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Bruner on Mental Development

I DUCATORS have long had arofessional concern for understanding theature of human cognitive processes. Thisoncern has sustained a continuing interest

the research and theoretical developmentsanspiring at Harvard's Center for Cognitivetudies under the direction of Jerome S.runer. Bruner's work is, for several reasons,f particular interest to persons encounteringhildren in classrooms. First, he has nevermited his interests to the psychological pheomena of cognitive development in and ofhemselves (1960a and 1966a). In addition,runer has actively participated in the develpment of curricular materials ( 1965; Brunernd Kenney, 1965) and teaching strategies1961, 1968a, 1969a). Finally, Bruner isnterested in the individual's readiness toarn (1957, 1960b) and believes that educaon has broad social objectives (1964a) as

well as the immediate goals of skill development as indices of the development of intel

gent behavior (1960c, 1964b).In his early discussions of discoveryarning (1961, 1966b), Bruner emphasized

he learner's ability to resolve ambiguity inhe stimulus field, which depends upon thebility to perceive the stimuli and to processhe informational input from the environment (1963, 1964b). This position has

The author is grateful to Professor Brunerr his comments and his provision of the necesry papers to obtain an integrated view of his

search.

classified Bruner as a functional information-processing theorist, and is closely related tohis most recent research into the cognitiveprocesses of infants ( 1967, 1968b, 1969b).

In his effort to understand the integration of eye and hand movement in the development of intelligence, Bruner has identifiedfour primary concerns (1969d, p. 224):

voluntary, self-initiated activity),the ability to overcome human awkward

ness), a how the afferent domination of perception and attention alters to become efferently relevant), and(the orchestration of previously separateactivities).

In the main, Bruner believes that humanvision guides the development of voluntaryhand movements (1969d, pp. 224-27) andthe eventual development of hand-to-handrelationships, which appear to take approximately two years during childhood. Immediately after birth the infant's vision is diffusely distractible. This phase is followed bya period when human vision is characterizedby the obligatory nature of attention, that is,attention seems to be stuck. This period isin turn followed by the development of anticipatory and predictive vision. During thefirst two periods, the human's attention isdirected o o the environment, search

ing for an object or person on which to fasten.

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fortle ss subroutines are d eveloped whiche in turn incorpora te d into more compl ex ts. Bruner identifies this dev elo pmentaloces s as m ajor processquiri ng several su pportin g processes, in uding the notion ot developed behavio rsggering be haviors to-be-develope d a conpt someti mes associ ated with etholog y.owe ver he sees this as th e pro gressive inrpo ration of behavioral mod ules intoo grams.

For explanatory pow er B runer usesernstein' s model inc luding a) the in didu al's e e gulated a ccording

specific p arameters, b) a chich conveys the v alue of the parame ter,c) a r hich pe rceives the fact ualalue of th e behavior in relatio n to the p

ameter, d) a c hich perce iv ess crepancies between the factua l a nd re

ui red val ues, e) an e hich orrects behavior s, and f) a r hich

turn controls the e ffector activity. Likeost IP models , this is an open-en e rgy,

clo sed-loop system, and lea rning effe ctschanges in the control, receptor , and compara tor m e chanisms.

Succe ss in two-h andedness increa seswith age and appears to be a funct ion ofcontrollin g interfering activities such as clawin g and banging. s th e Ss' control increased, ther e was less likelihood that compo ne nt actswould b ecome auto nomous. Early successallows for the perfection an d reinfor cementof serial ordering of m odularized be haviors, wh ich leads to eventual ski ll m astery. Brunerbelieve s that the first appear ance of a con

stituent activity is ccurring in a crudel y con trolled fo rm, and that it is onlyafter the initi al appea rance tha t the behavioris cons olidated and shaped. H e holds that theemerg ence of a be havioral pa ttern or strategyseems independ ent of pr actic e, and do es notd evelop as th e res ult of trial and e rror; in-

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stead, development appears to be in responseto environmental demands and events (operative requirements) which require the i

f the learner.

In his study of human manipulator behavior, Bruner manipulated the experimentalsituation by using both transparent andopaque screens. There were four positions forthe object from open (no obstruction) todeep ( ehind screen). The screen was

at the S's midline. One most intriguing o bservation was the performance differences byage in relation to the type of screen. Theyoungest Ss were more successful with anopaque screen than with the transparentscreen, a result which Bruner interprets as areduction of interference in the detour reaching of the youngest Ss.

Several behavioral organizations wereobser'ved in this study, and Bruner identifieda progression of processes: activation of thehand nearest the goal (ipsilateral hand);activation of the appropriate hand; the appreciation of spatial demands; dissociation ofline of action from line of sight; ability toshift behavioral program; and the ability tosequence instrumental behaviors in order toreach the goal. As in the other investigationsof manual intelligence, Bruner sees in the development of detour reaching a close relationship between initial skill learning and laterproblem solving; all dependent upon the individual's integration of constituent behaviorswith prerequisites of intention, skill, andattention.

In conclusion, Bruner, in his latest research, has evolved several concepts whichseem important for educators. First, the development of intelligent behavior seems evenmore to be a matter of sequence. Second,skilled behavior is not an entity in and ofitself; rather, it is the result of integratingconstituent behavior. In addition, Brunerseems to have shown that the control of thestimulus field and the amount of the information available to the learner correlate with

the development of certain skills. He has

again emphasized the overpowering impof the environment upon intelligence, andthe school, the educator is largely in contof the environment.

This critical function of the educatorthe controller of the child's intentions inlearning process cannot be ignored.importance of this concept receives inmental explanatory power when it is undstood that the intention or purpose of humcognitive functioning is erly(1954; 1957; 1962; 1963; 1965) definthis process as e rseeking of the learner to resolve ambiguiin the stimulus field. Epistemic curiositybeen defined (Rowland and Frost, in preas the fundamental or basic cognitive drivea notion which is directly linked to

odel for education (Frand Rowland, 1969). The fullest implitions of Bruner's most recent, and perhahis most difficult research can be appreated only through this theoretical interprtation in regards to education which begwith the origins of life, called g

s conceived by Piaget (1947/50)In this context, Bruner's concepts havevided the medium for irrevocably linking

velopmental psychology and education, avelopment which Bruner predicted in T

966), a small bwhich has been severely criticized (Ausube1966), but never fully appreciated forpsychological and educational implications

eferen es

D. P. Ausubel. Review of T6

337-40; Summer 1966.D. E. Berlyne. An Experimental Study

Human Curiosity. B45: 256-65; 1954.

D. E. Berlyne. Conflict and InformatioTheory Variables as Determinants of Humanceptual Curiosity. J

3: 399-404; 1957.

D. E. Berlyne. Motivational Problems Raisedby Exploratory and Epistemic Behavior. InKock, editor. PVolume 5. New York: The Macmillan Compan

1963. pp. 284-364.

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D. E Berlyne. U ncertainty and Epistemic iosi ty. B 3: 27-

196 2.D. E. Berlyne S

ew York: John Wiley Sons, Inc.,6 5.

N. Bernste in. Te w York: Per gamon Pres s,

67.J. S. Bruner. On Perceptual Readiness. P

4: 12 3-52; 1957.

J. S. Bruner. T ewrk: Vintage, 1960( a).

J. S. B runer. Readin ess for Le arning. In:ew York: Vintage ,

60(b).J. S. Bruner. The Growth of M ind. A

0 07-17; 196 0(c).J. S. Bru ner. The Act of Discovery. H

1: 21 -32; 1961.

J. S. Bruner. E ducation as Social Inventi on.0 3): 21-33(a); 1964 .

J. S. Bru ner. The Cour s e of Cognitiveow th. 9 : l-15 b); 1964.

J. S . Br uner. M an: C ourse of Study. E SIpr ing-Summer 1965. p p . 3-13.

J. S. Bruner. Tambridge, Mas sachus etts: Belknap Press, 1966( a).

J. S. Bru ner. Some Elements of D iscovery.: L. Shu lman and E. Keislar, edito rs. L

h icago: Rand McNally Company,966(b).

J. S. Bruner. O rigin s of M ind in Infancy.ddress to Division 8 at the 75 th Anniversary of themerican Psychological A ssociation, Washing ton,C Se ptember 1, 1967 .

J. S. Bruner. Culture, Poli tics, and Pedagogy.ay 18, 1968; pp. 69-72f(a).

J. S. Bruner. The Gr owth and Structure ofkill. Ciba Conference , London, Novembe r 25-2 9,968(b).

J- S. Bruner. Pol. 3, 1968 H e inz Werner Lecture Series .

Wo rcester, Massach usetts: C lark University P ress,9 68(c).

J. S. Br uner. The P syc hobiology of Pedago gy .ig ma Xi Lecture at R ocke feller University , Nework, 19 69(a).

J. S . Bruner. Origin s of Problem Solvingtra tegies in Skill A cquisition. Presented a t the9th Internation a l Congress of Psychology , London,uly 1969(b).

J. S. Bruner. Up fro m Helplessn ess. P 2): 30 ff.; January 1969.

J. S. Brun er. Eye, H and and Mind. In; D.Elkind and J. H. Flav e ll, editors. Studies in C og-

New Y ork: Oxford Univer sity P ress, Inc., 1969(d).pp . 223-35.

J. S. Bruner and B . M . B runer. On Voluntary

Action and Its Hi erarchical Structur e. Pr esentedat the S ymp osium on New Perspecti ves in theSc ie nces of Man, Alpbach, Austria, June 1968.

J. S. Bruner, K . Kaye, and K. Lyo ns. TheGrowth of H um an Manu al Intelligence: III. The Devel opmen t o f Detour Tracking. In : G. T. Rowland and J. An glin, editors. B

ew York: W. W . No rtonC ompany, Inc., 1970. (In press.)

J. S. Bruner a nd H. J. Ke nney. Repre se ntation and Ma the matics Learning. M

0 1)

(Serial No. 99):

50-59;

1965.J. S. Bruner , J. Simenso n, and K. Lyons. The

Grow th of Human Manual In telli gence: I. TakingPos session of Objects. In: G. T. Rowland andJ. An glin. editors. B

ew York: W. W. Nort on Company,Inc., 1970. (In press.)

J. S. Bruner and D . Watkins. The Growth o fHuman Man ua l In telligence: II. A cquisition ofComplementary T wo-Handedn ess. In: G. T. Rowland a nd J. A nglin, editors. B

ew York: W. W. N ortonCompany, Inc., 1970. (In press. )

J. L. Frost and G. T. Rowland. Coston: Hough ton Mifflin Com pany,

1969 .

J. Piag et. Tew Yo rk: International Univers ities Pres s,

1952.

J. Piaget. LP aris: Colin. 1 947.Lond on: Routledge and Kega n Pa ul, 1950 . Rep rinted in paperback: ILP No. 222. Totowa. Ne wJersey: Littlefield, Adam s Co.)

G. T . Rowla n d and J. L. Fro st. Hum an Motiva tion: A S tructure-Process Interp retation. P

In press.)

G T H O M A S R O W L A N D , A

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