ot &er start i,itatin$ ida!u(apaneset&eatre c&antin$ perfor,ed to samisenacco,pani,ent) ,et&ods becase&er ,ot&er /as a $iday instrctor in itte @o:yo! at&o$& o,ra cai,sto &ave esc&e/ed any apanese ctra-type t&in$s perfor,ed at

;ananar. er A,erican s/in$-,sic voca styin$s &ave earned o,rat&e epit&et t&e star at ;ananar fro, feo/ internees incdin$


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in reation to it /as. 3&en one sense s&ts do/n! ot&ers beco,e ,ore acte. 3&en p&ysicayconfined! yo rey on yor spirit. @&is spirita sta,ina! in t&eir /ords! /as to 6,a:e t&e best oft&in$s.620

"&e $oes on to interpret t&e apanese A,erican sayin$ shi"ataanai(iteray! not&in$ can be done or it can6t be &eped) as &avin$ t&e

intern,ent-specific ,eanin$ of s,iin$ in t&e face of adversity! pantin$fo/ers in t&e desert! &avin$ a $ood ti,e in a concentration ca,p.21

3&et&er it6s caed overco,in$ adversity by t&e U" $overn,ent ors,iin$ in t&e face of adversity by ,e,bers of t&e apanese A,ericanco,,e,orative co,,nity! t&e a,bivaent ,etony, of pbeat! a-

A,erican perfor,ance &as co,e to stand for t&e intern,ent6s pace inconte,porary ,e,ory. or t&e re,ainder of t&is essay * /i be essconcerned /it& present-day intern,ent co,,e,oration! and ,ore /it&&istoricay reconstrctin$ &o/ sc& recreation and entertain,ent /ereactay perfor,ed in t&e ca,ps. And /&ie * a$ree /it& *s&i:a6s andot&ers6 points abot t&e i,portance of ac:no/ed$in$ /&at s&e casacceptance as a for, of spirita resistance! t&ere is ne/ $rond tocover in ter,s of anayin$ /&et&er ot&er for,s of resistance operatedt&ro$& ctra perfor,ance in t&e intern,ent ca,ps! specificay t&at of;ananar.22@&e /arti,e ritas and s&o/s perfor,ed at ;ananar /ere soprevaent t&at t&e internees bit an aditori, for t&e,! /&ic& sti stands inan nfor$ivin$ environ,ent si decades ater. "rey t&ere is ,ore to besaid abot t&ese perfor,ances t&an ,erey t&at t&ey ,ade t&e best of abad sitation. *n /&at foo/s! * ar$e t&at ,any if not ,ost of t&ese

perfor,ances &ad sociopoitica i,pications t&at si$nificanty nderct t&e&e$e,onic poicy and si$nificanty co,picate conte,poraryco,,e,oration of t&ese internee activities. @&e tendency to ta:e t&eseinternee /+nd Pge &1perfor,ances ot of /&at /ere actay =itectray diverse festiva contets and trn t&e, into tri,p&ant ,etony,sfor A,erican assi,iation &as &ad t&e defeatist effect of siencin$ apanese

A,erican for,s of resistance ot&er t&an acceptance.

@&e ca,p perfor,ance festivas at ;ananar ta:ed bac: to t&eintern,ent poicy6s &oiday on ice L concentration ca,p a,bivaence byresistin$ /&at +rica art& &as caed t&e ,ora vac, of t&e U"

$overn,ent6s enforced A,ericaniation of interned apaneseA,ericans.2?art& is a sc&oar /&o spent a year of &er c&id&ood at;ananar /&ere s&e attended sc&oo /&ie &er ,ot&er /or:ed for t&e e/#ea a$ency t&at ad,inistered t&e ca,ps! t&e 3ar eocation At&ority(3A). "&e points ot t&at since t&e 3A6s poicy of edcatin$ forde,ocracy in 1942 ,ade no roo, for ,tictrais,! it /as eft to in,atesto or$anie etracrricar instrction in %apanese' traditiona arts and


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crafts! t&e tea cere,ony! and t&eater. "c& activities foris&ed! especiaya,on$ t&e *ssei.24

@&ese perfor,ances of traditiona apanese ctre foris&ed as acorrective for a 3A edcationa poicy t&at often atte,pted to insti et&nic

sef-&atred in t&e second-$eneration apanese A,erican c&idren internedat ;ananar and ot&er ca,ps.


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*nternees8 Constr%)tion o# 9pe)t)le,Ar)hive3&en apanese troops bo,bed t&e U" nava base at ear arbor on 7

#ece,ber 1941! ,ost A,ericans considered t&is snea: attac: to be inideoo$ica opposition to 3estern codes of &onor becase apan &ad

reversed t&e teta &ierarc&y of /ar-/a$in$. *nternationa a/ and 3esterno$ocentris, dictated t&at /ar /as to be decared t&ro$& a perfor,ativesi$nin$ and ec&an$e of doc,ents co,,encin$ a veritabe batte ofdoc,ents t&at ced bodiy co,bat.27@&e apanese e,pire /as seen asvioatin$ t&is teta orderin$ becase it acted first (attac:in$ ear arbor)and t&en decared /ar in /ritin$. As #iana @ayor &as /ritten of 3estern,odernity! %t'&e do,inance of an$a$e and /ritin$ &as co,e to stand formeanin itsef. ive! e,bodied practices not based on in$istic or iterarycodes! /e ,st ass,e! &ave no cai,s on ,eanin$.28@&e nscripted,iitaris, of t&e apanese $overn,ent (as represented by apan6snotorios aest&eticis, servin$ as dis$ise for its treac&eros intentions int&e 10 #ece,ber 1941 Chicao Tri#uneeditoria cartoon %fi$. 4') ocatedt&ose of apanese descent beyond t&e pae of o$ocentric be&avior! and eftapanese A,erican citiens and aiens ai:e c&aracteried as nassi,iabeand inscrtabeand at t&e /ron$ end of t&e binary o$ic of patriotis,depoyed drin$ /arti,e.29@&e restin$ forced evacation and intern,entof apanese A,ericans near inand! rra co,,nities t&at for t&e ,ost part&ad never seen an acta ap prodced ne/y precarios race reations in/&ic&! as one senior U" $overn,ent officia re,ar:ed in a/ed deference to

t&e po/er of /ritin$! /ords aone can do i,,easrabe da,a$e at t&isti,e.?0

"c& o$ic dictated t&at one of t&e U" $overn,ent6s first orders ofbsiness after it decided on t&e intern,ent poicy /as to e,poy t&eservices of pbic reations () professionas to &ep in pannin$ t&e storyand $ettin$ notices ot t&ro$& t&e Ar,y to t&e apanese peope in t&eco,,nity. ne of t&ese professionas! a ,an na,ed obert


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Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re 5@&e 10 #ece,ber 1941 Chicao Tri#uneeditoria cartoon @&e "&ot @&atCa,e ro,


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of eotic dispays of an ene,y ctre t&o$&! retrospective acconts byoca /ens Baey residents in attendance s$$est t&at t&ese et&no$rap&ice&ibits s&o/cased t&e spectace of /&at ,any /od &ave caed! in/arti,e parance! aps /&o t&in: t&ey6re A,erican.?4

Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re 6U" Govern,ent evacation notices /ere posted in apanese A,ericanco,,nities startin$ in ;arc& 1942! faciitatin$ contact /it& ,inority $ropsby paperin$ t&eir nei$&bor&oods /it& /ritten instrctions. &oto by#orot&ea an$e.

At&o$& t&e Manzanar Free Presscertainy co,pied /it& sc&spectaces s&aped for otside cons,ption! it is i,portant to point ot t&at

t&ese apanese A,erican ornaists added anot&er sef-conscios aspectto t&e ne/spaper6s ,ission! one t&at sbty indicted t&e ,indset ofobert


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fies t&e coonia sbect as a 6partia6 presence . . . bot& 6inco,pete6 and6virta.6?H@&e portraya of ;ananar internees as festive payers! /&ic&circates at t&e ;ananar *nterpretive Center and (&o/ever differenty) innofficia presentations i:e Camp Dance& $ro/s ot of t&e a,bivaence ofintern,ent poicy /&ereby t&e $overn,ent and ,ass ,edia renderedapanese A,ericans as spectacary avaiabe for pbic scrtiny tonderscore t&e benevoent natre of U" racia contain,ent and to s$$estt&e nnatray t&eatrica disposition of t&e do,estic ene,y. @&e restantspectacariation of apanese A,ericans proected t&e beni$ntransparency of t&e United "tates to an internationa adience! andproected t&e see,in$y in&,an stoicis, of t&ese aien ene,ies (t/o-t&irds of /&o, /ere A,erican citiens) to a &o,e-front adience. *n ot&er/ords! t&e intern,ent discorse asserted! t&ese /ere not&in$ i:e ai-styeconcentration ca,ps and t&ese inscrtabe peope even enoyed t&eirabection fro, ,ainstrea, A,erica.?7As


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ec&an$ed =ips /it& every ornaist /&o visited t&e ca,p and acted astor $ides for crios oca residents drin$ proposed /ee:y open&oses!?9eciprocity #ays! and novety fairs! t&s castin$ t&e,sevesin/ord and deedas cons,,ate perfor,ers.40*n escortin$ and entertainin$t&ese /&ite visitors to ;ananar! Free Pressstaffers perfor,ed $estresced fro, an e,bodied repertoire co,pied over neary a decade of&ostin$ t&e anna isei 3ee: festiva in os An$ees6 itte @o:yo! t&eet&nic encave fro, /&ic& ,ost ;ananar internees &ad been evacated.41*n 19?4! os An$ees *ssei initiated t&e idea of sta$in$ an annaperfor,ance festiva t&at depoyed t&e taents of t&eir isei c&idren as a,ar:etin$ too to ceebrate t&e bsiness ac&ieve,ents of itte @o:yo and toentertain otsiders! particar /&ite bsinesspeope! /it& parades! beatypa$eants! traditiona apanese fo: dance (odori)! and fas&ion and taents&o/s. ne of t&e &i$&i$&ts of isei 3ee: /as t&e cro/nin$ of t&e iseiMeen! a apanese A,erican beaty seected by a pane consistin$ ofet&nic apanese and Cacasian d$es at t&e be$innin$ of t&e festiva.42@&e =een /od ead processions of t&e apanese A,erican eite /&oventred ot to visit do/nto/n os An$ees bsinesses and etend for,ainvitations for non-apanese to visit t&e et&nic encave drin$ isei 3ee:.;ananar internees! persaded by t&e 3A6s advocates and FreePressinternee staff! re-enacted isei 3ee: in a fra$,ented and irre$arfas&ion! /it& rra /ens Baey nei$&bors standin$ in for cos,opoitan os

An$ees bsinesspeope! and financia a$ency repaced by enforcedinterracia otreac& (fi$. H).

"o /&ie internees aso dre/ fro, t&e isei 3ee: repertoire to resist t&isspectacariation by so,e&o/ controin$ t&e i,a$e t&ey proected to t&eotside /ord! t&ese perfor,ances for otside adiences ,osty presented/&at sc&oar +ena @ai,a Creef caed a visa r&etoric of 6$ood c&eer6t&at &eped appease t&e intern,ent poicy6s a,bivaence.


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Cic: forar$er vie/

3ig%re Meen of ;ananar ;ar$ie ;idori "&i,i iras&i,a /as st one of ,anyisei /o,en cro/ned in /arti,e beaty pa$eants in t&e intern,ent ca,ps.

3&ite ,en fro, t&e 3A and fro, t&e ca,ps6 srrondin$ co,,nitiesso,eti,es d$ed t&e co,petitions. &oto by ac: */ata! fro, t&e ac: */ataCoection at t&e apanese A,erican ationa ;se,.

ore$rondin$ t&e internees6 spectace-arc&ive aso ,a:es visibe t&epopar internee prodctions of traditiona apanese ctre and t&eire=ay i,portant interctra perfor,ance contets! /&ic& opted ot of t&espectacariin$ cyce of t&e Free Press. A bt absent fro, t&e etensivearc&ive devoted to t&e apanese A,erican intern,ent! t&e traditiona

apanese perfor,ances sta$ed by internees t&reaten to disappear fro, t&erepertoire as t&e ast of t&e for,er internees pass a/ayand as officia andnofficia co,,e,orative practices &er,eticay sea ca,p t&eatre so t&atno pace /+nd Pge 204re,ains for t&ese perfor,ances. @&eseoveroo:ed perfor,ance practices ,ar:edy differ fro, t&ose pbiciedsince t&e /ar. 3&ereas t&e perfor,ance festivas s&aped by ;ananarpbicists /ere ony interctra insofar as t&ey estabis&ed contactbet/een apanese A,erican internees and t&eir /&ite nei$&bors fro, t&eotside t&ro$& a ri$id spectace L spectator reations&ip! internee festivast&at incded traditiona apanese practices sc& as Jab:i and o& t&eatre

/ere radicay interctra! brin$in$ to$et&er i,,i$rant *ssei and ,ore-assi,iated isei! apanese spea:ers and +n$is& spea:ers! eit&er on t&esa,e bi or in feibe perfor,er L adience reations&ips t&at /eredecidedy for internee eyes ony. * /i no/ trn to for &istorica ea,pes ofca,p perfor,ance t&at istrate t&ese interctra approac&es and &o/apanese A,ericans6 repertoires /ere depoyed differenty for t&espectace-arc&ive t&an for events cosed to t&e (potentiay) &ostie pbic.@&ese ea,pes /i beD t&e "epte,ber 1942 ospita pen oseI t&eort& of y 194? ;ananar CarnivaI t&e ;ay 1944 +venin$ for *sseiI andt&e ne 1944 ina$ra perfor,ance at t&e ne/ ;ananar aditori, of

3A teac&er ois rie6s operetta 'oud and Clear.

istorian on Jras&i$e ecdes t&ese and a ot&er ctraperfor,ances sta$ed at ;ananar fro, t&e inea$e &e constrcts in &ison$-a/aited boo:! Japanese (merican Cele#ration and Con)lict* ( +istor!o) ,thnic Identit! and Festival in 'os (neles& -./01-..2! concdin$ t&at;ananar co,,nity dra,as &ed no poitica si$nificance! possessin$


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instead a facie entertain,ent vae t&at posed a faint i,itation of t&eori$ina %isei 3ee:'. o/ever! even before ear arbor! t&e interctraoperation of isei 3ee: &ad ceary beco,e a dobe-bind! /it& os

An$ees ;ayor etc&er


17/30

crac:ed aon$ $enerationa ines! /it& so-caed assi,iationist iseiaccsed of bein$ 3A stoo$es! and apan-edcated isei (caed Jibei!/&o represented ,ore t&an H00 of ;ananar6s 10!000 internees) seen asnder,inin$ t&e 3A6s poicy of disenfranc&isin$ t&e *ssei eders (/&o/ere considered obstaces to t&e et&nic $rop6s overa A,ericaniation).@&e prisin$ &ad a deady otco,e! :iin$ t/o protestors and /ondin$ ateast ten ot&ers. "i$nificanty! Jras&i$e! /&ie deiberatey i$norin$ interneeperfor,ance! does ea,ine t&e ;ananar riot.


18/30

perfor,ance (fi$. 7).


19/30

Cic: forar$er vie/

3ig%re 7@&e 11 "epte,ber 1942 Manzanar Free Pressartice pbis&ed t&e pco,in$ospita pen ose pro$ra,! /it& "atrday ni$&t bied as t&e apanesepro$ra, and "nday as t&e +n$is& pro$ra,! bt a coser oo: at t&e

festiva presentation of t&e t/enty-seven perfor,ances reveas t&at sc&ctra distinctions /ere =ite per,eabe.

Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re A vie/ of t&e internee adience and so,e ;ananar barrac:s! fro, t&eotdoor sta$e /&ere an internee orc&estra perfor,s. &oto by ac: */ata!fro, t&e ac: */ata Coection at t&e apanese A,erican ationa ;se,.

/+nd Pge 207

/it& ot&er apanese A,erican ca,ps6 carniva offerin$s as /e as &epin$internees for$et t&eir cares.515 yI

t&is ,issed opportnity to s&o/ yor oyaty (in ;ayor


20/30

even activities t&at t&e 3A /od consider anti-assi,iationist (and t&s&ostie to its ad,inistration) &ad ac&ieved t&e trappin$s of cb stats by t&ispoint in ;ananar6s sociopoitica eistence.54@&is /as in part becase t&e3A6s sin$e-,inded attention to pbic reations and its beief t&at sc&interctra enconters /ere pri,ariy driven by t&e printed /ord and byiterate presentations sc& as speec&es ,eant t&at as on$ asperfor,ances /ere ony e,bodied in t&e repertoire! t&ey /ere not fypatroed. @&is bind spot ao/ed internees a certain de$ree of freedo, toconstrct private perfor,ances for internee (and ad,inistration) eyes ony,any of /&ic& nderct t&e assi,iationist ,essa$e t&e ad,inistrationatte,pted to pbicie abot intern,ent ife. At t&e sa,e ti,e! t&ecrac:do/n foo/in$ t&e 1942 riot inevitaby instied a de$ree of sef-poicin$a,on$ t&e internees /&o re,ained at ;ananar! ne/y a/are no/ of t&esyste,atic srveiance t&at &ad ,ade possibe t&e 3A6s speedy re,ovaof t&e radica poitica ee,ents and disoyas a,on$ t&e,. *n ot&er /ords!apanese ctra practitioners participatin$ in t&e y 194? carniva i:ey/od &ave do/npayed t&e ctra nationais, of t&eir practices to avoidattractin$ t&e potentiay pnitive srveiance of t&e ad,inistration.55

anned since t&e 1920s and constanty i,pe,ented since apanattac:ed ear arbor! $overn,ent offensives i:e t&e


21/30

bind spots re,ained nervosy contin$ent pon t&e fctations of poiticatensions and socia c&aos drin$ t&e intern,ent.

Cic: for ar$ervie/

3ig%re 1"even isei teena$ers payin$ in +ddie @ana:a6s "ierra "tars at ;ananarintern,ent ca,p drin$ 3ord 3ar **. &oto by ac: */ata! fro, t&e ac:*/ata Coection at t&e apanese A,erican ationa ;se,.

@&e internees6 instittionaiation of ctra difference /it&in t&e ort&of y carniva6s ti$&t spervision! t&en! probaby did not openl!resist t&e3A6s i,ited toerance of apanese dispays! /&ic& /ere dee,edao/abe ony insofar as t&ey /ere an npbicied and sef safety vave

for t&e ad,inistration6s poicy of A,ericaniation. onet&eess! t&eor$aniationa stats etended to apanesey and A,erican activities ai:esi$naed t&at ctra differences /ere bein$ respected in a cooperativerat&er t&an co,bative reations&ip in t&e /a:e of t&e riot. 3it&ot irony!carniva fra,ers panned for a perfor,ance of conte,porary apanese fo:dancin$ (ondo) to coeist /+nd Pge 201on a pro$ra, /it& its A,ericanconterpart perfor,ed by t&e ;ananar o: #ancin$ Cb. i:e/ise! in t&esa,e breat&! t&e Free Pressboasted t&at bot& strin$ and /a apaneseconcerts /ere offered at t&e carnivaa si$nificant dic&oto,y! becasestrin$ ,sic /od i:ey be perfor,ed by t&e isei6s Concert and "/in$

rc&estra /&ie /a apanese ,sic referred to cyinder recordin$s fro,trn-of-t&e-centry apan.57@&e y 194? carniva paid no &eed to t&e,ono-A,ericanist patriotic i,peratives of t&e U" *ndependence #ay!c&oosin$ instead to trn t&is officia nationa &oiday over to t&ee$iti,iation of bot& sides of s L t&e, dic&oto,ies and to t&einstittionaiation of &ar,onios interctra dispays.

#espite sc& &ar,onios coeistence t&ro$& ctra perfor,ance! t&einternee perfor,ers sti ad&ered to t&eir epected roes in t&e ort& of ycarnivaD isei ,sicians payed "ot&ern &ibiy tnes! /&ie *sseiperfor,ed apanese s:its and &eard apanese ,sic recordin$s. isei $irsand yon$ /o,en i:ey danced odori! bt t&is /as not a radica castin$c&oice becase t&ey &ad been t&e ,edi, for trans,ittin$ t&is apaneseperfor,ance for, in pbic ever since isei 3ee: debted in 19?4.o/ever! in ;ay 1944! roect #irector ap& ;erritt $reen-i$&ted t&eprodction of an +venin$ for *ssei! /&ic& disrpted t&e predictabiity ofinternee castin$ c&oices aon$ $enerationa ines. A cast of niseivonteers perfor,ed t&e +venin$ for *ssei taent s&o/ to &onor t&e &af a


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centry of &ards&ip endred by t&e first $eneration of apanese i,,i$rantsto t&e United "tates! fifty years t&at &ad c,inated in t&e vioent /renc&in$of t&e socia positions and ,ateria /eat& t&ey &ad str$$ed to attain /&ent&ey fond t&e,seves caed ene,y aiens and evacated to %intern,ent'centers. As t&e isei fra,ers of t&e event aso pt itD inay! %t&e *ssei6s'possessions beca,e ony t&eir sons and da$&ters. or t&is reason!%n'obody ecept t&e isei can co,fort t&ese *ssei! and t&is is a dty t&at /e,st carry ot fro, or &eart. *n order to co,fort t&eir disenfranc&isedparents! t&e isei perfor,ers of t&e +venin$ for *ssei presented t&e $ift ofapanese ctra practices t&ro$& t&eir o/n bodies (fi$. 10). @&e onyisei ao/ed at t&e event /ere t&e perfor,ersI t&e adience consistedentirey of *ssei. or t&is reason and to sidestep t&e spectace-arc&ive of t&eFree Press +n$is&-an$a$e section! t&e notices advertisin$ andco,,e,oratin$ t&e +venin$ for *ssei /ere ony pbis&ed in t&e apanese-an$a$e section of t&e ;ananar ne/spaper. @&erein! isei @a:as&iJbota /rote t&at &e &oped t&is eceent taent s&o/n by t&e nisei /od&ep t&e issei and nisei . . . $et to$et&er and $o t&ro$& center ife inpeace.58

@&e diac&ronic traectory of ;ananar perfor,ance practices s$$ests apro$ressive &istory! t&o$& not t&e one of A,erican eceptionais, andoverco,in$ adversity t&at t&e U" $overn,ent and its ationa ar:"ervice /ants to te abot t&e intern,ent eperience. at&er! t&e pro$ressfro, t&e "epte,ber 1942 ospita pen ose /+nd Pge 2&0

Cic: forar$er vie/

3ig%re &0isei Naeo @ana:a bein$ ,ade p for a Nihon #u!o(cassica dance)perfor,ance by *ssei @o,i:o )ort& of y 194?Carniva (/&ic& /as cosey foo/ed by t&e fa 194? sr$ica separation of

t&ose dee,ed disoya! /&o /ere sent to @e a:e "e$re$ation Center)!59

c,inated in si$nificant perfor,ative events in 1944 deconstrctin$ t&epres,ed binary of assi,iation verss pro-apan oyaty. @&ro$& t&e+venin$ for *ssei (aso caed t&e Constation i$&t for *ssei) and ot&erperfor,ances t&at year! t&e distinctiveness of apanese ctre and

A,erican ctre /as respected! bt t&ese ctra practices /ere de-essentiaied (fi$. 11).


23/30

foo/in$ ear arbor! and t&en toeratin$ apanese dispays in t&e ca,psony becase t&ey evaded t&e ad,inistration6s o$ocentric pbic-reations,indset! t&e U" $overn,ent &ad atte,pted to estabis& t&e essentiaistar$,ent t&at perfor,in$ apanese ctre /as a tetae si$n of a /+ndPge 2&&apanese &eartt&erefore a dty to enact disoyaty a$ainst

A,erica.


24/30

;ananar orc&estra perfor,ed t&e pay6s son$s of yon$ ove andadoescent yearnin$. 'oud and Clear/as to pre,iere after a speec& byroect #irector ;erritt! and t&e ca,p ad,inistration &ad advertised %t&eevent' far and /ide! sc& t&at it bro$&t in peope fro, a over t&e /ensBaey. ;ore otsiders trned ot t&an epected! spar:in$ a socia dra,aa,on$ t&e internee perfor,ers and t&e ad,inistration before t&e &oseopened. @&e stdent cast and ,sicians &ad reserved a section of t&eaditori, for t&eir *ssei parents to sit in! bt faced /it& an inf of vaeyresidents! ca,p ad,inistrators prioritied pbic reations over interneereations by annoncin$ t&at t&e /&ite visitors /od ta:e t&e pacespro,ised to *ssei spectators.H1

earnin$ of t&eir parents6 dispace,ent! t&e perfor,ers of 'oud andClearsta$ed an instant stri:e! sayin$ t&ey /ere not $oin$ to perfor,ness t&ose seats /ere sed for t&eir parents. rie ne$otiated /it& t&e

stdent stri:ers and convinced t&e, to pt on a $ood face and perfor, forpbic reations6 sa:e and as a persona favor to &i, and &is &ard /or: ont&e s&o/!H2t&ereby endin$ a be&ind-t&e-scenes perfor,ance of resistancet&at never fond its /ay into t&e Free Press6s accont of t&e aditori,6sina$ration. @&e ne/spaper instead proffered t&is re,ar: on its front pa$eD@&e first activity in t&e ;ananar co,,nity aditori, /as appadedent&siasticay by a capacit! crowdast ni$&t.H?After observin$ t&e ,ediacircses created by t&e apanese A,erican riots at ;ananar in #ece,ber1942 and at ot&er ca,ps in 194?! internees :ne/ &o/ t&e stdents6perfor,ance of resistance ,i$&t be t/isted by t&e otside ,edia and

/ens Baey co,,nity. evert&eess! t&e 'oud and Clearstri:e =ietyco,,nicated t&e stdents6 opposition to t&e ad,inistration6s patricidaspectacariation in t&e na,e of . @&e operetta controversy asode,onstrated yon$ isei6s resistance to t&e 3A6s ideoo$ica directive,andatin$ /&at t&e adience co,position of sc& spectaces s&od be.

3&at position does sc& assi,iationist t&eatre! often /ritten or directedby t&e /&ite ad,inistration and attended by /&ite spectators fro, t&e 3Aand even t&e co,,nities srrondin$ t&e ca,ps! occpy in t&e spectace-arc&ive of internee /+nd Pge 2&4perfor,anceE ifty years after t&e

ca,ps cosed! obert Cooper,an fond t&at /&at &e cas isei @&eateris ar$ey for$otten! denied! or at east do/npayed by its apaneseA,erican participants (notin$ t&at fe/ ivin$ internees re,e,ber t&eater att&eir ca,p! even /&en t&eater $rops foris&ed). Cooper,an ad,its t&at,any of t&e for,er internees &e contacted to discss t&ese +n$is&-an$a$e prodctions cod not re,e,ber perfor,in$ on sc& occasions!despite t&e incsion of t&eir na,es in cast notices arc&ived in t&e Free


25/30

Press.H43&y t&ese a-A,erican perfor,ances by and ar$e did not ,a:e itinto internees6 post/ar repertoires! despite t&eir do,inance in t&e spectace-arc&ive! re,ains tantaiin$y ncear. Co,,e,orative practices i:e t&eGratef Crane +nse,be6s Camp Dance certainy &ep brid$e t&espectace-arc&ive and repertoire by reenactin$ t&e insistent A,ericannessof isei6s e,brace of ,ainstrea, ctre in t&e face of t&e intern,entpoicy.

n t&e ot&er &and! * &ave ,et for,er internees /&o can sti oyfyrecite arc&aic! ttery forei$n apanese ines t&ey ,e,oried by rote forisei perfor,ances of apanese popar t&eatre in t&e ca,ps! /it& properJab:i intonation co,petey intact. "c& anti&e$e,onic interctraperfor,ances! cain$ into =estion as t&ey did t&e 3A6s A,ericaniationproect! do not re,ain in t&e boated cac&e of intern,ent doc,ents &osedin t&e U" ationa Arc&ives! nor do t&ey find a pro,inent pace in t&e

spectace-arc&ive of t&e +n$is&-an$a$e Manzanar Free Press$At&o$&anecdota evidence fro, t&e apanese A,erican repertoire s$$ests t&att&ese interctra perfor,ances ive on in t&e bodies of for,er internees!t&e ,ortaity of t&ese bodies and t&e ,isfit of sc& eperiences as fodderfor nationa and ,any co,,nity-based co,,e,orations are conspirin$ todeny t&is e,bodied :no/ed$e. As t&ese apanese A,ericans pass a/ay(t&e yon$est perfor,ers are no/ in t&eir seventies)! t&e repertoire /ii:ey disappear! eavin$ ony an arc&ive of internees6 spectacariationaspectace-arc&ive s&ot t&ro$& /it& &eaviy coded references to apanese

A,erican resistance a$ainst t&e i,peratives paced pon t&e, to perfor,

constanty for t&e eyes of t&e /ord. @&e ceebratory discorse totin$internees6 A,ericaniation t&ro$& adversity/&ic& circates today at t&eofficia site of t&e " ;ananar *nterpretive Centervirtay ensres t&att&is disappearance /i appear to be a tri,p&ant passa$e.

,mil! Col#orn3Ro4worth!is an assistant professor on t&e factyin t&e #epart,ent of @&eatre and #ance at t&e University ofCaifornia! "an #ie$o. er researc& artices &ave been pbis&ed in@#! @&eatre esearc& *nternationa!and @&e orna of #ra,atic@&eory and Criticis,.

A)kno$ledge(ent* /od i:e to t&an: ,y ate dissertation c&air! #/i$&t Con=er$ood! for t&e passion /it& /&ic& &eanticipated t&is researc& on ca,p perfor,ance. * a, saddened t&at #/i$&t did not ive on$ eno$&to see it co,e to frition in t&is essay! bt &opef t&at * a, continin$ so,e s,a part of &is ar$ee$acy by prsin$ sc& /or:. is voice reverberates in ,y &ead as * see: to nderstand t&eperfor,ative i,pse in t&e nst and &i$&y a,bivaent contet of t&e apanese A,ericanintern,ent ca,ps. Theatre Journal6s t/o anony,os readers aso provided crcia voices on t&is/or:! ,etap&oricay sittin$ on eac& of ,y s&oders as * revised t&is essay for pbication. ;yresearc& assistant @o,oy:i "asa:i aided ,y faiin$ apanese-an$a$e s:is in transatin$ t&e


26/30

apanese section of t&e Manzanar Free Press! refected ,ore fy in t&e c&apter-en$t& version oft&is researc& for ,y boo:! The Theatre o) Japanese (merican Trauma* Racial Per)ormativit! in5orld 5ar II(University of a/ai6i ress! fort&co,in$). inay! t&an: yo to Theatre Journaleditorean Gra&a,-ones for &er ent&sias,! patience! and dipo,acy.

3ootnotes1. resses o for irst rinted ree ress! Manzanar Free Press! 22 y 1942! 1.2. ationa ar: "ervice! *nterpretation and +dcation. &ttpDLL///.nps.$ovLearnL(accessed 1 y200H).

?. ationa ar: "ervice! Remem#erin Manzanar! infor,ation pa,p&et! 200H. At t&e ti,e!;ananar6s roect #irector ap& ;erritt &eraded t&e ne/y bit aditori, as t&e fa,iy ivin$roo, for a t&e ,e,bers of or ;ananar co,,nityI at&o$& it provided infrastrctre for t&e;ananar i$& "c&oo! a constitents of t&e internee popation tiied t&e aditori,. ationaar: "ervice! istory of t&e Aditori,! &ttpDLL///.nps.$ovL,anLaditori,&istory.&t,(accessed15 y 200H).

4. Accordin$ to ;ananar ationa istoric "ite "perintendent ran: ays! despite t&e "6ssspicios stance to/ard reconstrction! %t'&e approved pan for ;ananar cas for reconstrctionof t&e ca,p6s barbed /ire fence! ca,p entrance si$n! $ard to/er! and barrac:s bidin$s. . . . neor ,ore of t&e ca,p barrac:s bidin$s t&at sti eist in t&e oca area /i aso be reocated andrestored for a de,onstration boc: at t&e site. ran: ays! @&e ationa ar: "erviceD Grovein$"ycop&ant or "ocia ConscienceD @ein$ t&e "tory of ;ontains! Baey! and


27/30

1?. Jarin i$a and @i, 49.

1H. 8i#eirefers to isei (second-$eneration apanese A,ericans) /&o &ad been edcated inapan for so,e or a of t&eir for,ative years. @&is profie beca,e controversia after ear arborbecase of t&e $rop6s U" citiens&ip! bt pres,ed apanese ,indset.

17. Gratef Crane +nse,be /eb site! &ttpDLL///.$ratefcrane.co,(accessed 20 ne 200H). Adi$ita video fie sa,pin$ of Camp Dance is avaiabe on t&e /eb site.

18. as,i "i,&an! eve Bisits an Upbeat! ;ovin$ eatre of 3ord 3ar ** Ca,ps! Sacramento9ee11 ne 2004! @J19I asadena C&erry


28/30

?0. 3A #epty #irector Coone C. . Cress =oted in ne 1942. aran #. Unra! The,vacuation and Relocation o) Persons o) Japanese (ncestr! durin 5orld 5ar II* ( +istorical Stud!o) the Manzanar 5ar Relocation Center(3as&in$ton! #CD U" #epart,ent of t&e *nterior! ationaar: "ervice! 199H)! ?88.

?1. Unra! The ,vacuation and Relocation o) Persons! ?90>92.

?2. *bid.??. 3A ina eport! =oted in ibid.! 577>78.

?4. "ee! for instance! Garrett and arson! eds.! Camp and Communit!.

?5. resses o for irst rinted ree ress! Manzanar Free Press! 22 y 1942! 1.

?H. o,i J.


29/30

case and /&at researc& and reconstrction says it was. "ee obert Cooper,an! @&eA,ericaniation of A,ericansD @&e &eno,enon of isei *ntern,ent Ca,p @&eater! in Re3Collectin ,arl! (sian (merica* ,ssa!s in Cultural +istor!! ed. osep&ine ee et a. (&iadep&iaD@e,pe University ress! 2002)! ?27>28! e,p&asis addedI see aso obert Cooper,an! isei@&eaterD istory! Contet! and erspective (&.#. diss.! &io "tate University! 199H).

48. @o$o @ana:a and oe Grant ;asao:a! #oc,entary eport 47! 12 A$st 1942! apanese

A,erican +vacation and esette,ent ecords! 417! for brin$in$ t&is doc,ent to ,y attention.

49. ospita pen ose ro$ra, "ated! Manzanar Free Press! 11 "epte,ber 1942! ?.

50. ;ic&i is&ira 3e$yn! s Concentration Camps("eatteD University of 3as&in$ton ress! 197H)! 125.

51. y 4 Carniva ans Co,pete! Manzanar Free Press! 2H ne 194?! 1.

52. y Carniva! Manzanar Free Press! 29 ;ay 194?! 1I Carniva 6Coossa "ccess!6Manzanar Free Press! 7 y 194?! ?.

5?. Carniva Co,,ittee or,ates ans for Co,in$ +vents! Manzanar Free Press! 1H ne194?! ?.

54. Carniva 6Coossa "ccess.6

55. nce a$ain! * ,st t&an: Theatre Journal6s anony,os first reader for insi$&tfy s$$estin$ to,e t&e reations&ip bet/een 3A srveiance and a ocatian panopticis,.

5H. 1942!(merasia JournalH! no. 2 (1979)D HH>H7.

57. y Carniva. * dedced t&e ori$in of t&ese apanese ,sic records becase bro/n /acyinders beca,e a defnct ,et&od for recordin$ and broadcastin$ ,sic by t&e eary t/entiet&centry. @&erefore! t&e recordin$s of apanese ,sic payed on t&e carniva6s entertain,entpro$ra, &ad necessariy been i,ported fro, apan decades prior to evacation! ,ost i:ey bro$&t/it& apanese i,,i$rants to t&e United "tates and s,$$ed into ;ananar despite evacationtaboos a$ainst apanese A,ericans possessin$ any sc& ,ar:ers of transnationa identification

/it& t&e ene,y.

58. @a:as&i Jbota! +venin$ for *ssei! apanese section! Manzanar Free Press! 10 ;ay 1944! ?I@a:as&i Jbota! bservin$ t&e Constation i$&t for *ssei! apanese section! Manzanar FreePress! 17 ;ay 1944! 1. @ransations provided by t&e Free Pressstaff and corroborated by @o,oy:i"asa:i.

59. @&e 3A officiay reassi$ned t&e @e a:e eocation Center! t&e ot&er apanese A,ericanintern,ent ca,p in Caifornia! as t&e @e a:e "e$re$ation Center in y 194?. *t /od be t&e astca,p to cose! re,ainin$ open nti 194H. @&ose ;ananites /&o refsed on t&e oyaty=estionnaire to renonce ae$iance to t&e apanese e,peror and L or refsed to ped$e service tot&e U" ,iitaryor! at t&e etre,e! &ad as:ed to be deported to apan/ere consideredsociopoitica conta,inants by t&e 3A. @reated as a conta$ion or a ,etasticiin$ cancer! t&esedisoyas /ere! to borro/ fro, ;ic&i 3e$yn! sr$icay re,oved fro, ;ananar and t&e ot&er

ei$&t ca,psI see 3e$yn!


30/30

H?. 6od and Cear6 eceived 3e! Manzanar Free Press! 17 ne 1944! 1! e,p&asis added.+sti,ations of t&e de$ree of censors&ip eercised pon t&e Free Pressby t&e ad,inistration varies/ideyI t&e 3A insisted at t&e ti,e and in its fina report t&at t&e internees /ere free to pbis&/&at t&ey /is&ed! /it& t&e eception of t&e apanese-an$a$e section of t&e ne/spaper. or,erisei staff ,e,bers &ave /idey diver$ent recoections of &o/ free t&eir press reay /as.

emily colborn-roxworthy - 'manzanar, the eyes of the world are upon you' performance and archival...

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