elements of a buddhist literary theory as depicted in pali literature

Upload: sajalmegh

Post on 06-Jul-2018

231 views

Category:

Documents


2 download

TRANSCRIPT

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    1/22

     Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka (RASSL) is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of

    the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka.

    http://www.jstor.org

    Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali LiteratureAuthor(s): Venerable Upali SramonSource: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, New Series, Vol. 57 (2011), pp. 19-39Published by: Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka (RASSL)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23732412Accessed: 07-03-2016 02:19 UTC

    Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/  info/about/policies/terms.jsp

    JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of contentin a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/http://www.jstor.org/publisher/rasslhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/23732412http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/23732412http://www.jstor.org/publisher/rasslhttp://www.jstor.org/

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    2/22

     Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature1

     by

     Venerable Upali Sramon

     Like most literary and intellectual traditions, Buddhism has a

     distinct way of reading or interpreting language, behaviour, and

     thoughts expressed in various literary forms. There may be several

     approaches to substantiate this perspective. Two major approaches

     would be: firstly, to examine the manner in which the Buddha

     critiqued his contemporary literature, occasionally even using

     literary terms; and, secondly, employing Buddhist doctrinal and

     philosophical concepts (such as the theory of Karma, Dependent

     Origination, Middle Path etc.) to analyse the language, characters,

     themes etc. of a literary work. The second approach being too

     broad in its orientation, the present study is limited to the first. It

     is only an attempt to understand the support provided by ancient

     Pâli texts of the Theravâda school of Buddhism in construing

     this distinct Buddhist perspective to literature. Two fundamental

     questions that inspire this study at the background are: how does an

     ardent follower of Buddhist path read or interpret a text (narrative

     or otherwise)? And what principles are followed by him or her in

     composing a prose or verse text2?

     It must be noted that the Subodhàlankàra and the Vuttodaya,

     which were inspired by already established Sanskrit traditions of

     poetics and prosody respectively, are not taken into consideration

     for the present study. Subodhálañkaras, originality and leanings

     towards Buddhist doctrines, as have already been noted,3 would

     certainly provide much assistance in the formation of a Buddhist

     theory of literary criticism. But the sole focus of this study is to

     understand the distinct features, mostly ethical, that were (and

     perhaps still are) taken into consideration by Buddhist followers

     in their compositions and interpretations of literary works without

     any influence from Sanskrit poetics. My attempt here is not to

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    3/22

     20 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     show the superiority of the Buddhist perspective over other critical

     traditions, but, to understand its distinctness and independent

     development.

     Literary genres in early Pâli literature

     During the sixth century BCE and subsequent centuries when Pâli

     language was initially being used for the composition, formulation,

     and classification of the Buddha's teachings, literary genres and

     writers were not as diverse as today. Basically, thoughts were

     composed in verse, prose, and mixed verse and prose. Some of

     the earliest experimentations in versification and prose styles in

     India are found within this initial stage of the development of

     Pâli literature. The Pâli word generally used for a poet is lkavi\

     But, within the Tipitaka, and commentaries on corresponding

     passages of the Tipitaka, as we shall see, 'kavT was used for some

     limited purposes. Apart from the Buddha, the participants in the

     literary sphere were known as Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis

     (nuns), or more conventionally theras and theris respectively.

     This monastic orientation in Pâli literature shows some difference

     from the general trend in the use of the word 'kavV for a 'poet', a

     versifier, or writer.

     Many words like 'gâthâ' 'kâveyya', kavitâ,pajja, kabya, or

     kabba are found in Pâli literature for 'poetry'. As to the connotations

     of these words, i.e. whether kavi is used for only versifiers or any

     writer and kâveyya to mean only metrical compositions or any

     writings, there may be some controversies. Some descriptive

     statements in the suttas with reference to poetry maintain that

     poems are discourses as composed by poets beautiful in words

     and phrases and spoken or practised by outsiders (i.e. non-Buddhist

     followers) .4 This statement clarifies two important aspects of

     poetry as known at that time: firstly the use of 'beautiful or sweet

     words and phrases' as opposed to general and philosophically

     deep expressions [gambhfrattham]. This is suggestive of poetry as

     a delightful exercise that concerned itself with linguistic elegance.

     Perhaps this discussion occurred at a time when much importance

     was given to ornate features [alankâra] in a poetical composition.

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    4/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSLfNS), Vol. LVII - 2012 21

     Secondly, poetry is referred to mainly 'as a practice of outsiders,

     i.e. non-Buddhist followers.'5

     An important distinction must be made in between gâthâ

     (verse composition) and kàveyya (poetry). We learn from Sanskrit

     literary tradition that kàvyas (kàveyya) are generally composed

     in verses or gâthâs, but all gâthâs do not necessarily have

     poetic merit. Generally, it was a tradition in India to compose/

     write an idea in verse form, purposely, for the convenience of

     committing them into memory. The word 'kavV was used loosely

     for wise men, poets, seers, and philosophers who used to practise

     writing of any kind. Therefore, it is not surprising that, in India

     even philosophical works, mathematical formulas, or medicinal

     treatises were composed in verses. In Sanskrit, the word kàvya was

     used even for stories written in prose but using artistic language.

     In Pâli literature, gâthâ is more frequently used than kàveyya,

     which, as noted above, was referred to with some abhorrence, as

     practised by non-Buddhists. Moreover, in the enumeration of nine

     fold divisions of Buddha's discourses, we see gâthâ as one factor

     [not kàveyya].6 The gâthâs available in mainly canonical texts

     like the Dhammapada, Khuddakapâtha, Theragâthâ, Therigâthâ,

     Suttanipâta, Itivuttaka and Udâna1 contain philosophical matters,

     moralistic utterances, recollection of personal memories, and some

     expressions of ecstatic joy of the Buddha and Arahants expressed

     after the attainment of enlightenment.

     Entertainments in the forms of songs and dances, referred

     to as nacca-gïta, which would not directly come into the sphere

     of literary criticism, certainly existed in the time of the Buddha.

     There is also use of words like nata and nâtaka indicative of

     some sort of theatrical performances8, which certainly were not as

     much advanced as they came to be at the hands of later Sanskrit

     dramatists. Stories are narrated in the suttas and kathâs. The

     suttas or discourses sometimes interspersed with verses dominate

     large portions of the Pâli canon. They are presented in the form

     of conversations, elucidating doctrinal points or recollection of

     personal memories. The Kathâs, as in the Jâtaka, Buddhavamsa,

     Cariyâpitaka, Apadâna, Vimânavatthu, and Petavatthu, which

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    5/22

     22 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     were originally written in verse and later on commented in prose,

     contain various types of narratives with human, animal, and divine

     characters.

     When the early Buddhist monks were critiquing their own

     literature, we should understand that they were considering these

     suttas, gáthás, and kathds.9 Even in Sanskrit, literally sophisticated

     epics (mahàkàvyas) developed much later. In that cotext, A.K.

     Warder notes the earliest examples of kâvya now available and

     approximately datable are found in the Canon or âgama of the

     Sthaviravâda school of Buddhism in Pâli (pâli), a Prakrit dialect

     very close to the old Mâgadha and strongly influenced by it. 10

     However, in aesthetic merits and purpose, Buddhist poetical works

     [including the great Sanskrit epics of Asvaghosa of around 1st

     century CE] are very much different from the epics or mahàkàvyas

     of Hindu writers. Buddhists, as we shall see, were much critical

     about these Hindu epics, many of which were inspired by the

     Mahàbhàrata and Râmàyana, concerning their contents, styles,

     and purpose or use.

     Four Types of Poets and Three Means of Knowledge

     The Añguttaranikáya records an interesting passage with a

     classification of four types of poets as cintâkavi, sutakavi,

     atthakavi, andpatibhànakavi. As the nature of the text is, there is

     nothing with regard to the context or definitions of these four poets

     except these phrases. Therefore, we depend on the commentaries

     that were composed around the fifth century CE to understand

     their exact connotations.

     Cintâkavi - Imaginative poet who composes after

     thinking. This category indicates the poets whose compositions

     are thematically or structurally original. In some ways , A.K.

     Warder notes, he appears a truer forerunner of the great kavis

     whose masterpieces we now most admire. 12

     Sutakavi - traditional poet who writes poems based on

     incidents or stories told by another person. These poets borrow the

     plots or subject matter from others. When the story of Vessantara

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    6/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVU - 2012 23

     is told, for example, the listener becomes so overwhelmed that

     he produces a metrical version of it. Sometimes, poems might

     be passed on from a generation to generation by words of mouth

     without writing. Thus they become incorporated in the folk

     literature and the original writer is forgotten. As a result the

     original story might be condensed, elaborated, or manipulated.

     Atthakavi - Didactic poet who conveys an educational

     or moral theme in his writings. Whether a theme is original or

     borrowed the didactic poets always try to give a moral significance

     to their poems. This was practised by commentators who illustrated

     verses from the Dhammapada, Jâtaka, Petavatthu etc. In some

     cases, we see stories common to Sanskrit and Hindu literature.

     But, in the hands of Pâli commentators, they are interpreted to

     serve as moral lessons. In Sanskrit literature, there is a separate

     genre of didactic verses and tales which are known as upadesa,

     nlti, subhdsita etc.

     Patibhdnakavi - impromptu poet who composes a poem

     on any given theme without much thinking like the cintdkavi. In

     this category, Venerable Vangïsa stands unique in the Pâli Tipitaka.

     He is perhaps the only monk to have won direct appreciations

     from the Buddha for his spontaneous verse compositions. In the

     Añguttara Nikâya, he is declared as the foremost among those who

     compose spontaneous verses.13 With regard to this, John Ireland

     wrote This gift is evidently a reference to the Parosahassa Sutta

     (S I 192-93) where, after reciting a poem ... the Buddha asked

     Vafigïsa whether it had been devised by him beforehand or had

     occurred to him on the spot (thânaso va tarn patibhanti). When

     Vañglsa affirmed the latter, the Buddha invited him to compose

     some more verses, and the result was the next poem. 14

     These four categories of poets can be explained from

     the perspective of the three means of acquiring knowledge as

     explained in Buddhist philosophy. Accordingly, the three means of

     knowledge are: knowledge based on thinking (cintâ-mayâ-pannà),

     knowledge based on learning (suta-mayâ-pamâ), and knowledge

     based on mental development (bhâvanâ-mayâ-pannà).15 The first

     two categories of poets can be categorized under the first two

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    7/22

     24 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     means of knowledge respectively. The compositions of atthakavi

     and patibhânakavi could be classified as knowledge based on

     mental development (or bhâvanâ-mayâ-pama). Here, bhàvanâ

     has been taken in its broader meaning of 'mental cultivation'16

     by thinking or reflecting into life's experiences, deriving lessons

     therefrom, and expressing these thoughts through poetical

     compositions. This is how knowledge has been built up, perhaps

     with the purpose of edifying others by means of didactic verses as

     done by the atthakavis; or may be with an idea to share the sheer

     joy of great wisdom that these personal experiences bring about

     like the patibhânakavi.

     Using 'European terminologies', Paranavitana has rendered

     these four poets as: romantic , classicist , objective , and

      subjective poets respectively. Further Paranavitana has evaluated

     the four types of poets as follows:

     In similar lists occurring in Buddhist texts, the various

     classes are arranged in ascending order of merit, and we

     may assume that it is so in this case too. From the Buddhist

     point of view, what is most conducive to the realization

     of the Ultimate Truth has the greatest value. We may on

     this principle, take it that cintâ-kavi is the poet whose

     composition is least valuable in this respect, and patibhâna

     kavi the closest to the ideal. This inference is strengthened

     by the fact that patibhâna is the fourth and the highest of the

     methods of realization often associated with the attainment

     of sainthood.17

     Such a justification showing superiority of patibhâna-kavi

     over the other three appears to be a superficial one. It is clear from

     the above discussion that the classification of the four types of

     poets is based on 'poetic capabilities' and 'practices', not on 'the

     realization of the ultimate truth '. Thus the ' romantic poets ' are better

     capable of imagination than the 'classicists' who borrow subject

     matter of their poems from an outside source, while 'didactic poets'

     are concerned about moral implications of their compositions and

     the skillful 'impromptu poets' do not need much effort to compose

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    8/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVll - 2012 25

     a verse. The categorization is not a rigid one; meaning that a

     'romantic poet' has the potentiality and freedom of becoming a

     'classicist', 'didactic', or 'impromptu verse composer' and vis-à

     vis based on one's practices. This reasoning can be strengthened

     by the fact that, although venerable VañgTsa was appreciated by

     the Buddha as a patibhâna-kavi for his extraordinary capability of

     composing instant verses, he was not an arahant at the beginning.

     In one of his verses recorded in the Theragàthâ, he expresses that

     he was disturbed by sensual desires and requested the Buddha to

     teach him the method of extinguishing this fire of sensual desire.18

     What the Buddha appreciated in VañgTsa was his capability of

     composing instant poems which were genuine expressions of

     his thoughts.19 He was a poet before coming in contact with the

     Buddha20 and certainly he developed this quality of composing

     poems by continuous practice as can be gleaned from the fact

     that he has most number of verses to his credit in the Theragàthâ.

     Therefore, asserting patibhànakavi as superior to the other three

     does not seem to be appropriate.

     Paranavitana had presumed that the poets of Sigiri graffiti -

     earliest specimens of extant Sinhalese poetry, were influenced by

     this classification. Such an assertion might be subject to question

     due to the fact that many of the verses in Sigiri Graffiti contain

     erotic themes with no relation to the Buddhist doctrines or the

     themes of conversation as prescribed by the Buddha. However,

     the classification is very important from historical and theoretical

     perspective. Any poet or poetic work can be classified under any

     of these headings. Paranavitana also emphasized the significance

     of this classification of poets as follows: A classification implies

     a theory; and the theory we deduce from it is perhaps the earliest

     on poetics that can be culled from any literature. 21

     Poetic Exercise and Righteous Purpose

     An interesting passage in the Brahmajâlasutta of the Dlghanikâya

     includes 'poetry' (kâveyya) in a long list of base arts [tiracchâna

     vijja].22 Although poetry has been referred to as an 'unrighteous

     livelihood' [micchâjlvâ] of many contemporary Brahmins and

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    9/22

     26 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     recluses, there is no elaboration to how it was practised and what

     its contents were. Rhys Davids supposes, in this passage, by poetry

      impromptu hymning, ballad singing, and the composition of

     poems are meant. 23 In order to understand this passage, we need

     to locate it in the total context of the Brahmajàlasutta. This sutta is

     of immense importance in understanding the society and various

     philosophical views prevalent at the Buddha's time. The Buddha

     was stimulated to preach this sutta with the purpose of explicating

     various factors, [such as behavioral, moral, supernatural,

     intellectual or philosophical and spiritual] that general people

     take into consideration when talking about a recluse and brahmin

     [.sramanabrdhmana]. Some of these practices relevant to our

     present discussion include, dancing, singing, or instrumental

     music, theatrical performances, ballad recitations, music played

     by hand-clapping, cymbals, and drums; art exhibitions and

     acrobatic performances .., 24 The Buddha presents these items as

     an objective observer, with a clear indication that, many people

     would praise the Buddha and his disciples as they refrain from

     practising these base arts that Brahmins and sramanas engaged in.

     Venerable Buddhaghosa writing in the fifth century CE, illustrates

     'ballad recitations' [akkhána, probably corresponding to Sanskrit

     âkhyâna or âkhyàyikà]25 referring to talks on Mahàbhârata as

      the war of Bharatas etc. When these are being discussed ,

     he contends one should not even go there. 26 Poetry [kâveyyà]

     has been illustrated by Venerable Buddhaghosa as the works of

     four types of poets27 as mentioned above. In addition, he explains

      practising poetry was done as a means of livelihood and it was

     done for worldly or mundane purposes. 28 The allusion seems to

     be that it was not the poetry composition itself that was denounced,

     but, the manner in which poetry had been used and some fraudulent

     purposes that might have been involved in this practice. The poetry

     that the Brahmins practised at that time were certainly the Vedas

     and their ancillary texts, which occasionally contain passages of

     high aesthetic merits. Yet, by the time of the Buddha, many of the

     Vedic verses came to be manipulated and practised for ritualistic

     and sacrificial (yañña, hutam) purposes. The Dhammapada, for

     example, referring to the Vedic sacrifices connected to fire (aggi,

     in Sanskrit Agni, indeed the subject of the first poem of the Rig

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    10/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LV11 - 2012 27

     Veda), maintains, Though for a hundred years, one should tend

     the sacrificial fire in the forest, yet if only for a moment, one should

     worship those of perfected minds, that worship is indeed better

     than a century of sacrifice. 29 The Brahmajâlasutta itself mentions

     the various ways Vedic mantras were used at that time for

     bringing good luck and bad luck, procuring abortions, using spells

     to bind the tongue, binding the jaw, making the hands jerk, causing

     deafness ... 30 This aspect of using Vedic verses in a destructive

     manner, which does not lead one to the supreme purification of

     mind, was severely criticized by the Buddhists. Apart from these

     negative aspects of poetic exercise, some illustrations of the way

     poetry was used are found in the Pâli texts.

     Venerable Vañgisa in a short autobiographical poem

     recalled that previously he had been a poet, drunk or obsessed in

     poetry [káveyyamatta] and used to travel in different cities. In the

     poem, Venerable Vañgisa expresses the defect of such practices

     and the consolation he gained from the Buddha's teachings.31

     Regarding his early life, Malalasekere wrote He belonged to a

     brahmin family and was proficient in the Vedas. He gained repute

     by tapping on skulls with his finger nail and telling thereby where

     the owners of the skull were reborn. During three years, he thus

     gained much money. Then, in spite of the protests of his colleagues,

     he went to see the Buddha, who gave him the skull of an arahant

     ... Vañgisa could make nothing of this. 32 Probably Vañgisa used

     to compose his verses in order to read skulls. It was perhaps the

     obsession (matta) with poetry that Vañgisa was much remorseful

     about. Buddhism would maintain that obsession of any kind is an

     obstruction on the path of realizing the ultimate truth.33

     In the Mahà-ummaggajàtaka34, we see a king following the

     instructions of one of his rôyal advisers, calls a congregation of

     wise men and poets to exhibit their excellence in composing poems

     in praise of the beauty of the king's daughter. The best composer

     of them would be rewarded in abundance. The poems would be

     put to melodic tunes to be sung by the best singers and musicians

     in the country to publicize the beauty of the princess among the

     beings of earth and deities of heaven, and subsequently to soften

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    11/22

     28 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     the mind of another king. Since the purpose of the king was to

     succeed in a political trick, and since the king is presented not as

     virtuous one in the whole story, the importance and emphasis of

     'righteous purpose' in a good poetic composition, not the ornate

     features, become clear.

     However, this critical viewpoint of the absence of'righteous

     purpose' in the use of poetry was not limited to the non-Buddhist

     compositions only. The Buddha foresaw a time (perhaps similar

     to the time that we are living) when his discourses or doctrines

     would encounter the similar fate at the hands of Bhikkhus. In such

     a time, the Buddha asserts, the discourses of the Tathàgata, that

     are deep, deep in meaning, supramundane, dealing with emptiness,

     are being recited, they will not think those teachings should be

     studied and mastered. But when those discourses that are mere

     poetry composed by poets, beautiful in words and phrases, created

     by outsiders, spoken by their disciples, are being recited, they will

     be eager to listen to them, will lend an ear to them, will apply their

     minds to understand them; and they will think those teachings

     should be studied and mastered. 35

     This statement is significant in several aspects. It shows a

     comparison between the use and purpose of the Buddha's discourses

     and poetical works of outsiders or non-Buddhists. Buddhist

     discourses, with depth of meaning and philosophy, are ultimately

     concerned with supramundane realities; their aim is to understand

     the emptiness or non-substantiality of phenomenal existence.

     Poetical works of non-Buddhists, on the other hand, with linguistic

     elegance, concern with low and mundane matters. The phrase

     'outsiders' [bâharikâ], however, should not be interpreted to mean

     all Non-Buddhist literature, but, that which deal with superficial

     subjects and are not concerned with 'the realization of the ultimate

     truth of emptiness'. This statement is also an illustration of the

     phrase 'kàveyyamattâ' (obsession with poetry, here emphasized

     in phrases like 'reciting, eager to listen, will lend an ear') that

     Vangïsa frequently used. The Buddha's preemptive warning was

     to retain the depth of meaning, understand the supramundane and

     realize the truth of emptiness as taught by the Buddha, instead of

     being obsessed with poetical compositions of others.

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    12/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LVII - 2012 29

     Thus, we see some deceptive elements in the use of poetry

     by Brahmins and recluses. The tone of Brahmajâlasutta including

     poetry as a base art, is not antagonistic or one that reproves

     the practice outright. One reason why poetry was considered a

     debased form of art was because it would not lead one to the final

     goal which is the supreme purity of mind and attainment of perfect

     enlightenment. From the above references, we learn that poems

     were practised, with elegant expressions, in order to captivate

     general people and generate some good impression of the poet's

     capability in the minds of the listeners. Those who were immersed

     only in the exercise of poetry, as was VañgTsa in early part of his life,

     and were unable to see any other truth beyond this poetic exercise

     would not be appreciated by Buddhists. The Buddha emphatically

     admonishes Bhikkhus to aspire for understanding higher realities.

      There are, monks, other matters, profound, hard to see, hard to

     understand, peaceful, excellent, beyond mere thought, subtle, to

     be experienced by the wise, which the Tathàgata, having realized

     them by his own super-knowledge, proclaims, and about which

     those who would truthfully praise the Tathàgata would rightly

     speak. 36

     Communicational Ethics and Thematic Choice

     Poetry is a form of communication of ideas, and is inherently

     linked with the ethics of speech. Verbal communication, as

     explained in Buddhist ethics, can be true or false, pleasant or

     unpleasant, and well spoken or badly spoken.37 These three pairs

     of dualities confirm three important features of the use of language

     from Buddhist perspective: purpose and contents which must be

     truthful; sound effects which should not be coarse; and the mode

     or methods of speaking wherein a proper selection of words is

     important. The positive aspects of them are obviously encouraged

     by the Buddha. The negative aspects would be discouraged if

     one speaks or writes false or true contents with an unrighteous

     intention; if the sound effects are not pleasant to listen or creating

     unrighteous attitudes in the listeners' minds; and even if a good

     intention is not expressed in a proper way using proper words. In

     addition to these three aspects of good speech, the Buddha adds

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    13/22

     30 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     another factor dhamma - truth, law etc. in the same list. In the

     sutta, it is recorded that Venerable Vañglsa was overwhelmed by

     this discourse, and produced his own metrical version of it at that

     very moment. Certainly, he considered these features as guiding

     principles while composing his poems of which there is a good

     collection recorded in Theragàtha and Samyutta Nikâya.38

     Right speech, maintaining to refrain from falsehood

     (musâvâdâ), malicious talks (pisunâvâcâ), harsh words

     (pharusâvàcâ), and meaningless talks (sampappalàpâ), forms an

     important organ in the Buddhist middle path. Of these four factors,

     sampappalàpa underwent significant expansion of meaning within

     the suttas and also at the hands of later commentators. Subject-wise

     there are several enumerations of number of topics considered

     inappropriate and inferior [tiracchàna] for monks to engage in

     conversations.39 These inappropriate forms of talks include talks

     on kings, robbers, ministers, war, women etc.

     These talks are referred to as low, vulgar, concerning

     ordinary worldly people, insignificant, not contributing for

     the (comprehension of) disenchantment (from this world),

     dispassionateness, and destruction of ego, pacification (of

     desires), realization of higher knowledge, enlightenment, and

     attainment of Nibbâna.40 In demonstrating why and how such talks

     are inappropriate for monks, we may recall an incident from the

     Udana.41 Once after coming from alms round and having partaken

     their forenoon meals, some monks gathered at the dhamma hall in

     Jetavana monastery. In the gathering, they began this heated debate

     on the two kings - King Bimbisâra and King Pasenadi Kosala -

     as to who was superior to the other in wealth, property, treasures,

     territory, vehicles, military power, nobility, and munificence.

     The debate continued until the Buddha came to the hall in the

     evening and inquired what they had been talking about. Being

     replied accordingly, the Buddha admonished that young men of

     good families, ordained as they were, must not engage in such

     talks. In brief, the Buddha instructed that when monks gather at a

     place, they should engage in talks on dhamma or maintain noble

     silence. In a verse that immediately follows this discussion, the

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    14/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVII - 2012 31

     Buddha emphasizes that eliminating desires or craving is sixteen

     times greatly blissful than the sensual and divine pleasures. An

     important implication here is that engaging in the inappropriate or

     non-dhammic talks, there is high probability of going on with an

     unresolved controversy leading to no result of significance. This

     admonition certainly influenced in the literary practices of monks

     concerning their selection of subject matters.

     In illustrating talks related to the dhamma and having

     qualities opposite to the inappropriate talks mentioned above,

     ten themes are enumerated in a popular list. They are: talks on

     little needs, contentment, seclusion, less or no contact (with

     people), initiation of perseverance (in dhammic practices), on

     morality, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and talks on seeing

     or comprehending the knowledge of liberation.42 One advances

     on the Buddhist path by following these, and conversely begins

     to understand the significance of these and undertakes them from

     one's own accord as one progresses on the path.

     The Buddha's gradual preaching of the dhamma, known

     as ânupubbïkathâ, has the sequence of subjects such as liberality,

     morality, divinity, pointing out the danger, folly, defilements of

     sensual objects, and inducing people for renunciation.43 This

     sequence too had immense impacts in the use of narratives in the

     texts containing kathâ-s. Most of the stories used therein were to

     illustrate one or the other of these themes, which were broadly

     categorized into ten perfections (or par amis).** Furthermore,

     the Dhammapada repeatedly emphasizes that a verse with some

     significance and depth of meaning is better than thousands of

     meaningless verses.45

     The Buddha's enunciation of meaningless talks

     [sampappalâpa] had been expanded to such an extent that

     later commentators even forbid the reading of epics like the

     Mahâbhârata and Râmâyana, referred to as stories of the 'war of

     Bharatas' and 'abduction of Sïtà' respectively.46 Such prohibitions

     were made, perhaps, when the stories of the Mahâbhârata and

     Râmâyana were gaining popularity in Sri Lanka where a great

     king Kumàradàsa even wrote an excellent epic 'Jânakïharana '

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    15/22

     32 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     [Abduction of Jânakï or STtà]. Despite forbidding these stories,

     Buddhists themselves could not escape their indelible influences.

     Therefore, we see that when the commentator of the DTghanikàya

     was condemning these stories as 'nonsense', the commentator

     of the Jàtaka included non-Buddhist stories like the story of

     Râma [in Dasarathajàtaka] and Krishna [in Ghatapanditajâtaka

     of Jàtakâtthakathâ and Kanhapetavatthu and Añkurapetavatthu

     of Petavatthupâli\, identifying some characters as connected

     to the Buddha and his disciples in the past. However, these

     adaptations were garbed in the principles of Buddhist doctrines

     and they aim at moralizing and inducing their readers to follow

     the path of wisdom. These observations construct an ethical and

      soteriological ground for the development of Buddhist literary

     theory.

     The Basic Elements of a Poem

     In another instance, an analysis of the basic parts of a metrical

     composition is seen. Therein metre is explained as the scaffolding

     of a verse; letters or syllables as its beautification; names as the

     basis; and a poet is figuratively shown as a dwelling place of

     them.47 48 In the commentary, it is further clarified as follows:

     Metres beginning with the gàyatti are the scaffolding of

     verses; for one beginning the preliminary verses considers,

      in which metre should it be?

    Syllables make up words and words make up a verse, and a

     verse reveals the meaning.

     One composing a verse composes it relying on some name

     such as the ocean or the earth .

     Verses come forth from the poet, and thus he is their

     support.49

     This classification is historically important as it is among

     the earliest records, if not the first, of splitting up a poem into its

     fundamental components. It is clear that discussions on metres

     were already prevalent in Buddha's time and the Buddha was

     proficient in them. Why were metres so important? It is obviously

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    16/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS). Vol. LVI1 - 2012 33

     for the convenience of memorization. At least in the Bhüridatta

     Jàtaka, the purpose is given in the following manner:

     Sentences are made and learnt by rote

     In metric forms not easily forgot;

     The obscurity but tempts the foolish mind,

     They swallow all they are told with impulse blind.50

     Discussions on the basic parts of a poem as recorded in

     this instance might have been influenced by already existing

     Vedic metres. In subsequent centuries following the earliest

     Pâli literature, Sanskrit poetics developed greatly. Following the

     developments in Sanskrit prosody, prominently the Vrttaratnakara

     of Kedàra Bhatta, ancient Pâli scholars too emulated the same in

     Pâli. The best work on metres in Pâli is the Vuttodaya of Venerable

     Sañgharakkhita.

     Conclusion

     According to the above discussion, we see that there are two

     aspects of the hypothesized Buddhist literary theory - analytic

     and evaluative. Classification of poets based on their sources and

     expressions and dividing fundamental components of a poem are

     parts of its analytic aspect. The evaluative aspect is fundamentally

     based on the principle of righteousness. Persistent emphasis on

     righteous thinking and expression in Buddhist ethics are closely

     connected in this process of evaluation of the quality of a literary

     work. The development of the theory happened in a process of

     expansion of certain 'ethical expressions' like the sampappalâpa

     in recommending certain themes and rejecting others. Even

     a cursory glimpse of the Pâli literature developed over the

     centuries would show that Pâli litterateure closely adhered to

     these recommendations. Thematic innovations, linguistic

     embellishments and incorporation of non-Buddhist narratives

     were done within the limits of these principles. When a Buddhist

     monk or an ardent follower of the Buddhist path is appreciating

     or critiquing a verse from Rabindranath Tagore's Gitañjali or

     Walt Whitman's Songs of Myself, we would notice that the same

     principles are at work.

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    17/22

     34 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     Endnotes

     1 During the process of my research I made a presentation on this

     topic in the 4th Annual Conference of the Royal Asiatic Society of

     Sri Lanka. An abstract of that presentation was published in the

     conference Book of Abstracts. I have made some methodological

     changes to the plan of my research as indicated in that abstract. See

     Upali Sramon 2011.1 would like to thank Prof. Oliver Abeynayake

     who was present in that conference for sharing some of his

     experiences and views in Buddhist literary criticism. I also thank

     Mr. Rohana Seneviratne, Dr. Amarakeerthi Liyanage, and Dr. Hema

     Goonatilake who read some parts of this paper and provided me

     valuable suggestions and encouragement.

     2 It is noteworthy here that I have avoided the much discussed question

     on the aesthetic position of Buddhist liberated saints, since it would

     result in reiteration of some facts. Another element consciously

     avoided here is Buddhist analysis of words and meanings which is

     more abstract, and relates more to Buddhist linguistic theory and

     epistemology, but, can also be connected to our study.

     3 J. C. Wright 77ie Pali Subodhâlahkâra and Dandin's Kâvyàdarsa

    in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University

     of London, Vol. 65, No. 2 (2002), pp. 323-341.

     4 kavikatâ kâveyyà cittàkkharâ cittabyanjanâ bâhirakà sâvakabhàsitâ

     (SN, II, 267)

     5 As to why it was referred to as a practice of outsiders, we shall have

     occasion to return to this definition in the section on poetic exercise

     and righteous purpose.

     6 The navañgasatthusdsana consists of Suttas (Sutta), mixed prose

     (geyya), exegesis (veyyâkarana), verses (gâthâ), solemn utterances

     {udàna), sayings of the Blessed One (itivuttaka), birth stories

     (jàtaka), extraordinary things (abbhutadhamma), and analysis

     (vedalla) . (Nyanatiloka Mahathera, Buddhist Dictionary, Digital

     edition, see sâsana,)

     7 Some parts of Suttanipàta, Itivuttaka and Udàna have contents in

     mixed verse and prose.

     8 For an account of the references to theatrical performances in

     Tipitaka see O.H. De. A. Wijesekera (1994), the chapter on 'Buddhist

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    18/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSLfNS), Vol. LVII - 2012 35

     Evidence for the Early Existence of Drama' in Buddhist and Vedic

     Studies, pp. 13-24, Motilal Banarssidas Publishers, Delhi.

     9 I have compressed the nine-fold divisions of the doctrine from the

     perspective of stories and verses as contained in the form of suttas,

     gâthâ, and kathâs.

     10 A. K. Warder, Indian Kâvya Literature, Vol.1, p.4.

     11 Morris, Rev. Richard ( 1885), ed. Añguttara Nikàya II, PTS, London,

     p.230

     12 A. K. Warder, Indian Kâvya Literature, Vol. 2, pp. 23.

     13 Morris, Rev. Richard (1885), ed. Aûguttaranikàya, I, PTS, London,

     p.21.

     14 Ireland, John D. ( 1997), VahgTsa an Early Buddhist Poet, The Wheel

     Publication No. 417/418, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, see,

     introduction. For an exposition on the four poets and Vañgísa see

     also A. K. Warder, Indian Kâvya Literature, Vol. 2, pp. 23ff.

     15 Aparâ'pi tisso paññá: cintâmayâ paññá, sutamayâ paññá

     bhâvanâmayâ paññá. (DN. Ill 219)

     16 Pali-English Dictionary, ed. Rhys Davids and William Stede, PTS,

     see bhâvana

     17 Paranavitana, S, (1956), Sigiri Graffiti: Being Sinhalese Verses of

     the 8'\ 9th, and 10 ' centuries, Volume -1, Oxford University Press,

     p.cxcii.

     18 Kâmarâgena dayhâmi cittam me paridayhati Sâdhu nibbâpanarri

     brûhi anukampâya gotama. (Theragâtha, PTS, p. 110).

     19 Feer, M. Leon, (ed.) Samyutta Nikâya, Vol. I, PTS, London, ppl88

     189.

     20 Malalasekere G.P., Dictionary of Pâli Proper Names, PTS, London,

     1960, p.802. see below.

     21 Paranavitana, S, Ibid, 1956, The following remark has been made

     by the Professor in a foot-note It is generally accepted that the

     Añguttara Nikâya was known as a compilation in the third century

     B.C. the particular passage quoted was commented upon by

     Buddhaghosa in the fifth century C.E.

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    19/22

     36 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     22 Davids, T. W. Rhys and Prof. J Estin, [Pâli edition] The DTgha

     Nikàya, Vol. I, Pâli Texts Society (PTS), London, 1949, p. 11. For

     English translation of the passage I have referred the following

     translation: Walshe, Maurice, The Long Discourses of the Buddha:

     a translation of the DTgha Nikàya, Wisdom Publication, Boston,

     1987, rep. 1995, p.72.

     23 Davids, T. W. Rhys, [tr.] Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I, PTS,

     London, 1956, p.22, foot note 3.

     24 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, The Discourse on All-Embracing Net of Views,

     English Translation of the Brahmajàlasutta and its Commentaries,

     Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1978, reprint 1992, p.55.

     Maurice Walshe renders the relevant passage (naccam gïtam

     vâditam pekkham akkhânam pâfissaram vetàlam kumbhathûnam

     sobhanakam cartdàlam vamsam dhovanam, Dïghanikâya I, PTS

     edition, p.6) as dancing, singing, music, displays, recitations, hand

     music, cymbals and drums, fairy-shows, acrobatic and conjuring

     tricks... [Walshe, Maurice op.cit. 1987, rep. 1995, p.70]. Although

     one would have expected poetry (kâveyya) to appear in this list from

     Middle section on Morality (majjhimasïïa), it in fact, has been listed

     in a later list of the large section on morality (mahâsïlà).

     25 For a distinction between âkhyâyikà and kathâ, see Sushil Kumar

     De, The Akhyayika and the Katha in Classical Sanskrit , in Bulletin

     of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 3, No.

     3, 1924, pp. 507-517

     26 Akkhânanti bhàratayujjhanâdikam. Yasmim utthâne kathïyati,

     tattha gantumpi na vattati. (Dïghanikâya Atthakathà I, PTS edition,

     p.84)

     27 kâveyyanti cattâro, bhikkhave, kavi. Katamo cattàro? Cintâkavi,

     Sutakavi, atthakavi, patibhânakavïti (AN IV.231). Imesam catunnam

     kavïnam attano cintàvasena va: vessantaro nâma ahosF'ti-âdini

     sutvâ sutavasena va; imassa ayam attho, evam tam yojessâmïti

     evam atthavasena va; kiñcideva disvâ tappatibhâgam kattabbam

     karissâmïti evam thânuppattikapatibhânavasena vâ; jïvikatthâya

     kabyakaranam. Lokâyatam vuttameva. [T.W. Rhys Davids and J.E.

     Carpenter (ed.1929; 2nd ed. 1968) Sumaùgalavilàsinï- Commentary

     to the Dïghanikâya, Vol. I, PTS ]

     28 Ibid, jïvikatthâya kabyakaranam. Lokâyatam vuttameva

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    20/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LVH-2012 37

     29 Verse 106 -107, The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom,

     translated from the Pali by Acharya Buddharakkhita, with an

     Introduction by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Kandy: Buddhist Publication

     Society, 1985.

     The Pâli version of the gàthâs from PTS edition of the Dhammapada

     Yo ca vassasatam jantu aggim paricare vane (107)

     Ekañca bhâvitattânam muhuttampi püjaye

     Sâyeva püjaná seyyáyañce vassasatam hutam.

     30 Walshe, Maurice (1987, rep.1995). op.cit. 72.

     31 kâveyyamattâ vicarimhà pubbe, gàmà gâmam purâpurani

    (Feer, M. Leon, (ed.) Samyutta Nikâya, Vol. I, PTS, London, p. 196. )

     Translation - Drunk with Diving art of old we roamed/From town

     and village onto town again. (Davids, Mrs. Rhys, Samyutta Nikâya

     I, Pâli Texts Society, London, p.248.)

     32 See, Vañgísa in Malalasekere G.P., Dictionary of Pâli Proper Names,

     PTS, London, 1960, p.802.

     33 Appamâdo amatapadam pamâdo maccuno padam

     Appamattâ na mïyanti ye pamattâ yathâ matâ. (Dhammapada verse

     21)

     34 Fausball, V. (ed.) The Jàtaka together with its Commentaries Being

     Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, Volume VI, PTS,

     London, 1964, pp.329-478. The particular episode is found in p.410.

     35 Bodhi Bhikkhu, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New

     Translation of the Samyuttanikâya, Vol. I, Wisdom Publication,

     Boston, 2000, 709.

     36 Walshe, Maurice, op.cit. 1987, rep.1995, 73.

     37 Catuhi bhikkhave añgehi samannâgatâ vâcâ subhásitá hoti no

     dubbhásitá anavajjâ ca, ananuvajjá ca viññünam. Katamehi catuhi?

     Idha bhikkhave bhikkhü subhâsitam yeva bhâsati no dubbhâsitam.

     Dhammarri yeva bhâsati no adhammam. piyarri yeva bhâsati no

     appiyam. Saccam yeva bhâsati no alikam. Imehi kho bhikkhave

     catühi añgehi samannâgatâ vâcâ subhâsitâ hoti no dubbhâsitâ

     anavajjâ ca ananuvajjâ ca vimûnanti. (Feer, M. Leon, op. cit.,

     pp 188-189).

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    21/22

     38 Elements of a Buddhist Literary

     38 Ireland, John D., Vañgísa an Early Buddhist Poet, The Wheel

     Publication No. 417/418, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy,

     1997.

     39 rdjakatham corakatham mahâmattakatham sendkatham

     bhayakathamyuddhakatham annakatham pdnakatham vatthakatham

     sayanakatham mâlâkatham gandhakatham ñdtikathani ydnakatham

     gâmakatham nigamakatham nagarakatham janapadakatham

     itthikatham sürakatham visikhâkatharrt kumbhatthànakatham

     pubbapetakatham ndnattakatham lokakkhàyikam

     samuddakkhdyikam itibhavâbhavakatham. (DNI, 8-9; MNIII113).

     Lily de Silva gives an account on ethical aspects of speech in her

     short but interesting essay 'Speech: the privilege and the problem

     of Man' in Y. Karunadasa, 1990 ed.; Ananda: Essays in honour of

     Ananda W.P. Guruge, published by the felicitation committee.

     40 hind gamma pothujjanikd anariyd anatthasamhitá na nibbiddya na

     viragdya na nirodhaya na upasamdya na abhiññdya na sambodhdya

     na nibbdndya sarrivattati (MN III 113).

     41 PTS edition p. 10

     42 appicchakathd santutthikathd pavivekakathd, asañsaggakathd,

     viriydrambhakathd, silakathd, samddhikathd, paññdkatha,

     vimuttikathd vimuttiñdnadassanakathd, iti evarüpim katham

     kathessàmïti. Itiha tattha sampajdno hoti.

     43 ddnakatham sllakatham saggakatham kamdnam adinavam okdram

     sañkilesam nekkhamme ca dnisamsam pakdsesi (Vin.1,15).

     44 Ten qualities leading to Buddhahood: (1) perfection in giving (or

     liberality; dàna-pàramï), (2) morality (slla- pàramï), (3) renunciation

     (nekkhamma- pâramî), (4) wisdom (paññá- pàramï), (5) energy

     (viriya- pàramï), (6) patience (or forbearance; khanti- pàramï), (7)

     truthfulness (sacca- pàramï), (8) resolution (adhitthàna- pàramï), (9)

     loving-kindness (mettà- pàramï) (10) equanimity (upekkhà- pàramï).

     [Nyanatiloka Mahathera, Buddhist Dictionary, Digital edition, see

     pàramï]

     45 Vide Sahassavagga of the Dhammapada

     46 Anatthaviññápiká kàyavacûpayogasamutthâpikâ akusalacetanâ

     samphappalàpo. So àsevanamandatàya appasâvajjo,

     âsevanamahantatâya mahàsàvajjo, tassa dve sambhàrà - bhàratayu

    This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Mon, 07 Mar 2016 02:19:31 UTCAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

    http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

  • 8/18/2019 Elements of a Buddhist Literary Theory as Depicted in Pali Literature

    22/22

     Venerable Upali Sramon JRASSL(NS), Vol. LV11 - 2012 39

     ddhasîtâharanâniratthâpurekkhâratâ, tathârûpam kathâ kathanañca

     (Díghanikáya-atthakathá, I. 75).

     47 In Pâli - chando nidânam gâthànant, akkharâ tesam viyañjanam,

     nâmsannissitâ gâthâ, kavi gâthânani âsayo [The Saipyutta Nikâya

     of the Sutta-pitaka, part-I, Sagâthavagga, ed. M. Leon Feer, PTS,

     London, p.38.]

     48 Literal translation of the above passage -Metre's the hidden source

     whence verses flow./Letters it is that issue from that source/'This

     names of things whereon verses are hung,/The bard is the abode

     wherein they dwell. (Davids, Mrs. Rhys assisted by Süryagoda

     SumangalaThera, The Book of the Kindred Sayings (Saniyuttanikâya)

     or Grouped Suttas, Part I, PTS, London, 1917, p.54).

     Translation of the same passage by Bhikkhu Bodhi -

      Metre is the scaffolding of verses;

     Syllables constitute their phrasing

     Verses rest on a base of names,

     The poet is the abode of verses. (Bodhi, Bhikkhu, The connected

     Discourses of the Buddha - a new translation of the Samyutta

     Nikâya, Volume I, Wisdom Publications, Boston, 2000, p. 130).

     49 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, op.cit., p.379-380, foot note 120.

     50 Cowell, E.B. [tr.]77ie Jâtaka or the Stories of the Buddha's Former

     Births, Vol.VI, Translated by E.B. Cowell and W.H.D. Rouse, Motilal

     Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1990 reprint.

      vàcà katâ giddhikatâ gahitâ,dumocayâ kavyâpathânupannâ.bâlâ

     na cittam vísame niviffham, tad appapañña abhisandahanti.

    (Fausbll, V. (ed.) The Jâtaka together with its Commentaries Being

     Tales of the Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha, PTS, London, 1964,

     p.213).