electronic toll collection

ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION SYSTEM BASED ON RFID (RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION)

TECHNOLOGY

(A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT)

OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BY

Aditya Pandey (09104003) Bikesh Chaudhary (09104012)

Ram Prakash Gupta (09104067)

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Dr. B S Saini Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DR B R AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

JALANDHAR

I

Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar

CERTIFICATE

We hereby certify that the work presented in this report entitled ‘Electronic Toll

Collection System Based on RFID Technology’ in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in

Electronics and Communication Engineering at Dr B R Ambedkar National

Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, is a record of our work carried out during

2012-2013 under the supervision of Dr B S Saini.

We have not submitted the matter embodied in this report to any other

University or Institute for the award of any other degree.

Aditya Pandey Bikesh Chaudhary Ram Prakash Gupta (09104003) (09104012) (09104067)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates is correct to

the best of my knowledge.

Signature of Supervisor:

Name of Supervisor: Dr B S Saini

Designation : Associate Professor

Date :

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Technical education equally comprises of practical and theoretical study. We

cannot achieve anything worthwhile in the field of technical education until and

unless theoretical education acquired in the classroom is effectively wedded to its

practical approach of the modern industry and other means of technical

application. And no academic endeavour can be single handedly accomplished.

This work is no exception.

We express our immense gratitude to our respected and learned guide Dr B S

Saini for his valuable help and guidance. We are indebted to sir for his

encouragement in helping us complete the project.

We are also thankful to Dr Arun Khosla, Head, Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,

Jalandhar and to our respected Director Dr S K Das, for permitting us to utilize all

the necessary facilities of the college.

We are also thankful to Dr R K Sunkaria and all the other staff members of our

department for their kind co-operation and suggestions for improvements in the

project.

We would like to express our deep appreciation towards our classmates for

providing us the necessary suggestions in our project and a cordial environment.

Aditya Pandey (09104003)

Bikesh Chaudhary (09104012)

Ram Prakash Gupta (09104067)

III

ABSTRACT

Our project is development of electronic toll collection (ETC) system using radio

frequency identification (RFID) technology. Research on ETC has been around

since 1992, during which RFID tags began to be widely used in vehicles to

automate toll processes. The proposed RFID system uses tags that are mounted

on the windshields of vehicles, through which information embedded on the tags

are read by RFID readers. The proposed system eliminates the need for motorists

and toll authorities to manually perform ticket payments and toll fee collections,

respectively. Data information are also easily exchanged between the motorists

and toll authorities, thereby enabling a more efficient toll collection by reducing

traffic and eliminating possible human errors.

IV

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

Figure 1.1

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 4.1

Model of Electronic Toll Plaza

Delhi Gurgaon Toll Plaza During Morning Rush Hour

Block Diagram of ETC System

RFID System

Block Diagram of RFID Tag

96-bit RFID Tag Protocol

Hardware of Em-18 Reader Module

Application Circuit for EM-18 Reader Module

Interfacing EM-18 Reader Module with Serial DB-9 Port

Inductive Coupling Between Tag and Reader

Propagation Coupling Between Tag and Reader

ARM Logo

LPC 2148 IC

Pin Diagram of LPC 2148

Architecture of LPC 2148

ARM 7 LPC 2148 Microcontroller Kit

Servo Motor with Motor Driver

Pulse Width Modulation for Servo Motor

Pulse Width Position of different types of Servo Motors

Flowchart of ETC System Algorithm

1

5

7

10

11

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

22

24

25

25

29

INDEX

PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURES

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION (ETC)

1.2 DIAGRAM OF ETC

1.3 COMPONENTS OF ETC

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF ETC

1.5 ETC TECHNOLOGIES

2. PROJECT OVERVIEW

2.1PROBLEM DEFINITION

2.2 MOTIVATION

2.3 WHY RFID

2.4 FLOW CHART

2.5 TOOLS USED

3. HARDWARE

3.1 RFID

3.1.1 DIAGRAM OF RFID

3.1.2 RFID READER PROTOCOL

3.1.3 RFID MODULE

3.1.4 APPLICATION CIRCUIT

I

II

III

IV

1

1

1

2

2

3

5

5

5

6

7

8

10

10

10

11

11

13

3.1.5 TYPES OF RFID TAGS

3.1.6 POWERING OF RFID TAG

3.1.7 OPERATING FREQUENCY

3.2 MICROCONTROLLER

3.2.1 ITRODUCTION TO ARM MICROCONTROLLER

3.2.2 LPC 2148

3.2.3 FEATURES OF LPC 2148

3.2.4 PIN DIAGRAM

3.2.5 ARCHITECTURE

3.2.6 BLUE BOARD LPC 2148

3.3 MOTORS

3.3.1 TYPES OF MOTOR

3.3.2 SERVO MOTOR

3.3.3 SERVO MOTOR WITH MOTOR DRIVER

4. CONCLUSION

5. FUTURE SCOPE OF APPLICATION

REFERENCES

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

14

15

16

17

17

18

18

19

20

21

22

22

23

24

26

27

28

29

30

ETC System Based on RFID Technology

1

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 Electronic toll collection (ETC)

It is a technology enabling the electronic collection of toll payments. It has been

studied by researchers and applied in various highways, bridges, and tunnels

requiring such a process. This system is capable of determining if the car is

registered or not, and then informing the authorities of toll payment violations,

debits, and participating accounts .The most obvious advantage of this technology

is the opportunity to eliminate congestion in tollbooths, especially during festive

seasons when traffic tends to be heavier than normal. It is also a method by which

to curb complaints from motorists regarding the inconveniences involved in

manually making payments at the tollbooths. Other than this obvious advantage,

applying ETC could also benefit the toll operators.

It is purposed that each vehicle would be equipped with a transponder. “The

transponder‟s personalised signal would be picked up when the vehicle passed

through an intersection, and then relayed to a central computer which would

calculate the charge according to the intersection and the type of vehicle and add it

to the vehicle‟s bill.

1.2 DIAGRAM OF ETC

Figure 1.1 : Model of Electronic Toll Plaza


2

1.3 COMPONENTS OF ETC

1. Vehicle Identification

Automatic Vehicle Identification generally involves the use of

Transponders installed in the vehicle, which communicates with roadside

readers to identify the vehicle.

2. Vehicle Classification

Vehicle Classification is needed, as toll charges levied on a vehicle depend

not only on the toll route being used , but on the class of the vehicle –

Car/Jeep/Van, Truck, Bus, Multi Axle Vehicles etc.

3. Transaction Processing

Once the vehicle is identified, the toll charges need to be billed to the user

and the toll collected passed to the toll concessionaire. The ETC system has

to handle this financial transaction in a reliable and secure manner.

4. Violation Enforcement

This system needs to detect and manage cases of a vehicles passes through

an ETC lane without a valid Tag or insufficient funds in its account. Violator

detection and handling is essential for the success of an ETC system –

without policies and systems in place for this, an ETC system will simply

not work.

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION

For the Motorists:

1. Fewer or shorter queues at toll plazas by increasing toll booth service

turnaround rates;

2. Faster and more efficient service (no exchanging toll fees by hand);

3. The ability to make payments by keeping a balance on the card itself or by

loading a registered credit card;

4. The use of postpaid toll statements (no need to request for receipts).


3

For the Toll Operators:

1. Lowered toll collection costs;

2. Better audit control by centralized user account and

3. Expanded capacity without building more infrastructures.

For Government/Society:

1. Savings on fuel and reduction of emissions from idling and repeated stops

for vehicles.

2. Improves transparency of toll transactions.

3. Reduces revenue leakages.

Thus, the ETC system is a win-win situation for both the motorists and toll

operators, which is why it is now being extensively used throughout the world

ETC system commonly utilizes radio frequency identification (RFID) technology.

1.5 ETC TECHNOLOGIES

1. Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC)

Dedicated Short Range Communications is bidirectional communication between

an On Board Unit (OBU) and the Road Side Unit (RSE). This system works within

the 5.8 GHz band within 20-30 MHz.

5.8 Ghz Microwave (Passive)

In this case, the OBU does not have internal power source, like a battery. Instead, it

gets power from the reader. The Reader sends out electromagnetic waves to the

OBU and the antenna induces the energy to power the ICs.

5.8 Ghz (Active)

In this case, two way communications between OBUs and Road Side Units /

Infrastructure is possible. Active OBU has an internal power source, usually a

battery. The OBU use the power to work the IC and broadcasts a signal to the

reader continuously. It is normally used for long distance communication.


4

2. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

There are generally three types of RFID tags: active RFID tags, which contain a

battery and can transmit signals autonomously, passive RFID tags, which have no

battery and require an external source to provoke signal transmission, and battery

assisted passive(BAP) RFID tags, which require an external source to „wake up‟

but have significantly higher read range.

3. GNSS/CN (Global Navigational Satellite System/ Cellular Network System)

It is being used in Germany for commercial vehicle tolling. The location of the

vehicle is tracked using GPS receivers which transmit the information to the

control centre using GSM networks for calculation of toll.

This type of tolling eliminates the need of toll plaza infrastructure along highways.

However, enforcement of violated vehicle is a great challenge

4. Automatic Number Plate Recording (Vehicle Identification using Number

Plate)

In this system, images of the license plates of all vehicles are captured. These are

compared with the database of the license plate of the subscribers. This system

requires a robust system. They are less effective in foggy condition.

5. CALM (Communication Air-Interface, Long and Medium Range)

This technology supports multiple communication media including Cellular,

Infrared and Microwave. However, the ISO has till date, published the CALM

standard only for the infrared medium.


5

CHAPTER 2 : PROJECT OVERVIEW

2.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Design of RFID based Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) System.

To facilitate Electronic payments process financial transactions without

human intervention at toll plazas.

To allow such transactions to be performed while vehicles travel at near

highway cruising speed.

To use RFID for automatic vehicle identification.

2.2 MOTIVATION

Figure 2.1 : Delhi- Gurgaon Toll Plaza during a Morning Rush Hour

Highway expansion has led to a focus on toll collection.

Government of India has ambitious plan for India‟s highway network through

various phases of National Highways Development Project (NHDP), which are

being financed largely through user fees collected for the users of the improved

highways.


6

An emerging priority is to implement an effective toll collection system.

Traditional tolling has come to be associated with delays at collection points and

congestion at toll plazas.

Example can be taken of Delhi-Gurgaon Toll Plaza, where few months ago they

had to stop toll collection for few days due to unmanageable congestion.

Ambitious plan of Government of India to automate all the toll plazas.

We came to know about the ambitious plan of Govt. of India to automate all the

toll plazas throughout the country. Govt. of India formed a Committee, under

Nandan Nilekani, which would suggest the best available technology which could

be used for Electronic Toll Collection (ETC). The committee reviewed the various

ETC technologies, such as Dedicated Short Range Communication(DSRC), RFID-

Active and Passive, GPS based system, Automatic Number Plate Recording

(ANPR) etc., and it came to conclusion that Passive RFID (ISO 18000-6C) based

ETC is appropriate for India.

2.3 WHY RFID?

Passive RFID, besides satisfying functional requirements, is the cheapest solution

available. It is also a reliable, tested solution, despite being a relatively new

technology. It is extremely simple to use and administer, requiring no actions on

the part of the user (the sticker itself can be stuck on the vehicle by the auto vendor

or the manufacturer). It should be emphasized that the most persuasive reason in

favour of passive tags is the cost and low maintenance, it can cost 10% or less than

the cost of alternatives, and requires no battery replacement or any other action on

part of the user.


7

2.4 FLOW CHART

Figure 2.2 : BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ETC SYSTEM

• Tag

• Reader

RFID

• Microcontroller

• Database (PC)

Signal Processing • Gate Arm Motor

Control

• Traffic Lights Control

Control


8

2.5 TOOLS USED

1. Keil Software:

The Keil products from ARM include C/C++ compilers, debuggers, integrated

environments, RTOS, simulation models, and evaluation boards for ARM ,

Cortex-M, Cortex-R and LPC214x processor families. It supports every level of

software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student

just learning about embedded software development

2. Proteus Design Software:

Proteus is software for microprocessor simulation, schematic capture,

and printed circuit board (PCB) design. It is developed by Labcenter Electronics

System Component of Proteus

ISIS Schematic Capture - a tool for entering designs.

PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE simulation - industry standard SPICE3F5

simulator combined with a digital simulator.

ARES PCB Layout - PCB design system with automatic component placer,

rip-up and retry auto-router and interactive design rule checking.

VSM - Virtual System Modelling lets co simulate embedded software for

popular micro-controllers alongside hardware design.

System Benefits Integrated package with common user interface and fully

context sensitive help.

3. FLASH MAGIC

Flash Magic is a tool which used to program hex code in EEPROM of micro-

controller. It is a freeware tool. It only supports the micro-controller of Philips and

NXP. We can burn a hex code into those controllers which supports ISP (in

system programming) feature. If your device supports ISP then you can easily burn

a hex code into EEPROM of your device.


9

It supports several chips like ARM Cortex M0, M3, M4, ARM7 and 8051. It

uses Serial

or Ethernet protocol to program the flash of device.

4. HYPER TERMINAL

Hyper terminal is used for data communication via serial port com or TCP/IP

Winsock. HyperTerminal can be used to set up a dial-up connection to another

computer through the internal modem using Telnet or to access a bulletin board

service (BBS) in another computer. It can also be used to set up a connection for

data transfer between two computers (such as your desktop computer and a

portable computer) using the serial ports and for serial-port control of external

devices or systems such as scientific instruments, robots, or radio communications

stations. HyperTerminal can also be used as a troubleshooting tool when setting up

and using a modem. We can send commands through hyper terminal to make sure

that our modem is connected properly.


10

CHAPTER 3 : HARDWARE

3.1 RFID (RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION)

RFID is a generic term used to identify technologies utilizing radio waves to

automatically identify people or objects. RFID technology was first introduced in

1948 when Harry Stockman wrote a paper exploring RFID technology entitled,

“Communication by Means of Reflected Power”. RFID technology has evolved

since then, and has been implemented in various applications, such as in

warehouse management, library system, attendance system, theft prevention, and

so on. In general, RFID is used for tracking, tracing, and identifying objects.

A complete RFID system consists of a transponder (tag), reader/writer, antenna,

and computer host. The transponder, better known as the tag, is a microchip

combined with an antenna system in a compact package. The microchip contains

memory and logic circuits to receive and send data back to the reader. These tags

are classified as either active or passive tags. Active tags have internal batteries

that allow a longer reading range, while passive tags are powered by the signal

from its reader and thus have shorter reading range. Tags could also be classified

based on the content and format of information. The classifications range from

Class 0 to Class 5. These classes have been determined by the Electronic Product

Code (EPC) Global Standard. In the table below, classes refer to a tag‟s basic

functionality (i.e., it either has a memory or an onboard power), while generation

refers to the tag specification‟s major release or version number.

3.1.1 DIAGRAM OF RFID SYSTEM

Figure 3.1 : RFID System


11

Figure 3.2 : Block Diagram of Passive RFID Tag

Figure 3.3 : 96-bit RFID Tag protocol

3.1.2 RFID READER PROTOCOL

96 bit EPC tags have been defined

• Allows for unique IDs for 268 million companies

• Each company can then have 16 million object classes

• Each object or SKU can have 68 billion serial numbers assigned to it

3.1.3 RFID Module

Features of EM-18 Reader Module:

Reading Distance: 6-10 cm

Dimension: 40mmx20mmx8mm (LxHxW)

Frequency:125kHz


12

Communications Parameter: 9600 bps,8,N,1

Communication Interface: TTL Serial Interface, Wiegand Output

Compatible Card codes:Manchester64-bit,modules64

Current Rating: 35mA (Max)

Operating Voltage: 4.6V - 5.4VDC

Antenna : Integrated

Figure 3.4 : Hardware for EM-18 Reader Module

EM-18 module is a 9 pin device which works on the protocol of ISO 18000-

6C which is best suitable for Indian context.

We supply a highly rectified power voltage of 5V to the RFID to avoid any

kind of error in signal reading.

After each and every read, the module notify with a buzzer beep and a LED

glow on a successful read.


13

The communication of module, with arm7 controller kit and computer, is

done using RS-232 protocol. To follow that protocol for communication

max-232 IC is used on the EM-18 module board.

RS-232 is a protocol used for serial communication which works on the

baud rate of 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400.

3.1.4 APPLICATION CIRCUIT FOR EM-18 READER MODULE

Figure 5 : Application Circuit for EM-18 Reader Module


14

Figure 3.6 : Interfacing EM-18 Reader module with Serial DB9 Port

3.1.5 Types of RFID Tags

Active Tags

Battery powered

Higher storage capacities (512 KB)

Longer read range (300 feet)

Typically can be re-written by RF Interrogators

Cost around 50 to 250 dollars

Passive Tags

Do not require power – Draws from Interrogator Field

Lower storage capacities (few bits to 1 KB)

Shorter read ranges (4 inches to 15 feet)

Usually Write-Once-Read-Many/Read-Only tags

Cost around 25 cents to few dollars


15

3.1.6 Powering of RFID Tag

In case of passive RFID device we have to power up the RFID tag from distant

position using the signal transmitted by RFID reader. This needs coupling between

the transmitter and reciever device and there are two method of powering up of a

passive RFID tag.

1. Inductive Coupling

In terms of operation, inductive coupling is the transfer of energy from one circuit

to another via the mutual inductance between the two circuits. For RFID inductive

coupling to be used, both the tag and the reader will have induction or "antenna"

coils. When the tag is placed close enough to the reader the field from the reader

coil will couple to the coil from the tag. A voltage will be induced in the tag that

will be rectified and used to power the tag circuitry

RFID inductive coupling is normally used on the lower RFID frequencies - often

LF, i.e. below 135 kHz or at 13.56 MHz. This type of powering of RFID tag is

used for short range RFID device.

Figure 3.7 : Inductive Coupling between Tag and Reader


16

2. Propagation Coupling:

This technique for powering of RFID tag is used for long range of RFID device.

Figure 3.8 : Propation Coupling between Tag and Reader

3.1.7 OPERATING FREQUENCIES:

RFID device work on different range of frequency from 125 KHz to 5.8 GHz.

Selection of operating range is decided on the basis of application and

requirement. For the purpose of Electronic toll collection system we need a

bandwidth of 868 MHz to 915 MHz which falls in the category of Ultra High

Frequency bandwidth. This BW is suitable for Indian context as this frequency is

highly power and cost efficient.


17

3.2 Microcontroller

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small

computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory,

and programmable input/output peripherals.

3.2.1 Introduction to ARM

ARM stands for Advanced RISC Machines

An ARM controller is basically a 32bit controller designed and licensed by

ARM Holdings, a microprocessor design company headquartered in

England, founded in 1990 by Herman Hauser.

It is one of the most used controller currently on the market.

Frequency Ranges

LF 125 KHz

HF 13.56 MHz

UHF 868 - 915

MHz

Microwave 2.45 GHz &

5.8 GHz

Typical Max Read Range

(Passive Tags)

Shortest 1”-12”

Short 2”-24”

Medium 1‟-10‟

Longest 1‟-15‟

Tag Power Source

Generally passive tags only, using

inductive coupling

Generally passive tags only, using

inductive or capacitive coupling

Active tags with integral battery or passive tags

using capacitive storage,

E-field coupling

Active tags with integral battery or passive tags using capacitive storage, E-field coupling

Data Rate Slower Moderate Fast Faster

Ability to read near

metal or wet surfaces

Better Moderate Poor Worse

Applications

Access Control & Security

Identifying widgets through

manufacturing processes or in

harsh environments Ranch animal identification Employee IDs

Library books Laundry

identification Access Control Employee IDs

supply chain tracking

Highway toll Tags

Highway toll Tags Identification of private vehicle

fleets in/out of a yard or facility Asset tracking

Figure 3.9 : ARM Logo


18

3.2.2 LPC 2148

The LPC2148 microcontrollers, manufactured by NXP (PHILIPS), are based

on a 32-bit ARM7TDMI-S CPU and combines with embedded high speed

flash memory of 512 KB.

It has 128-bit wide memory interface and a unique accelerator architecture

which enable 32-bit execution at maximum clock rate. For critical code size

applications, the alternative 16-bit Thumb mode reduces code by more than

30% with minimal performance penalty.

Due to its tiny size, low power consumption, blend of serial comm.

interfaces, various 32-bit timers, ADCs/DAC, PWM and 45 fast GPIO,

LPC2148 is ideal for applications such as:

o Access control, Point-Of-Sale.

o Comm. Gateways, protocol converters, soft modems, voice

recognition, low end imaging.

o Industrial Control, Medical Systems, etc.

3.2.3 Features of LPC 2148

32-bit ARM7TDMI-SI microcontroller in tiny LQFP64 package

40 kB of SRAM 512 kB of flash program memory

USB 2.0 Full Speed compliant Device controller.

10-bit A/D converters, One 10-bit D/A converter.

Two 32-bit Timers/External Event counters, PWM unit (6 o/p) and

watchdog.

Multiple serial interfaced including 2 UARTs, 2 fast I2C-bus, SPI and

SSP.

Vectored interrupt controller.

45 of 5V tolerant fast GPIO pins.

9 edge or level sensitive External Interrupt pins.

60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip

Phase Locked Loop (PLL).

Power saving modes include Idle and Power-down.

Figure 3.10 : LPC2148 IC


19

Processor wake-up from Power-down mode via external interrupt, USB,

Brown-Out Detect (BOD) or Real-Time Clock.

Single power supply chip with Power-On Reset and BOD circuits.

3.2.4 PIN DIAGRAM OF LPC2148

Figure 3.11 : Pin Diagram of LPC 2148


20

3.2.5 Architecture of LPC 2148

Figure 3.12 : Architecture of LPC 2148


21

3.2.6 BLUE BOARD LPC 2148

BlueBoard-LPC214X is an evaluation board for LPC2148 ARM7TMDI based

microcontroller. The LPC2148 microcontroller has 512KB of internal flash and

32+8K RAM. Following are the salient features of the board.

Dimensions: 114 X 127 mm2

Two layer PCB (FR-4 material)

Power:

Power supply: DC 6.5V with power LED

On-board linear regulators generate +3.3V/500mA and +5v/500mA from

power supply.

USB connector (as alternate power source).

Connectors:

Extension headers for all microcontroller pins.

RS232 connectors (2).

VGA connector.

PS/2 connector.

JTAG connector.

SD/MMC connector.

USB B-type connector with Link-LED.

All peripheral configurable via jumpers.

Other Peripherals:

256Kb I2C based EEPROM

Audio power amplifier.

2 line X 16 character LCD with back light control.

Configurable for manual and automatic program download (ISP) via serial

port.

8 controllable LEDs on SPI using 74HC595.


22

Figure 3.13 : ARM 7 LPC 2148 Microcontroller Kit

3.3 MOTORS:

An electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy.

It is required for a physical barrier, such as a gate arm, to ensure that all vehicles

passing through the toll booth have paid a toll.

3.3.1 TYPES OF MOTOR

There are various types of motors. Broadly we can categorize them into AC

and DC type motors.

DC motors further have several types. The ones which are mostly used :

o Simple DC Motor

o Stepper Motor

o Servo Motor


23

3.3.2 SERVO MOTOR

A servo motor is a motor which forms part of a servomechanism. The servo motor

is paired with some type of encoder to provide position/speed feedback. This

feedback loop is used to provide precise control of the mechanical degree of

freedom driven by the motor. A servomechanism may or may not use a

servomotor. Servo motors have a range of 0°-180°.

Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width. The control wire

is used to send this pulse. The parameters for this pulse are that it has a minimum

pulse, a maximum pulse, and a repetition rate. Given the rotation constraints of the

servo, neutral is defined to be the position where the servo has exactly the same

amount of potential rotation in the clockwise direction as it does in the counter

clockwise direction. It is important to note that different servos will have different

constraints on their rotation but they all have a neutral position, and that position is

always around 1.5 milliseconds(ms).

To control the speed of the servo, the switches are open and close at different rates

in order to apply average voltages across the motor. The angle is determined by the

duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse Width

Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every20ms. The length of the pulse

will determine how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the

motor turn to the 90 degree position (neutral position).

When these servos are commanded to move, it will move to the position and hold

that position. If an external force pushes against the servo while the servo is

holding a position, the servo will resist from moving out of that position. The

maximum amount of force the servo can exert is the torque rating of the servo.

Servos will not hold their position forever though; the position pulse must be

repeated to instruct the servo to stay in position.

When a pulse is sent to a servo that is less than 1.5ms, the servo rotates to a

position and holds its output shaft by some number of degrees counter clockwise

from the neutral point. When the pulse is wider than 1.5ms the opposite occurs.

The minimal width and the maximum width of pulse that will command the servo

to turn to a valid position are functions of each servo. Different brands, and even

different servos of the same brand, will have different maximum and minimums.


24

Generally, the minimum pulse will be about 1ms wide and the maximum pulse will

be 2ms wide.

3.3.3 SERVO MOTOR WITH MOTOR DRIVER

Figure 3.14 : Servo Motor with Motor Driver


25

Figure 3.15 : Pulse Width Modulation of Servo Motor

Figure 3.16 : Pulse Width Position of Different types of Servo Motor


26

CONCLUSION

Passive RFID based is adequate for ETC in India. The advantages of this

technology in terms of cost and simplicity make it usable for the Indian

environment.

Within passive RFID there are multiple standards. To ensure that multiple

suppliers can provide the tags as well as readers, and that tags produced by one

producer can be read by all the readers, the standards have to be fixed. Passive

RFID based on EPC, Gen-2, ISO 18000-6C Standards for Electronic Toll

Collection on national Highways in India should be used.

The factors to be considered are:

The system must be interoperable nationwide, and affordable.

Technologies should be tried and tested.

Systems should be easy to use.

ETC should be scalable to other applications.

Payments should be possible through credit cards and mobile phones etc.

Electronic toll collection can be a threat to location privacy. Many

implementations are implemented in a privacy-insensitive manner. Using E-

Cash and other modern cryptographic methods, it is possible to design systems that

do not know where individuals are, but are still able to enforce fares.


27

Future Scope and Application

India has about 42.36 lakh kilometers of road network, which is the second largest

in the world. The length of various categories of roads is as under:

National Highways: 70,934 km

State Highways: 1,54,522 km

Major district roads: 25,77,396 km

Rural roads: 14,33,577 km

According to the report given by National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)

National Highways carry 40% of road traffic. Due to this traffic congestion is very

high and to reduce it, Electronic Toll Collection must be implemented. And its

major concern is to reduce the traffic density, provides road safety and also

increases the Central Government‟s Economy. And National Highways Lane wise

distribution can be classified:

4-Lane - 22.3%

2-Lane - 52.3%

Single Lane - 25.4%

There is a possibility of maintaining ETC‟s on state highways as well as in busiest

hours in cities. This may leads to the reduction of congestion, pollution, traffic

violation at peak hours.


28

REFERENCES

LPC2148 Datasheet (PDF) - NXP Semiconductors - ARM7-based

microcontrollers with full-speed USB 2.0

ETC Report by Nandan Nilekani Committee.

http://www.rfidjournal.com/

http://www.wireless-technology-advisor.com/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rfid

http://www.rhydolabz.com

http://www.keil.com/

http://www.nxp.com/

http://www.arm.com/

http://infocenter.arm.com/help/index.jsp

http://www.microbuilder.eu/home.aspx

http://www.embeddedlabs.in/

http://www.edaboard.com/

http://www.engineersgarage.com/forums/

http:// forum.ngxtechnologies.com


29

Appendix I

ETC System Algorithm

Figure 4 : Flowchart of ETC System Algorithm


30

Appendix II

KEIL µVISION CODE

/*********************************************************************

*/

/* LPC214X.H: Header file for Philips LPC2141/42/44/46/48

*/

/*********************************************************************

**/

#ifndef __LPC214x_H

#define __LPC214x_H

/* Pin Connect Block */

#define PINSEL0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE002C000))



/* General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) */

#define IOPIN0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028000))

#define IOSET0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028004))

#define IODIR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028008))

#define IOCLR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE002800C))

#define IOPIN1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028010))

#define IOSET1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028014))

#define IODIR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028018))

#define IOCLR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE002801C))

#define IO0PIN (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028000))

#define IO0SET (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028004))

#define IO0DIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028008))

#define IO0CLR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE002800C))

#define IO1PIN (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028010))

#define IO1SET (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028014))

#define IO1DIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0028018))

#define IO1CLR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE002801C))

#define FIO0DIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC000))

#define FIO0MASK (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC010))

#define FIO0PIN (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC014))

#define FIO0SET (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC018))

#define FIO0CLR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC01C))

#define FIO1DIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC020))

#define FIO1MASK (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC030))

#define FIO1PIN (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC034))

#define FIO1SET (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC038))

#define FIO1CLR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0x3FFFC03C))

/* VPB Divider */


31

#define VPBDIV (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE01FC100))

/* Reset */

#define RSID (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE01FC180))

/* Code Security / Debugging */

#define CSPR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE01FC184))

/* System Control Miscellaneous */

#define SCS (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE01FC1A0))

/* Timer 0 */

#define T0IR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004000))

#define T0TCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004004))

#define T0TC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004008))

#define T0PR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000400C))

#define T0PC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004010))

#define T0MCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004014))

#define T0MR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004018))

#define T0MR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000401C))



#define T0CCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004028))

#define T0CR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000402C))

#define T0CR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004030))



#define T0EMR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000403C))

#define T0CTCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0004070))

/* Timer 1 */

#define T1IR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008000))

#define T1TCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008004))

#define T1TC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008008))

#define T1PR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000800C))

#define T1PC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008010))

#define T1MCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008014))


#define T1MR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000801C))



#define T1CCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008028))

#define T1CR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000802C))




#define T1EMR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000803C))

#define T1CTCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0008070))

/* Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) */

#define PWMIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014000))

#define PWMTCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014004))


32

#define PWMTC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014008))

#define PWMPR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE001400C))

#define PWMPC (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014010))

#define PWMMCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014014))

#define PWMMR0 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014018))

#define PWMMR1 (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE001401C))






#define PWMPCR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE001404C))

#define PWMLER (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0014050))

/* Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter 0 (UART0) */

#define U0RBR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C000))

#define U0THR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C000))

#define U0IER (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000C004))

#define U0IIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000C008))

#define U0FCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C008))

#define U0LCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C00C))

#define U0MCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C010))

#define U0LSR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C014))

#define U0MSR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C018))

#define U0SCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C01C))

#define U0DLL (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C000))

#define U0DLM (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C004))

#define U0ACR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000C020))

#define U0FDR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE000C028))

#define U0TER (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE000C030))

/* Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter 1 (UART1) */

#define U1RBR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010000))

#define U1THR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010000))

#define U1IER (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0010004))

#define U1IIR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0010008))

#define U1FCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010008))

#define U1LCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE001000C))

#define U1MCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010010))

#define U1LSR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010014))

#define U1MSR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010018))

#define U1SCR (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE001001C))

#define U1DLL (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010000))

#define U1DLM (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010004))

#define U1ACR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0010020))

#define U1FDR (*((volatile unsigned long *) 0xE0010028))

#define U1TER (*((volatile unsigned char *) 0xE0010030))

#endif // __LPC214x_H


33

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : main.c */

/******************************************************/

#include <stdio.h> /* prototype declarations for I/O functions */

#include <LPC214x.H> /* LPC21xx definitions */

#include <stdlib.h>

#include "Serial.h"

#include "lcd.h"

#include "db.c"

char received_ID[12]; //RFID Tag Number of 12 bytes

int main (void) { /* execution starts here */

int received_byte;

unsigned int count=0;

char buf[16] = {0};

PINSEL0 |= (1 << 7);

IO0DIR |= (1<<7);

uart0_init();

uart1_init(); // Initialize UART1

init_lcd();

delay(100000);

lcd_clear(); // clear display

lcd_putstring(0," ETC System ");

lcd_putstring(1,">");

uart0_puts ("\n\r UART0 Test by abcd \n");

timer_init(1); //Motor DOWN

while (1) { /* An embedded program does not stop */

count=0;

if(count==0)

{

do

{

received_byte=uart1_getkey();

received_ID[count]=(char)received_byte;

count++;

}while(count<12);

}

sprintf((char *)buf, "ID:%s ", received_ID);

lcd_putstring(1, (char *)buf);

uart0_puts(" \n \r Receved_Id= ");

uart0_puts (received_ID); // Transfer data to PC through Serial

sprintf((char *)buf, "%s ", received_ID);

db_compare((char *)buf);

}

}

/**********************************************************/


34

/* Name : PWM_motor.c */

/* Description : Generate PWM signal to operate servo Motor*/

/******************************************************/

#include <LPC214X.h>

#define PLOCK 0x0400

#define TIME 2000000

// ?????P0.31??

#define LED (1 << 7)

void timer0_MCR0(int count)

{

T0TC = 0; // set initial value of TC Timer Counter.

T0PR = 0; // set value of prescalar

T0MCR = 0x03; //Interrupt on MR0 and the TC will be reset

if MR0 matches it.

T0MR0 = count; // (0x2DC8A01)matched register 0 of timer0

T0TCR = 0x01; // timer enable

while(T0IR == 0x00); // wait for timer for overflow

T0IR = 0xff; // clear interrupts

T0TCR = 0x02; // timer reset

}

void timer1_MCR1(int count)

{

T1TC = 0; // set initial value of TC Timer Counter.

T1PR = 0; // set value of prescalar

T1MCR = 0x18; //Interrupt on MR1 and the TC will be reset

if MR1 matches it.

T1MR1 = count; // (0x2DC8A01)matched register 1 of timer1

T1TCR = 0x01; // timer enable

while(T1IR == 0x00); // wait for timer for overflow

T1IR = 0xff; // clear interrupts

T1TCR = 0x02; // timer reset

}

void timer_init (int x)

{

int m;

int a; //a=1 == count for 0.1ms

int i;

m=6000;

IO0DIR = 0xffffffff;

switch(x)

{

case 0: //Motor UP

a=8;

for(i=0;i<200;i++)

{


35

IO0SET = LED;

timer0_MCR0(m*a);

IO0CLR = LED;

timer0_MCR0((200-a)*m);

}

timer1_MCR1(m*10000);

break;

case 1: //Motor DOWN

a=17;

for(i=0;i<200;i++)

{

IO0SET = LED;

timer0_MCR0(m*a);

IO0CLR = LED;

timer0_MCR0((200-a)*m);

}

break;

}

}

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : db.c */

/* Description : Database of RFID tags. Verification of the tags and

controlling of motor accordingly is done here.*****/

/******************************************************/

#include<LPC214x.h>

#include "PWM_motor.c"

#include "lcd.h"

#include "Serial.h"

int M[3][3]={{1,3000,300},{2,200,200},{3,50,150}};

void database(int x)

{

char buf[16] = {0};

//buf[16] = {0};

//M[3][3]=

if(M[x][1]>=M[x][2])

{

M[x][1]=M[x][1]-M[x][2];

//motor_up();

timer_init(0);

sprintf((char *)buf, "BALANCE : %i ",

M[x][1]);


36

lcd_putstring(1, (char *)buf);

uart0_puts(" \n \r BALANCE= ");

uart0_puts ((char *)buf); // Transffer

data to PC through Serial

//display(M[x][2]);

timer_init(1);

}

else if((M[x][1]<M[x][2]))

{

//display('low balance');

lcd_putstring(1, " LOW BALANCE!!! ");

uart0_puts(" \n \r LOW BALANCE!!!");

}

}

void db_compare(char *buf)

{

int i,j,x;

char

M1[3][13]={{"0100162CBF84"},{"6D002DEC16BA"},{"6D002E8A32FB"}};

for(i=0;i<3;i++)

{

x=0;

for(j=0;j<12;j++)

{

if(M1[i][j]==buf[j])

x++;

}

if(x==12)

database(i);

}

}

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : Serial.h */

/******************************************************/

int uart0_getkey(void);

int uart1_getkey(void);

void uart1_init (void);

void uart0_init (void);

void uart1_putc (char);

void uart0_putc (char);

void uart1_puts (char *);

void uart0_puts (char *);

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : Serial.c */

/******************************************************/


37

#include <LPC21xx.H> /* LPC21xx definitions

*/

#include "Serial.h"

#define CR 0x0D

/* implementation of putchar (also used by printf function to output

data) */

int sendchar (int ch) { /* Write character to Serial

Port */

if (ch == '\n') {

while (!(U1LSR & 0x20));

U1THR = CR; /* output CR */

}


return (U1THR = ch);

}

int uart0_getkey (void) { /* Read character from

Serial Port */


return (U0RBR);

}

int uart1_getkey (void) { /* Read character from

Serial Port */


return (U1RBR);

}

void uart1_init()

{

/* initialize the serial interface */

PINSEL0 = (PINSEL0 & ~(3 << 16)) | (1 << 16);

PINSEL0 = (PINSEL0 & ~(3 << 18)) | (1 << 18);

//PINSEL0 = 0x00050000; /* Enable RxD1 and TxD1

*/

U1LCR = 0x83; /* 8 bits, no Parity, 1 Stop bit

*/

U1DLM = 1;

U1DLL = 134; /* 9600 Baud Rate @ 15MHz VPB

Clock <97 @ 15MHz> <78 @ 12MHz> */

//U1ACR = 0x05;

U1LCR = 0x03; /* DLAB = 0

*/


38

}

/***************************************************************/

/****Function for send character 1 time via UART1****/

/***************************************************************/

void uart1_putc(char c)

{

while(!(U1LSR & 0x20)); // Wait until UART1 ready to send

character

U1THR = c; // Send character

}

/***************************************************************/

/*********Function for send string via UART1*******/

/***************************************************************/

void uart1_puts(char *p)

{

while(*p) // Point to character

{

uart1_putc(*p++); // Send character then point to next

character

}

}

/***************************************************************/

/**********Function for Initial UART0 ******/

/***************************************************************/

void uart0_init()

{

/* initialize the serial interface */

PINSEL0 = (PINSEL0 & ~(3 << 0)) | (1 << 0);

PINSEL0 = (PINSEL0 & ~(3 << 2)) | (1 << 2);

//PINSEL0 = 0x00000005; /* Enable RxD0 and TxD0

*/

U0LCR = 0x83; /* 8 bits, no Parity, 1 Stop bit

*/

U0DLM = 1;

U0DLL = 134; /* 9600 Baud Rate @ 15MHz VPB

Clock */

U0LCR = 0x03; /* DLAB = 0

*/

}

/***************************************************************/

/*****Function for send character 1 time via UART0********/

/***************************************************************/

void uart0_putc(char c)

{

while(!(U0LSR & 0x20)); // Wait until UART0 ready to send

character

U0THR = c; // Send character

}

/***************************************************************/

/************** Function for send string via UART1******/


39

/***************************************************************/

void uart0_puts(char *p)

{

while(*p) // Point to character

{

uart0_putc(*p++); // Send character then point to next

character

}

}

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : lcd.h */

/******************************************************/

#ifndef _LCD_H

#define _LCD_H

#define MAX_CHAR_IN_ONE_LINE 16

enum ROW_NUMBERS

{

LINE1,

LINE2

};

void init_lcd(void);

void lcd_putstring(unsigned char line, char *string);

void lcd_clear(void);

void lcd_backlight_on(void);

int lcd_gotoxy(unsigned int x, unsigned int y);

void lcd_putchar(int c);

#endif

/**********************************************************/

/* Name : lcd.c */

/******************************************************/

#include <LPC214x.H> /* LPC214x definitions */

#include "lcd.h"

#define LCD_BACK_LIGHT_TIMEOUT 1000

#define LCD_BACKLIGHT (1 << 21)

#define LCD_BACK_LIGHT_DIR IO1DIR

#define LCD_BACK_LIGHT_SET IO1SET

#define LCD_BACK_LIGHT_CLR IO1CLR

#define LCD_DATA_DIR IO0DIR

#define LCD_DATA_SET IO0SET

#define LCD_DATA_CLR IO0CLR


40

#define LCD_CTRL_DIR IO1DIR

#define LCD_CTRL_SET IO1SET

#define LCD_CTRL_CLR IO1CLR

#define LCDRS (1 << 24)

#define LCDRW (1 << 23)

#define LCDEN (1 << 22)

#define LCD_D4 (1 << 10)




#define LCD_DATA_MASK (LCD_D4 | LCD_D5 | LCD_D6 | LCD_D7)

#define LCD_BUSY_FLAG LCD_D7

#define LCD_CONTROL_MASK 0x01C00000

/**

**********************************************************************

****

****

Function Name : delay()

**********************************************************************

*********

*/

void delay(int count)

{

int j=0,i=0;

for(j=0;j<count;j++)

{

/* At 60Mhz, the below loop introduces

delay of 10 us */

for(i=0;i<35;i++);

}

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : wait_lcd()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void wait_lcd( void )

{

LCD_CTRL_CLR |= LCDRS;


41

LCD_CTRL_SET |= LCDRW |LCDEN;

while(IO1PIN & LCD_BUSY_FLAG); /* wait for busy flag to become

low */

LCD_CTRL_CLR |= LCDEN | LCDRW;

LCD_DATA_DIR |= LCD_DATA_MASK;

delay(100);

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_command_write()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_command_write( unsigned char command )

{

unsigned char temp=0;

unsigned int temp1=0;

temp=command;

temp=(temp>>4)&0x0F;

temp1=(temp<<10)&LCD_DATA_MASK;

LCD_CTRL_CLR = LCDRS;

LCD_CTRL_SET = LCDEN;

LCD_DATA_CLR = LCD_DATA_MASK;

LCD_DATA_SET = temp1;

delay(10000);

LCD_CTRL_CLR = LCDEN;

temp=command;

temp&=0x0F;


delay(100*2);

LCD_CTRL_CLR |= LCDRS;

LCD_CTRL_SET |= LCDEN;



delay(10000);

LCD_CTRL_CLR |= LCDEN;

wait_lcd();

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : set_lcd_port_output()


42

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void set_lcd_port_output( void )

{

LCD_CTRL_DIR |= ( LCDEN | LCDRS | LCDRW );

LCD_CTRL_CLR |= ( LCDEN | LCDRS | LCDRW );

LCD_DATA_DIR |= LCD_DATA_MASK;

}

/* *

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_clear()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_clear( void)

{

lcd_command_write( 0x01 );

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_gotoxy()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

int lcd_gotoxy( unsigned int x, unsigned int y)

{

int retval = 0;

if( (x > 1) && (y > 15) )

{

retval = -1;

} else {

if( x == 0 )

{

lcd_command_write( 0x80 + y ); /* command - position

cursor at 0x00 (0x80 + 0x00 ) */

} else if( x==1 ){

lcd_command_write( 0xC0 + y ); /* command - position

cursor at 0x40 (0x80 + 0x00 ) */

}

}

return retval;

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************


43

Function Name : lcd_data_write()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_data_write( unsigned char data )

{

unsigned char temp=0;

unsigned int temp1=0;

temp=data;

temp=(temp>>4)&0x0F;


LCD_CTRL_SET |= LCDEN|LCDRS;




temp=data;

temp&=0x0F;


LCD_CTRL_SET |= LCDEN|LCDRS;




wait_lcd();

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_putchar()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_putchar( int c )

{

lcd_data_write( c );

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_putstring()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_putstring( unsigned char line, char *string )

{


44

unsigned char len = MAX_CHAR_IN_ONE_LINE;

lcd_gotoxy( line, 0 );

while(*string != '\0' && len--)

{

lcd_putchar( *string );

string++;

}

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : lcd_backlight_on()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void lcd_backlight_on()

{

LCD_BACK_LIGHT_DIR |= LCD_BACKLIGHT;

LCD_BACK_LIGHT_SET |= LCD_BACKLIGHT;

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : turn_off_lcd_back_light()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void turn_off_lcd_back_light_cb(void)

{

LCD_BACK_LIGHT_DIR |= LCD_BACKLIGHT;

LCD_BACK_LIGHT_CLR |= LCD_BACKLIGHT;

}

/**

**********************************************************************

**********************

Function Name : init_lcd()

**********************************************************************

**********************

*/

void init_lcd( void )

{

set_lcd_port_output();

delay(100*100);

lcd_command_write(0x28); /* 4-bit interface, two line, 5X7

dots. */


45

lcd_clear() ; /* LCD clear

*/

lcd_command_write(0x02); /* cursor home

*/

lcd_command_write(0x06); /* cursor move direction

*/

lcd_command_write(0x0C) ; /* display on */

lcd_gotoxy(0, 0);

lcd_clear();

lcd_putstring(0,"ELECTRONIC TOLL");

lcd_putstring(1,"COLLECTION SYS.");

}

electronic toll collection

Documents