1.EMILE DURKHEIM AS ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGIST

2. Presenters M.USAMA MANSOOR 110603010 SHAYAN SHOUKAT 13010003004 3. Environmental Commentator Out of three founding Figures in sociology, Durkheim is probably the least likely to be recognized as an environmental commentator. 4. Facts of Lower Order In large part, this reflects his deliberate decision to elevate social facts over facts of lower order (that is, psychological, biological). 5. A Social Fact For Durkheim, a social fact is any way of acting, whether fixed or not, capable exerting over the individual an external constraint (2002 [1895]: 117) 6. Constraint is normally Manifested This constraint is normally manifested in the form of law, morality, beliefs, customs and even fashions. 7. Examining an Experience that is Characteristic We can verify the existence of a social fact, Durkheim ventured, by examining an experience that is characteristic. 8. For Example Children are compelled to adopt ways of seeing, thinking and acting that they otherwise would not have arrived at spontaneously. 9. Social Phenomena Cannot Be Explained Social phenomena cannot be explained through the lens of individual psychology. 10. Central Rule of the Sociological Method It is a central rule of the sociological method that the determining cause of a social fact must be sought among antecedent social facts and not among the states of individual consciousness (p. 125). 11. Advocates of Individualism This rule may infuriate strong advocates of individualism, but no matter. 12. Proper Field of Sociology Social Facts, Durkheim insists are consequently the proper field of sociology (p. 112) 13. Theoretical Independence of Sociology While this vigorous defence of social facts and collective consciousness most certainly buttressed the theoretical independence of sociology 14. Non-Sociological Approaches It also had the affect of warning off members of the new discipline from non sociological approaches that were reductionist in nature (that is, they reduced explanation to biological and psychological factors). 15. Theory of Societal Transformation Nevertheless, Durkheim himself frequently utilised biological concepts and metaphors in presenting his theory of societal transformation. 16. Theory Inspired by Darwinian Evolutionary Model Furthermore, this theory was most certainly inspired by the Darwinian evolutionary model that was popular among intellectuals in the late nineteenth century. 17. Mechanical Solidarity In The Division of Labour in Society (1893), he describes the evolution of modern societies from a state of mechanical solidarity, where in social solidarity is a product of shared cultured values. 18. Organic Solidarity Organic solidarity, where the social bond is a function of interdependence, most notably that arising out of an increasingly complex division of labour. 19. Ecological Crises of Rising Population Catton (2002:2) proposes that Durkheim's theory was very much an attempt to devise a solution to what is essentially an ecological crises of rising population paired with scarce resources. 20. Engage in Agriculture As societies became larger and denser, it would have been disastrous if everyone had continued to engage in agriculture. 21. Technological Innovation Increasingly, occupational specialisation meant that the competition over arable land was lessened even as that land became more productive thanks to technological innovation. 22. Ecology and Evolution Alas, Durkheim was doubly hobbled, Catton says, both by his narrowly selective reading of Darwin and by the unavailability in the 1880s of our knowledge of ecology and evolution (2002:93) 23. Increasing Diversity In the first instance, he erroneously supposed that Darwin believed that increasing diversity to be a way of minimising competition for scarce resources. 24. Co-Evolution Rather, Darwin cautioned the co-evolution (two species involving at the same time) could, in some cases, increase their resemblance to one another or result in one species bringing the other to extinction. 25. Lessening Rivalries and Increasing Mutual Interdependence In short, Darwin viewed specialisation as a way in which one species could gain competitive advantage over another, not, as Durkheim believed, as a way of lessening revelries and increasing mutual interdependence. 26. Insights of Modern Ecology Durkheim could not have privy to the insights of modern ecology, which did not emerge as a sub-field of biology until next century. 27. Mutual Dependence was Symbiotic Most crucially, no one in Durkheims time recognised that mutual dependence was symbiotic but not necessarily balanced. 28. Predators and Parasites That is, some interaction in nature benefit both member populations (mutualism) but others benefit one without either harming or benefiting the other (commensalism); and yet others are beneficial to one and determinal to the other, as with predators and parasites (Catton 2002:93). 29. Human Ecological Communities The latter gives rise to power differences, something especially significant when you are dealing with human ecological communities. 30. Profound Process of Change What are we left with then is chiefly speculation on what might have been. Citing Talcott Parsons (1987:217), Jarvikowski (1996:82) ventures that Durkheim would likely to have written in different way today about the relationships between the social and physical environment because biological theory has undergone a profound process of change.