egra eda final report july

Early Grade Reading and Writing Assessment of

Grades 2, 3 and 4 Students in

Selected Schools of the AmharaRegion

Box Plot of Fluency Levels by Grade

Median; Box: 25%-75%; Whisker: Non-Outlier Range

LPM Outliers Extremes WPM Outliers Extremes CWPM Outliers Extremes

4 3 2

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Submitted to Emanuel Development Association

July 2011

Early Grade Reading and Writing Assessment of

Grades 2, 3 and 4 Students in

Selected Schools of the Amhara Region

Prepared by:

Zewdu Gebrekidan

Fromseas Education and Training Consultancy Services

July, 2011

Addis Ababa

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Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ i

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................ii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ii Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. iii 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Objective .................................................................................................................... 5 2 Design and Methodology ................................................................................................... 6

2.1 The Participants ......................................................................................................... 6 2.2 Instruments ................................................................................................................. 6

2.2.1 Reading .................................................................................................................. 6

2.2.2 Writing ................................................................................................................... 6 2.2.3 Questionnaires........................................................................................................ 6

3 Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................... 7 3.1 Student level variables related to early grade reading and writing ............................ 7 3.2 School level variables related to early grade reading and writing ............................. 9 1.1 Observation of School Compounds and Classrooms ............................................... 10

3.3 Reading .................................................................................................................... 11 3.4 Fluency Levels ......................................................................................................... 11

3.4.1 Fluency by Grade ................................................................................................. 12

3.4.2 Fluency by Grade and Sex ................................................................................... 13 3.4.3 Fluency by Grade and Location ........................................................................... 14

3.4.4 Fluency by School................................................................................................ 15 3.4.5 Reading Comprehension ...................................................................................... 17 3.4.6 Reading Comprehension by School ..................................................................... 20

3.4.7 Listening Comprehension .................................................................................... 21

3.4.8 Listening Comprehension by School ................................................................... 23 3.5 Hand Writing ........................................................................................................... 25

3.5.1 Copying Words .................................................................................................... 25

3.5.2 Labeling Diagrams ............................................................................................... 25 3.5.3 Copying Connected Words .................................................................................. 26

3.6 Comparison with EGRA Ethiopia ........................................................................... 27 3.7 Students‘ Background Variables and Achievement Levels ..................................... 27

3.7.1 Multiple Regression Analysis Reading Comprehension ..................................... 27

3.7.2 Multiple Regression Analysis .............................................................................. 28 4 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................... 29

4.1 Summary .................................................................................................................. 29 4.2 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 34

4.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................... 35 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 36

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List of Tables Table 1. Student‘s background variables related to reading and writing ................................... 8

Table 2. Student‘s school experiences ....................................................................................... 8 Table 3. Descriptive Statistics.................................................................................................. 11 Table 4.Percentile Score .......................................................................................................... 11 Table 5. Mean and SD of Fluency by Grade ........................................................................... 12 Table 6. Fluency by Grade and Sex ......................................................................................... 14

Table 7. Fluency by Grade and Location ................................................................................. 15 Table 8. Fluency by School ..................................................................................................... 16 Table 9 Reading Comprehension Item Statistics ..................................................................... 18 Table 10 Listening Comprehension Item Statistics ................................................................. 21

Table 11 Copying Words Item Statistics ................................................................................. 25 Table 12 Labeling Diagram Item Statistics ............................................................................. 26 Table 13 Copying Connected Words Item Statistics ............................................................... 26

Table 14. Multiple regression analysis reading comprehension .............................................. 28 Table 15. Multiple regression analysis listening comprehension ............................................ 28

List of Figures Figure 1. Bar Charts Showing Fluency Mean Score by Grade ................................................ 12 Figure 2. Box and Whisker Plots of Fluency Levels by Grade ............................................... 13

Figure 3. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by Grade and Sex ............................... 14 Figure 4. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by Grade and Location ....................... 15

Figure 5. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by School ............................................ 16 Figure 6. Reading Comprehension Item Characteristic Curve ................................................ 18

Figure 7. Reading Comprehension Item person dual plot ....................................................... 19 Figure 8. Reading Comprehension Parameter Estimates ......................................................... 19 Figure 9. Recursive Partitioning Analysis of Reading Comprehension by School ................. 20

Figure 10. Listening Comprehension Item Characteristic Curve ............................................ 22 Figure 11. Listening Comprehension Item Person Dual Plot .................................................. 22

Figure 12. Listening Comprehension Parameter Estimates ..................................................... 23 Figure 13. Recursive partitioning analysis of listening comprehension by school .................. 24

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Executive Summary

Nothing else affects a child's future in quite the same way as learning to read. All other

schoolwork depends on the ability to read fluently and with understanding. Children who

enjoy reading usually get the practice they need to become fluent readers. Their skill in

reading makes all the rest of their schoolwork easier. It is commendable that Emanuel

Development Association took this initiative to assess the reading level of the students in

North Shewa Zone of the Amhara Region.

This Early Grade Reading and Writing Assessment of Grades 2, 3 and 4 students in Amhara

Region was carried out at Deberiberhan and its environs in May 2011. The main purposes of

the study were to determine the reading and writing levels of the students at each grade,

compare subgroups in particular rural and urban schools, and identify in-and-out- of school

factors that resulted in variations within and between groups.

The Sample: This Early Grade Reading and Writing study was carried out in Grades 2, 3

and 4 students in Amhara region around Debirbirhan where EDA is operating. A sample of

359 students drawn from 6 schools (3 urban and 3 rural), their teachers and the schools‘

directors participated in the study.

Instrumentation: Students took tests on reading and writing which were administered on a

one-to-one basis by trained data collectors familiar with the area. Students, teachers and

school directors also responded to questionnaires and interviews.The reading test was

adapted from EGRA Ethiopia and was composed of five parts: identifying letters, word

reading, story reading, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension. The first three

parts were measuring fluency and timed to one minute each: Letter Per Minute (LPM), Word

Per Minute (WPM) and Connected Word Per Minute (CWPM). The remaining two measured

the understanding level of the students.The hand writing test was composed of three parts:

copying words, labeling diagrams and copying sentences.

Fluency Levels:The minimum number of letters or words read in each case was 0 and those

who read the maximum number were able to read all the letters and words. The mean LPM

was 75.1 (SD=23.72), the mean WPM was 39.2(SD=39.2) and the mean CWPM was 41.4

(17.2). The standard deviations were found very high in each case indicating the existence of

wide variation. The top 10% of examinees were able to read almost all letters and words in

one minute while the bottom 10% were able to read at most 39 LPM, 18 WPM, and 16

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CWPM. The median score shows that 50% of examinees were able to read at least 80 LPM,

49 WPM, 45 CWPM in each case. The mean LPM, WPM and CWPM were 75.1, 39.1 and

41.4 respectively. The mean fluency levels of Grade 2 (64.2, 31.4 and 31.6) were found

below the grand mean. In each case the standard deviation in Grade 2 was found highest

indicating the presence of wide variations at lower grade levels.

Fluency by Sex:The mean fluency levels of girls were found higher than that of boys in all

cases at all grade levels. The standard deviations in both cases were high indicating the

existence of wide variations within the group. The variation between boys is wider than that

of girls. Unlike previous studies conducted in Ethiopia, the performance of girls was found to

be better than boys. Looking at grade levels, mean LPM increased from lower to higher grade

levels while the standard deviation decreased.

Fluency by Location:The average LPM for urban schools is 79.12 and found higher than in

the rural schools which is 71.1. The standard deviations in both cases were high indicating

the existence of wide variations within the group. Looking at grade levels, mean LPM

increased from lower to higher grade levels while the standard deviation decreased.

Fluency by School:The average LPM, WPM, and CWPM for the highest performing school

were 83.2, 39.1 and 41.4 respectively and for the least performing school were 67.9, 35.7 and

36.9. High standard deviations were observed in most cases indicating the existence of wide

within group variations.

Reading Comprehension:The reading comprehension was composed of five items based on

the passage, which contained 62 words targeted at Grade 2. The mean item difficulty was

0.59 with the range of 0.29 to 0.74.The recursive partitioning analysis of the comprehension

score by school shows that the differences in school accounted for 6.8% (R2= 0.068) of the

variations in reading comprehension score. Schools in the urban setting were relatively

performing better than those in the rural settings. The mean score for the highest performing

school was 75.7% while that of the lowest performing school was 52.3%. The multiple

regression model was able to explain 51.5% of the variations in reading comprehension score

and the strongest factors were availability of books other than textbooks and attendance of

preprimary classes.

Listening Comprehension:The listening comprehension was composed of five items based

on the passage which contains 38 words targeted at Grade 2 level. The item and test analysis

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of the listening comprehension questions shows that the reliability of the test was low

(Cronbach‘s Alpha = 0.482). The mean item difficulty was 0.701 with the range of 0.33 to

0.96. The mean scaled score was 3.5 with a standard deviation of 1.36.The recursive

partitioning analysis by school shows that the differences in school accounted for 13.8% (R2=

0.138) of the variation in listening comprehension score. Schools in the urban setting

performed better than those in the rural settings. The mean score for the highest performing

school was 87% while that of the lowest performing one was 61%. The same school

which performed best in the reading comprehension also performed bestin the listening

comprehension.

Writing:Students were asked to copy four separate words and almost all of them were able to

copy the words with legible handwriting. The mean item difficulty was .96with the range of

.95 to .98. The mean scaled scored was 3.86 with a standard deviation of .634.Students were

asked to write the names of diagrams. The mean item difficulty was .96 with the range of .95

to .96. The mean scaled scored was 2.86 with a standard deviation of .299. Most students

were able to write the caption to the familiar diagrams they were asked to label.The mean

item difficulty was .787with the range of .588. The mean scaled scored was 12.58 with a

standard deviation of 3.58. Most students were able to copy connected words (sentences).

The main problems observed in this case were inability to break words using spaces and the

use of punctuation marks. The difficulty level of the use of end of sentences punctuation

marks were 0.49 for four points (full stop) and 0.37 for question marks.

Note on the Disparity between the Results of This Study and National and Regional

EGRA: There is a significant disparity in the results achieved by the students who took part

in this study, compared with the results achieved by average students in the Amhara region

on the National EGRA. On the whole, students in this study performed significantly better

than students in the National Study, where almost 50% of 2nd

graders were unable to read a

single word on the Reading Comprehension test. Though some differences in testing

methodology existed between the two studies, based on one-to-one discussions with students,

teachers and school administrators, the ongoing activities of EDA in these schools and

communities were identified as a significant contributing factor to the positive outcomes.

Further consultation with teachers and administrators suggested that schools in the rural areas

not heavily served by EDA activities would probably not have achieved similar results.

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Students’ Related Factors that Affect Reading and Writing: Almost all students have the

Amharic Text book and 89.4% use it regularly in their class. 66.9% of the students have

someone who helps them in their studies at home. In 86.4% cases there is at least one other

person who is currently enrolled in school, in 60.2% cases their mother or a female guardian

can read and write while 79.8% said their father or a male guardian can read and write. About

53.2% said they have books other than their textbooks in their house and 72.4% said they

read books other than their textbooks, 51.5% discuss the books they read with their friend,

67.1% said there is someone who reads books to them at home and in 55.3% of cases, parents

tell them short stories or fables.

In relation to their school experiences, about 39.8% of the students were absent from school

for more than five days this academic year. Only 3.9% of the students prefer to stay at home

than to go to school and 4.7% are not encouraged by their parents to pursue their education.

In 54.9% of cases, the students attended preschool education.

Some schools have libraries, while other schools do not. In schools where there are libraries,

students in the early grades have limited accesses. In one of the schools there are enough

books that are written for children while in others there are few. In all the schools each

student has the Amharic textbook and teachers have a Teacher‘s Guide. Experts in the field

advise that one of the strongest predictors of reading achievement is the availability of print

materials in schools and at home. It is good that each student has a textbook; however books

written for children are equally important and they should be abundant.

The time allocated for Amharic is four periods a week and out of this, in most cases, not

more than an hour is used for reading. Researches show that at the early grade levels, a

school should allocate a minimum of one hour per day for reading. The time allocated for

teaching the mother tongue including reading, writing and other communication skills in the

schools relative to other subjects is relatively low, suggesting again an underestimation of the

critical nature of these skills. One need not, however, lose sight of the critical roles of these

two skills in learning other skills. When students learn these two skills, they are also learning

a method of learning other subjects. Tailored teachers trainings, time on reading and

abundance of print in the school are believed to enhance reading levels in young children.

School Related Factors that Affect Reading and Writing:According to the directors and

teachers, the major problems related to teaching and learning how to read were the absence of

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clear standardized guidelines for teachers on how to teach reading and writing, a poor culture

of regular reading, limited access to print materials, lack of parental support, limited time

allocated to the Amharic subject and no time allotted for reading to improve the reading

skills.

The school leadership and teachers are trying to address some of the problems they

encountered by providing tutorial sessions, but creating corners for mini libraries and

differentiating students into age groups were not observed. To address the problems

mentioned above, they also suggested: a provision of targeted continuous professional

development support for teachers by experts in the field, that reading centers beestablished at

schools as well as in the community, that print materials for children be made abundant and

that children should pass through preprimary classes and be fully prepared before they join

Grade 1.

In almost all cases, teachers and directors did not get any special training on how to teach

reading and writing in early grades. One normally assumes that the training of teachers and

directors in these fields affects their practices. If teachers and directors had some training

(either in pre-service or in-service or both programs) in teaching early grade reading and

writing, it follows that students would have better skills in reading and writing. Teachers and

directors who had received training claimed that their pre-service or in-service training was

short and insufficient. Teachers were not trained in reading skills in the teachers training

institute before they joined the teaching practice in pre-primary, lower and upper grades.

Print materials were not observed to be found in sufficient quantity either at the school or the

classroom level. In some cases, words displayed on school walls were observable, but only in

limited numbers. In some classrooms, only teaching materials, such as, textbooks, teacher

guides, teacher-written letters (on classroom walls), etc., were noticeable, yet not in sufficient

quantities. It is only in limited cases that student works, such as, student‘s written letters or

words and writing examples (such as, newspapers, posters, maps, etc.) were displayed on

bulletin boards or on school or classroom walls. In many cases these materials are deposited

in pedagogical centers as a form of storage.

Furthermore students were not observed reading individually or in groups within the school,

or anywhere else. The absence of student work and independent or shared reading suggest

that teacher centered education is prominent in the observed schools.

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Conclusions: Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions are made:

There exist variations in the achievement levels within and between schools. This is

in line with other studies conducted in Ethiopia at different levels.

Students in the urban schools were performing better than their counterparts in rural

schools. Special attention should be given to rural schools, from pre-primary to early

grades, to equip students with the necessary reading skills.

Girls are performing better than boys and this is quite different from other large scale

studies conducted in Ethiopia, including EGRA 2010.

Teachers and directors are not trained to overcome reading difficulties.

Teachers are not getting continuous support and follow up from reading experts.

Students are not getting the necessary support required to excel in basic literacy.

The reading culture within and outside the school is poor.

There are limited print materials targeted to young children available in schools and

homes.

Sufficient time is not allotted for independent and shared reading.

Parental support is limited and students come to school without the necessary

preparation.

Partnership and collaboration between community, teachers and school leadership is

necessary to enhance reading skills and improve the quality of education

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Recommendations: Based on the findings of the study and other best practices, quick and

sizeable gains are possible, if the following recommendations are applied:

Establishing preprimary classes in the rural areas to enhance reading preparedness;

Focusing attention on rural areas; lower primary and ECD program in the Northern

shoa administration or zones.

Establishing reading corners and mini-libraries in schools and in the community;

Producing culturally relevant supplementary reading materials targeted to age and

grade levels;

Making sufficient amounts of print materials for students to practice with and take

home;

Providing teachers and school directors with tailor–made, intensive trainings on how

to teach reading and writing skills at early grades;

Provision of relatively short and defined courses on reading fundamentals, with

specific speed and accuracy objectives;

Placement of the better teachers in the lower grades wherever possible and supplying

scripted lesson plans and materials that teachers of limited education can easily

follow;

Intensive supervision, systematic visits and informal reading assessments;

Use of additional instructional time for reading, creating community awareness of

reading needs and monitoring;

Introducing adult literacy program in the rural areas and creating a conducive

environment where children can practice reading with their parents; and

Establishing close links between parents and teachers by strengthening Parent Teacher

Associations.

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1 Introduction

The goal of quality education is to facilitate optimal cognitive development of the pupil

through schooling (UNESCO, 2005). Research demonstrates that there is a continuum of

interrelated connections between language and cognition, moving from the development of

‗social language proficiency‘ to ‗academic language proficiency‘ and then to academic

achievement. In preschool through third grade, schools must attend, first and foremost, to the

crucial mission of early education: teaching children to read and write.

Children and young adults develop literacy by having a variety of real literacy experiences

and a considerable amount of direct or explicit instruction. They begin by developing oral

language (listening and speaking) and then later develop reading and writing. All of the

elements of literacy namely: speaking, listening, reading, writing and thinking, continuously

develop together (Wilkinson & Silliman, 2000).

Literacy is not subjects per se; rather it is foundational skill that students use in all subjects. If

students do not possess basic literacy skills, then they are less likely to experience success in

other subject areas. Literacy achievement is considered the best predictor of student

achievement in other subjects. If students have not developed the literacy skills considered

typical for their phase of development, it is less likely that they will be able to experience

success in other learning areas. Literacy achievement is considered the best predictor of

student achievement in other subjects.

Reading is often thought of as a hierarchy of skills, from the processing of individual letters

and their associated sounds to word recognition to text-processing competencies. Skilled

comprehension requires fluid articulation of all these processes, beginning with the sounding

out and recognition of individual words to the understanding of sentences in paragraphs as

part of much longer texts. There is instruction at all of these levels that can be carried out so

as to increase student understanding of what is read.

If reading came naturally, teaching reading would be a much easier job. Children would learn

to read as readily as they learn to speak and teachers would only need to give students the

chance to practice their skills. But children don't learn to read just from being exposed to

books. Reading must be taught. For many children, reading must be taught explicitly and

systematically, one small step at a time. That's why good teachers are so important. Although

children go through a series of predictable steps on their journey to becoming readers, many

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things can derail them, such as having inadequate exposure to language at home or having a

learning disability. Teachers who know the art and science of teaching reading are able to

provide skillful, effective reading instruction, and can help students to overcome the obstacles

to becoming readers.

ThisEarly Grade Reading and Writing Assessment was conducted in May, 2011 in Amhara

Region at Grades 2, 3 and 4 in Debrebirhan and its environs. The main purpose of the study

was to establish a baseline data for future intervention. A sample of students from selected

schools took tests in reading and writing administered on a one-to-one basis.

The report is organized into four chapters. Chapter One contains the background and

justification for the research. Chapter Two provides an overview of the design and

methodology and describes how the assessment was implemented in the course of this study.

Chapter Three presents the results and discussion of the survey. Chapter Four summarizes the

findings and suggests implications and future directions for research into early-grade reading

assessment practice and interventions.

1.1 Background

There are many definitions of literacy (Harris & Hodges, 1995). Over the years, most

definitions have focused on just reading and writing (Venezky, 1995). However, in recent

years discussions of literacy have broadened the term to include listening and speaking and

other types of literacy such as mathematical literacy and technological literacy. This

broadened concept of literacy makes it a term that includes all of the communication and

calculation skills needed to survive in today‘s society. In this paper the focus is on the

communication aspect of literacy and is defined as the ability to read, write, speak and listen

language in a way that allows people to communicate with each other and to make sense of

the world around them.

Reading is the foundation of other learning activities in the classroom. The point of reading is

comprehension; and the point of comprehension is learning. Children who fail to learn to read

in the first few grades of school are handicapped in later grades as they must absorb

increasing amounts of instructional content in print form. Poor readers cannot develop proper

writing skills and become self-guided learners in other subject areas. The basic reading skills

necessary to become ―literate‖ do not develop naturally; we have to learn to adapt the part of

our brain that recognizes images to be able to recognize written letters and words (Wolf,

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2007). As has been confirmed by scholars working to understand reading acquisition in

multiple languages (Jimenez and O‘Shanahan Juan, 2008; Linan-Thompson and Vaughn,

2007; Abadzi, 2006; Sprenger-Charolles, 2003; Chiappe et al., 2002), in almost any

alphabetic language in which print can be decoded into sounds, being able to read well

requires a grasp of five basic skills(National Reading Panel, 2000):

phonemic awareness: focusing on, manipulating, breaking apart, and putting

together sounds orally;

phonics: linking written letters to their sounds and forming spelling patterns;

fluency: achieving speed, accuracy, and expression in reading;

vocabulary: knowing words (both oral and written) and their meaning; and

comprehension: understanding the concepts read or heard.

All children can, and should, learn to read within the first few years of schooling. No two

children will develop their reading skills in exactly the same way, in the same time frame, but

all readers will progress through a series of phases in their reading development, some

simultaneously.

Reading for success means much more than deciphering words in a text. It means accessing,

evaluating, and synthesizing information, and it therefore creates a foundation for learning

across all academic domains, including math, science, and social studies. It is inextricably

linked to overall academic success. Effective reading is at the heart of being an engaged,

global citizen who is able to grapple with complex issues. The skilled reader works in shades

of gray, confronts problems that can only be solved by integrating ideas from multiple

resources; he understands a wide range of concepts, and he has interdisciplinary knowledge

to access and apply(Graves, 1998). When we read successfully we absorb literature and

nonfiction for pleasure, to acquire information, and to broaden our horizons. Skilled readers

also have the sophisticated oral and written communication skills needed to respond to ideas,

whether presented on screen, in print, or via audio, and to generate new thinking.

Reading words, then, is necessary but not sufficient to support text comprehension. To read

effectively and make meaning from text, one has to bring much to each reading experience

Snow (2002). A reader must be engaged in the process and motivated to work through each

sentence, paragraph and page. But interest alone will not ensure comprehension. She must

have knowledge of the code—the way sounds are associated with letters and blended together

to make words—coupled with the ability to read them quickly enough to retain what is read

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from the beginning of the passage to the end(Chall, 1996). As she reads these words, she

must also successfully recognize the concepts they represent to make meaning of the

text(Scarborough, 2001). To do this, the reader draws on her background knowledge,

constantly applying what she already knows about the reading process and the text‘s topic

while making her way through the word-covered pages. Ultimately, she is advancing her

knowledge (Kintsch, 1994). But if the words and/or the topic are completely unfamiliar or

just too difficult to grasp independently, then sounding out the words may look like

―reading,‖ but it is simply an exercise, unsupportive of learning.

The process of becoming an effective reader is a dynamic and complex one that must begin at

birth and continue into adulthood. ―Reading‖ at age 3 is not the same as reading for a 5-year-

old, which is not the same as skilled reading for a 9-year-old, and none looks similar to

skilled reading for a college student(Chall, 1996). A reader‘s ability has to keep pace with the

changing demands of the context and the purpose for reading, and that demands continual

growth. This growth depends upon strong and supportive interactions among adults and

children, to build up children‘s language and knowledge, and to increase the amount of time

their eyes spend on print. Throughout the day and throughout the early years especially (birth

to 9), that means asking questions, starting conversations, telling stories, and singing songs. It

means listening to stories via audio, drawing letters, writing names as well as writing stories,

letters and essays. It means visits to local parks, libraries, and museums. It means teaching

children to read independently and it also means everyone reading together. It is these

interactions and everyday activities, in homes and communities, early education and care

settings, and schools, that foster an orientation toward learning and inspire children‘s sense of

curiosity about the world and greater understanding of it, while simultaneously promoting

their language abilities and their thinking(Dickinson & Tabors, 2001).

Reading is the cornerstone of academic success and also central to a child‘s overall health.

There is a limited window of time in which to prevent reading difficulties and promote

reading achievement; for most children what happens (or doesn‘t happen) from infancy

through age 9 is critical. By third grade, reading struggles are strongly linked to later school

difficulties, as well as behavioral problems, depression, and dysfunctional and/or negative

peer relationships (Gregg etal., 1996). What‘s more, research indicates that 74 percent of

children whose reading skills are less than sufficient by third grade have a drastically reduced

likelihood of graduating from high school (Fletcher & Lyon, 1998). As a result, these

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children are unlikely to develop the skills essential for participating fully in this knowledge-

based economy and for experiencing life success (Fletcher & Lyon, 1998).

The greatest gift we can give to children is education. An important part of a well-balanced

education is for children to be able to read, write and understand basic mathematics. The

focus on learning has been progressively shifting from input to outcomes in view of learning

achievement. Past educational reforms mainly used to emphasize educational structure,

curriculum and teacher training, in a view to realize quality. But this trend began to give way

to issues related to the improvement of learning achievement, school effectiveness,

management and accountability. Consequently, decentralization, school-based management

and learning assessment became the area of focus in the efforts related to educational reforms

of the 1990s. In the view of Kellaghan and Greaney (2001), global economic competition has

resulted in the critical importance of quality human resources, and the demand for new

competencies in the modern information society. All of these demands have therefore, made

the educational system, schools, and individual students to be under increasing pressure to

perform and work hard. In short, assessing students‘ learning achievements has instigated due

attention and a necessary focus to be made for the former.

When children are not given the appropriate opportunities to learn, both the individual and

society suffer. The costs of childhood reading failure include increased public expenditures

coupled with decreased revenue and human capital. Undoubtedly, low reading starkly

reduces the potential both of individuals and of a society.

1.2 Objective

The main purpose of the study was to collect a baseline data in Grades 2, 3 and 4 in reading

and writing levels. The specific objectives were:

determining the level of achievement in reading in Grades 2, 3 and4 students,

determining the level of achievement in writing in Grades 2, 3 and 4 students,

identify possible factors that brought variations in the achievement levels of the

students, and

compare the level of achievements across subgroups (sex, grade, location, school and

selected background variables).

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2 Design and Methodology

This part describes the data collecting instruments, sample design and the data collecting

procedures. The data analysis technique is also briefly addressed.

2.1 The Participants

The target populations of the study were Grades 2, 3, and 4 students currently enrolled in six

schools around Debrebirhan. Three schools from the rural area where EDA has been

operating and three schools from Debrebirhan town were selected, and 20 students from each

grade level responded to the tests and questionnaires. Teachers and directors also responded

to interviews and participated in focus group discussions.

2.2 Instruments

The data collecting instruments were reading and writing tests meant to measure basic

literacy skills targeted at grade two level. The tasks measuring basic literacy skills in each

case were incremental in their complexity. Each task was presented to the child on a one–to-

one basis. Questionnaires were also administered to the students.The reading test was adapted

from Early Grade Reading Assessment(EGRA) Ethiopia administered in May, 2010 at the

national level.The writing test was targeted to address the minimum competency level at

Grade 2.

2.2.1 Reading

The reading task started with letter recognition followed by reading separate words, and a

passage (connected words). These were all timed to one minute each.The passage was

followed by reading comprehension questions. In addition, a listening comprehension test

based on a short passage was administered.

2.2.2 Writing

The writing test was composed of four parts: copying letters, words and connected words and

writing captions for visual cues.

2.2.3 Questionnaires

The questionnaires were administered to the students on a one-to-one basis, while interviews

were conducted with teachers and directors. The items were composed of background

questions, attitude towards learning and perceptions.

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3 Results and Discussion

This section presents the findings of the study, starting with overall findings followed by

details of each part across different levels and groups. A variety of statistical procedures were

followed to present the findings. Initially student and school level variables believed to affect

reading are discussed based on the responses of the questionnaires and interviews

administered to students, directors and teachers.

3.1 Student level variables related to early grade reading and writing

Learning to read typically begins much earlier than many people think. It begins with

children being read to and importantly with activities that emphasize that letters are a kind of

―code‖ that captures the sounds of words. When children are read to, several important things

happen. First, the children are learning that the squiggles on a page are a way of capturing

language that can be comprehended. Second, activities that focus on letters and the sounds

that letters make are teaching children what is called the ―alphabetic principle.‖ The

alphabetic principle is the notion that words can be coded into alphabetic characters and that,

through the process of reading, the letters can then be decoded to get back to the words.

Students were asked a range of questions about themselves and their school experience

(Table 1). Almost all students have the Amharic Text book and 89.4% use it regularly in their

class, 66.9% of the students have someone who helps them in their studies at home. In 86.4%

cases there is at least one other person who is currently enrolled in school, in 60.2% cases

their mother or a female guardian can read and write while 79.8% said their father or a male

guardian can read and write. About 53.2% said they have books other than their textbooks in

their house and 72.4% said they read books other than their textbooks, 51.5% discuss about

the books they read with their friend, 67.1% said there is someone who reads books to them

at home and in 55.3% cases parents tell them short stories or fables.

8

Table 1. Student’s background variables related to reading and writing

No Yes

Do you have Amharic Textbook? 1.4% 98.6%

Do you use the Amharic Text regularly in your class? 10.6% 89.4%

Is there anyone who helps you in your studies at home? 33.1% 66.9%

Is there anyone currently attending school from your home? 13.6% 86.4%

Does your mother or female guardian reads and write? 39.8% 60.2%

Does your father or male guardian reads and write? 20.2% 79.8%

Do you have books other than textbooks at home? 46.8% 53.2%

Do you read books other than textbooks at your home? 27.6% 72.4%

Do you discuss about the books you read with your friends? 48.5% 51.5%

Is there anyone who reads books to you at home? 32.9% 67.1%

Do your parents tell you short stories or fables? 44.7% 55.3%




In 54.9% cases the students attended preschool education.

Table 2. Student’s school experiences

No Yes

This year have you been absent from school for more than five

days?

60.2% 39.8%

Do you prefer staying at home to going to school? 96.1% 3.9%

Do your parents encourage you to pursue in your education? 4.7% 95.3%

Is there anyone at home who does not want you to continue

your education?

93.3% 6.7%

Have you attended any preschool program before you join

Grade 1?

54.9% 45.1%

Many children learn to read just fine, but their success is not accidental. It is dependent on

experience that starts before they enter school and continues through the early grades when

they are in school. Early experience that leads to reading success starts with parents reading

to their children, teaching them the letters of the alphabet, and working with them on letter-

9

sound correspondences so that the children develop an appreciation of the fact that letters

produce sounds that map onto the sounds we hear in speech.

3.2 School level variables related to earlygrade reading and writing

The school directors and teachers were asked about factors that are believed to affect reading

levels at the early grades and their responses are summarized in the paragraphs that follow.

There are libraries in some schools, but not in others. In schools where there are libraries

students in the early grades have limited access. In one of the schools there are enough books

that are written for children while in others, such books are limited.In all the schools each

student has the Amharic textbook and teachers have Teacher‘s Guide. Experts in the field

advise that one of the strongest predictors of reading achievement is the availability of print

materials in schools and at home. It is good that each student has a textbook; however books

written for children are equally important and they should be abundant.

The time allocated for Amharic is four periods a week and out of this, in most cases, not

more than an hour is used for reading. Research shows that at the early grade levels, a school

should allocate a minimum of one hour per day for reading. The time allocated for teaching

the mother tongue including reading, writing and other communication skills in the schools

relative to other subjects is relatively low suggesting an underestimation of the critical nature

of these skills. One need not, however, lose sight of the critical roles of these two skills in

learning other skills. When students learn these two skills, they are also learning a method of

learning other subjects. Tailored teachers trainings, time on reading and abundance of print in

the school are believed to enhance reading levels in young children.

The major problems related to teaching and learning how to read according to the directors

and teachers were the absence of clear, standardized guidelines for teachers on how to teach

reading and writing, a poor culture of regular reading, limited access to print materials, a lack

of parental support and limited time allocated to the Amharic subject.


encountered by providing tutorial sessions, creating book corners and mini libraries and

differentiating students into groups. To address the problems mentioned above, they also

suggested: a provision of targeted continuous professional development support for teachers

by experts in the field, that reading centers be established at schools as well as in the

10

community, that print materials for children be made abundant and that children should pass

through preprimary classes and be fully prepared before they join Grade 1.

In almost all cases teachers and directors did not get any special training on how to teach




writing, it follows that students would have better skills in reading and writing. Teachers who

had been trained claimed that their pre-service or in-service training was short and

insufficient.

There is a gap in planning the teaching of the two skills, reading and writing, when compared

with their absolute importance relative to other subjects. This indicates there is a need to

change the time structure of teaching early grade students. More time may be added to

teaching reading and writing and the other communication skills.

1.1 Observation of School Compounds and Classrooms

Print materials were not found in sufficient quantity either at the school or the classroom

level. In some cases, words displayed on school walls are observable but only in limited

numbers. In some classrooms, only teaching materials, such as, textbooks, teacher guides,

teacher-written letters (on classroom walls), etc., are noticeable, yet not in sufficient

quantities. It is only in limited cases that student works, such as, student written letters or

words or writing examples (such as, newspapers, posters, maps, etc.) is displayed on bulletin

boards, or school and classroom walls. In many cases these materials are deposited in

pedagogical centers in the form of storage.

Furthermore students were not observed reading individually or in groups in or outside of

school. The absence of student work and independent or shared reading suggest that teacher

centered education is prominent in the observed schools.

11

3.3 Reading

The reading test was composed of five parts: identifying letters, word reading, story reading,

reading comprehension, and listening comprehension. The first three parts measured fluency

and were timed to one minute each: Letter Per Minute (LPM), Word Per Minute (WPM) and

Connected Word Per Minute (CWPM). The remaining two measured the understanding level

of the students.

3.4 Fluency Levels

Table 3presents the summary descriptive statistics for the first three tasks. A total of 359

students took the test and the minimum number of letters or words read in each case was 0

and those who read the maximum number were able to read all the letters and words. The

mean LPM was 75.1 (SD=23.72), the mean WPM was 39.2(SD=39.2) and the mean CWPM

was 41.4 (17.2). The standard deviations were found very high in each case indicating the

existence of wide variation.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics

Task N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

LPM 359 .00 100 75.1 23.72

WPM 359 .00 100 39.2 13.81

CWPM 359 .00 62 41.4 17.29

Table 4shows the percentile scores of the three tasks at five key marker points. The top 10%

of the examinees were able to read almost all letters and words in one minute while the

bottom 10% were able to read at most 39 LPM, 18 WPM,and 16 CWPM. The median score

shows that 50% of the examinee were able to read at least 80 LPM, 49 WPM, 45 CWPM in

each case.

Table 4.Percentile Score

Percentiles LPM WPM CWPM

10th

39 18 16

25th

62 33 30

50th

80 46 45

75th

96 49 56

90th

99 50 61

12

3.4.1 Fluency by Grade

Table 5, Figure 1 and Figure 2 present the mean fluency levels and the distribution of the

scores by grade. The mean LPM, WPM and CWPM were 75.1, 39.1 and 41.4 respectively.

The mean fluency levels of Grade 2 (64.2, 31.4 and 31.6) were found below the grand mean.

In each case the standard deviation in Grade 2 was found highest indicating the presence of

wide variations at lower grade levels.

Table 5. Mean and SD of Fluency by Grade

Grade Statistics

Letter Per

Minute

Word Per

Minute

Connected

Word Per

Minute

Two Mean 64.2 31.4 31.6

Std. Deviation 26.61 16.15 18.73

Three Mean 76.9 40.7 41.2

Std. Deviation 21.05 10.91 15.17

Four Mean 84.1 44.9 51.3

Std. Deviation 18.56 7.64 11.26

Total Mean 75.1 39.1 41.4

Std. Deviation 23.72 13.26 17.29

Figure 1. Bar Charts Showing Fluency Mean Score by Grade

13

Grade

FourThreeTwo

100

80

60

40

20

0

Connected Word Per Minute

Word Per Minute

Letter Per Minute

Figure 2. Box and Whisker Plots of Fluency Levels by Grade

3.4.2 Fluency by Grade and Sex

Table 6and Figure 3present the mean LPM, WPM and CWPM levels by grade and sex. The

mean fluency levels of girls were found higher than that of boys in all cases at all grade

levels. The standard deviations in both cases were high indicating the existence of wide

variations within the group. The variation between boys is wider than that of girls. The

performance of girls was found better than boys unlike other studies so far conducted in

Ethiopia. Looking at grade levels mean LPM was found increasing from lower to higher

grade levels while the standard deviation was decreasing.

14

Table 6. Fluency by Grade and Sex

Grade Sex

Letter Per

Minute

Word Per

Minute

Connected

Word Per

Minute

Two

Female 68.2 35.3 34.6

Male 60.4 27.9 28.8

Total 64.2 31.4 31.6

Three

Female 80.6 42.6 42.2

Male 73.2 38.8 40.3

Total 76.9 40.7 41.2

Four

Female 85.4 45.7 53.0

Male 82.8 44.0 49.6

Total 84.1 44.9 51.3

Total

Female 78.2 41.3 43.4

Male 72.0 36.8 39.4

Total 75.1 39.1 41.4

Figure 3. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by Grade and Sex

3.4.3 Fluency by Grade and Location

Fluency was a timed task and Table 7and Figure 4present the average number of letters,

words and connected words per minute by grade and location. The average LPM for urban

schools is 79.12, which was higher than 71.1 found in the rural schools. The standard

deviations in both cases were high, indicating the existence of wide variations within the

15

group. Looking at grade levels, mean LPM increased from lower to higher grade levels while

the standard deviation decreased.

Table 7. Fluency by Grade and Location

Grade Location Statistics Letter Per

Minute

Word Per

Minute

Connected

Word Per

Minute

Two

Rural Mean 57.9 27.4 25.8

Std. Deviation 25.75 16.47 18.10

Urban Mean 70.6 35.5 37.6

Std. Deviation 26.14 14.89 17.55

Three

Rural Mean 73.6 38.3 37.6

Std. Deviation 20.34 10.72 14.95

Urban Mean 80.3 43.1 44.8

Std. Deviation 21.38 10.64 14.65

Four

Rural Mean 81.7 44.5 49.4

Std. Deviation 18.83 7.73 11.14

Urban Mean 86.5 45.3 53.3

Std. Deviation 18.12 7.59 11.14

Total

Rural Mean 71.0 36.8 37.6

Std. Deviation 23.87 14.00 17.78

Urban Mean 79.2 41.3 45.3

Std. Deviation 22.93 12.11 15.92

Figure 4. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by Grade and Location

3.4.4 Fluency by School

Table 8and Figure 5present the average number of letters, words and connected words per

minute by school. The average LPM, WPM, and CWPM for the highest performing school

16

were 83.2, 39.1 and 41.4 respectively and for the lowest performing school were 67.9, 35.7

and 36.9. High standard deviations were observed in most cases indicating the existence of

wide variations within groups.

Table 8. Fluency by School

School Statistics Letter Per

Minute

Word Per

Minute

Connected

Word Per

Minute

Baso Mean 77.7 40.7 42.0

Std. Deviation 23.5 11.8 14.1

Faji Mean 67.9 35.7 36.9


Genet Mean 75.9 37.3 37.8


Tebase Mean 76.5 40.1 44.4


Zanjira Mean 69.4 37.4 38.2


Zeryaqob Mean 83.2 43.1 49.5


Total Mean 75.1 39.1 41.4


Figure 5. Bar Graphs Showing Mean Fluency Scores by School

The foundation for skilled reading begins at birth. When we are born we come prepared to

capture the sounds that make up the initial language we are exposed to. Those sounds (called

17

phonemes) form the building blocks for the spoken language we learn, and they map onto the

written language we will learn to read.

During the period from year1 to around year 3, we learn to speak. Typically, between 4 and 6

years of age, we begin to learn the alphabet. The first skill that is mastered is the ability to

recognize and name letters and this is followed by the development of the ability to attach

speech sounds to letters. Learning letter names and letter sounds typically produces two skills

that are critical for normal reading development. The first skill is the recognition that the

sounds of the language we speak can be decomposed into individual sounds that map onto the

sounds that letters make. The realization that there is a relationship between the sounds

making up spoken words and the sounds that letters make is called the 'alphabetic principle.'

The second skill that must be developed is called phonological awareness. Phonological

awareness is the recognition that the words we speak can be broken into individual sounds

(phonemes) and these sounds can be combined in many different ways to form other words.

The next phase of reading development involves the acquisition of automatic, low-level

skills. Low level skills are letter and word recognition. A skill is automatic if the skill can be

performed rapidly without thought. Skilled readers don't think about letters when they read

and they typically don't think about words (unless they are unusual). When a skilled reader

reads, all he or she is aware of is the meaning of the words being read. Automatic letter and

word recognition is the product of reading practice. Automatic word recognition is also

facilitated by the ability to sound out letter sequences so that we can recognize them as

words. Some children learn to sound out on their own but others require systematic

instruction (commonly called phonics instruction) in how to attach sounds to letters and to

then blend those sounds to form words. As reading skill develops, the normal reader relies

less on sounding out (a conscious thought process) and more on automatic word recognition

(learn more about developing automatic skills).

3.4.5 Reading Comprehension

The reading comprehension was composed of five items based on the passage which contains

62 words targeted at Grade 2. Students at this grade and age levels are expected to read one

word per second and be able to comprehend what they read aloud or silently. Item and test

analysis of the comprehension questions are presented in this section.

18

The reliability of the test was moderate (Cronbach‘s Alpha = 0.652). The mean item

difficulty was 0.59 with the range of 0.29 to 0.74 (Table 9).

Table 9Reading Comprehension Item Statistics

Item Mean Std. Deviation N

1 .69 .465 359

2 .70 .458 359

3 .53 .499 359

4 .74 .439 359

5 .29 .453 359

The item characteristic curves (Figure 6), the item person dual plot (Figure 7), and the

parameter estimates(Figure 8)based on the IRT producers show a mix of results where Item 4

perfectly fits a normal Ojive shape dividing the low achievers from the high achievers into

two groups. While Items 1 and 2 were easier for both groups and Items 4 and 5 were favoring

high achievers.

Figure 6. Reading Comprehension Item Characteristic Curve

19

Figure 7. Reading Comprehension Item person dual plot

Figure 8. Reading Comprehension Parameter Estimates

20

3.4.6 Reading Comprehension by School

The recursive partitioning analysis of the comprehension score by school shows that the

differences in school accounted for 6.8% (R2= 0.068) of the variationsin reading

comprehension score (Figure 9). Schools in the urban setting performed relatively better than

those in the rural settings. The mean score for the highest performing school was 75.7%

while that of the least performing one was 52.3%.

Figure 9. Recursive Partitioning Analysis of Reading Comprehension by School

21

3.4.7 Listening Comprehension

When a solid foundation of automatic word recognition has developed we move into the

period where we can readily comprehend what we are reading. Reading comprehension at its

simplest is decoding (identifying written words) plus listening comprehension. There is solid

research evidence that we activate the speech areas of the brain when we read, and in essence,

what we are doing is listening to ourselves talk when we read. We don't realize this because it

typically happens so fast that we are not aware of the speech part of the process. However, try

reading material that is very complicated in wording or dense in thoughts and you will often

find that you talk to yourself as you read. Reading comprehension is closely tied to learning.

If we read text that is about familiar information, we read easily and with good

comprehension. When we move to new content though (like reading about molecular

biology) we are back to reading comprehension being an effortful process. This means that

reading with comprehension can be a continuous process if we are learning new content.

The listening comprehension was composed of five items based on the passage which

contains 38 words targeted at Grade 2 level. Item and test analysis of the listening

comprehension questions are presented in this section.The reliability of the test was low

(Cronbach‘s Alpha = 0.482). The mean item difficulty was 0.701 with the range of 0.33 to

0.96 (Table 10). The mean scaled score was 3.5 with a standard deviation of 1.36.

Table 10Listening ComprehensionItem Statistics

Mean

Std.

Deviation N

Item 1 .96 .194 359

Item 2 .70 .459 359

Item 3 .73 .446 359

Item 4 .33 .472 359

Item 5 .78 .413 359

The item characteristic curves (Figure 10), the item person dual plot (Figure 11), and the

parameter estimates (Figure 12) based on the IRT producers show a mix of results where

Item 1 was found list discriminating Item 5 fits a normal Ojive shape and Item 4 was found

favoring high achievers.

22

Figure 10. Listening Comprehension Item Characteristic Curve

Figure 11. Listening Comprehension Item Person Dual Plot

23

Figure 12. Listening Comprehension Parameter Estimates

3.4.8 Listening Comprehension by School

The recursive partitioning analysis by school shows that the differences in school accounted

for 13.8% (R2= 0.138) of the variations in listening comprehension score (Figure 13).

Schools in the urban setting performed better than those in the rural settings. The mean score

for the highest performing school was 87% while that of the lowest performing one was 61%.

The school which performed best in the reading comprehension also performed best listening

comprehension.

24

Figure 13. Recursive partitioning analysis of listening comprehension by school

25

3.5 Hand Writing

A child's writing development parallels its development as a reader. Print awareness develops

in young children as a result of being read to by adults and having other literacy experiences.

Part of print awareness is the realization that writing is created with instruments such as pens,

pencils, crayons and markers. Children begin to imitate the writing that they see in the

environment. At first glance, the efforts of a young child may look like meaningless scribble,

but a closer look at these early attempts at writing will reveal something more. Young

children move through a series of stages as they are learning to write. The stages reflect a

child's growing knowledge of the conventions of literacy, including letters, sounds and

spacing of words within sentences.

The hand writing test was composed of three parts: copying words, labeling diagrams and

copying sentences.

3.5.1 Copying Words

Students were asked to copy four separate words and almost all of them were able to copy the

words with legible handwriting. The reliability of the test was very high (Cronbach‘s Alpha =

.889). The mean item difficulty was .96with the range of .95 to .98 (Table 11). The mean

scaled scored was 3.86 with a standard deviation of .634.

Table 11Copying WordsItem Statistics

Mean

Std.

Deviation N

ደብተር .96 .187 359

መጽሀፍ .98 .148 359

ተነስ .96 .207 359

ተሰበረ .96 .194 359

3.5.2 Labeling Diagrams

Students were asked to write the names of diagrams. The reliability of the test of labeling

diagrams was very high (Cronbach‘s Alpha = .835). The mean item difficulty was .96with the

range of .95 to .96 (

26

Table 12). The mean scaled scored was 2.86 with a Sd of .299. Most students were able to

write the caption to the familiar diagrams they were asked to label.

27

Table 12Labeling Diagram Item Statistics

Mean

Std.

Deviation N

አበባ .96 .194 359

ውሻ .95 .219 359

አህያ .95 .219 359

3.5.3 Copying Connected Words

The reliability of the test of labeling diagrams was very high (Cronbach‘s Alpha = .904). The

mean item difficulty was .787with the range of .588. The mean scaled scored was 12.58 with

a Standard deviation of 3.58. Most students were able to write the caption to the familiar

diagrams they were asked to label. The main problems observed in handwriting were

inability to break words using spaces and the use of punctuation marks. The difficulty level

of the use of end of sentences punctuation marks were 0.49 for four points (full stop) and

0.37 for question marks (Table 13).

Table 13Copying Connected Words Item Statistics Mean Std. Deviation N

አበበች .96 .194 359

ባዶ ቦታ .74 .439 359

ጎበዝ .96 .194 359

ባዶ ቦታ .71 .454 359

ተማሪ .95 .219 359

ባዶ ቦታ .70 .457 359

ነች .96 .200 359

። .49 .501 359

ወደ .96 .207 359

ባዶ ቦታ .65 .478 359

አገርህ .95 .219 359

ባዶ ቦታ .65 .476 359

መቼ .93 .250 359

ባዶ ቦታ .66 .473 359

ትመለሳለህ .93 .250 359

? .37 .484 359

28

3.6 Comparison with EGRA Ethiopia

This study used the EGRA Ethiopia tools prepared in Amharic with slight modifications.

EGRA Ethiopia was carried out in May 2010 and it was one of the largest in terms of sample

size and design complexity (Piper, 2010). There is a significant disparity in the results

achieved by the students who took part in this study, compared with the results achieved by

average students in the Amhara region on the National EGRA. On the whole, students in this

study performed significantly better than students in the National Study, where almost 50%

of 2nd

graders were unable to read a single word on the Reading Comprehension test (Piper,

2010).

Though some differences in testing methodology existed between the two studies, based on

one-to-one discussions with students, teachers and school administrators, the ongoing

activities of EDA in these schools and communities were identified as a significant

contributing factor to the positive outcomes. Though the performance of the students is better

when compared with the previous study this does not mean students achieved the expected

levels. Further consultation with teachers and administrators suggested that schools in the

rural areas not heavily served by EDA activities would probably not have achieved similar

results.

3.7 Students’ Background Variables and Achievement Levels

In this section the result of multiple regression analysis models are presented to explore the

contribution of the background variables to the reading levels of the students.

3.7.1 Multiple Regression Analysis Reading Comprehension

Multiple regression analysis was carried out using the reading comprehension scores as a

dependent variable and several student level factors as independent variables. The regression

model was good fit (R2 = .5154), and the overall relationship was statistically significant

(F19, 339 = 17.97, p < 0.001). It means the regression model was able to explain 51.54% of the

variations observed between the students in the average reading comprehension score

(Table 14).

29

Table 14. Multiple regression analysis reading comprehension

Total 803.097493 358 2.24328909 Root MSE = 1.073 Adj R-squared = 0.4867 Residual 389.183061 338 1.15142917 R-squared = 0.5154 Model 413.914432 20 20.6957216 Prob > F = 0.0000 F( 20, 338) = 17.97 Source SS df MS Number of obs = 359

From the students‘ background variables the two most important factors that strongly

affected the reading comprehension average score were possession of books other than

textbooks and preschool attendance. In addition the contribution of knowledge of letter

names, ability to read connected words and listening comprehension score to the regression

model were also found statistically significant.

3.7.2 Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression analysis was carried out using the listening comprehension scores as a

dependent variable and several student level factors as independent variables. The regression

model was a weak fit (R2 = .1050), and the overall relationship was statistically significant

(F19, 339 = 2.09, p < 0.01). It means the regression model was able to explain 10.5% of the

variations observed between the students in the average listening comprehension score (Table

15).

Table 15. Multiple regression analysis listening comprehension

Total 487.743733 358 1.36241266 Root MSE = 1.1348 Adj R-squared = 0.0549 Residual 436.520942 339 1.2876724 R-squared = 0.1050 Model 51.2227904 19 2.69593634 Prob > F = 0.0051 F( 19, 339) = 2.09 Source SS df MS Number of obs = 359

30

4 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter presents the main findings followed by conclusions made based on these

findings and recommendations.

4.1 Summary

This Early Grade Reading and Writing study was carried out in Grades 2, 3 and 4 students in

Amhara region around Debirbirhan where EDA is operating. A sample of 359 students drawn

from 6 schools (3 urban and 3 rural), their teachers and the schools‘ directors participated in

the study. Students took tests on reading and writing which were administered on a one-to-

one basis. Students, teachers and school directors also responded to questionnaires and

interviews.

The reading test was composed of five parts: identifying letters, word reading, story reading,

reading comprehension, and listening comprehension. The first three parts were measuring

fluency and timed to one minute each: Letter Per Minute (LPM), Word Per Minute (WPM)

and Connected Word Per Minute (CWPM). The remaining two measured the understanding

level of the students. A total of 359 students took the test and the minimum number of letters

or words read in each case was 0 and those who read the maximum number were able to read

all the letters and words. The mean LPM was 75.1 (SD=23.72), the mean WPM was

39.2(SD=39.2) and the mean CWPM was 41.4 (17.2). The standard deviations were found

very high in each case indicating the existence of wide variation.

The top 10% of the examinees were able to read almost all letters and words per minute while

the bottom 10% were able to read at most 39 LPM, 18 WPM, and 16 CWPM. The median

score shows that 50% of the examinee were able to read at least 80 LPM, 49 WPM, 45

CWPM in each case. The mean LPM, WPM and CWPM were 75.1, 39.1 and 41.4

respectively. The mean fluency levels of Grade 2 (64.2, 31.4 and 31.6) were found below the

grand mean. In each case the standard deviation in Grade 2 was found highest indicating the

presence of wide variations at lower grade levels.

The mean fluency levels of girls were found higher than that of boys in all cases at all grade

levels. The standard deviations in both cases were high indicating the existence of wide

variations within the group. The variation between boys is wider than that of girls. The

performance of girls was found to be better than that of boys, unlike previously conducted in

31

Ethiopia. Looking at grade levels mean LPM increased from lower to higher grade levels

while the standard deviation decreased.

The average LPM for urban schools is 79.12, which was higher than the 71.1 found in rural

schools. The standard deviations in both cases were high indicating the existence of wide

variations within the group. Looking at grade levels mean LPM increased from lower to

higher grade levels while the standard deviation decreased.

The average LPM, WPM, and CWPM for the highest performing school were 83.2, 39.1 and

41.4 respectively and for the lowest performing school were 67.9, 35.7 and 36.9. High

standard deviations were observed in most cases indicating the existence of wide within

group variations.

The reading comprehension was composed of five items based on the passage which contains

62 words targeted at Grade 2. Students at this grade and age levels are expected to read one

word per second and be able to comprehend what they read aloud or silently. Item and test

analysis of the comprehension questions presented show that the reliability of the test was

moderate (Cronbach‘s Alpha = 0.652). The mean item difficulty was 0.59 with the range of

0.29 to 0.74.The recursive partitioning analysis of the comprehension score by school shows

that the differences in school accounted for 6.8% (R2= 0.068) of the variations in reading

comprehension score. Schools in the urban setting performed relatively better than those in

the rural settings. The mean score for the highest performing school was 75.7% while that of

the lowest performing one was 52.3%.

The listening comprehension was composed of five items based on the passage which

contains 38 words targeted at Grade 2 level. Item and test analysis of the listening

comprehension questions showed that the reliability of the test was low (Cronbach‘s Alpha =

0.482). The mean item difficulty was 0.701 with the range of 0.33 to 0.96. The mean scaled

score was 3.5 with a standard deviation of 1.36.

The recursive partitioning analysis by school shows that the differences in school accounted

for 13.8% (R2= 0.138) of the variations in listening comprehension scores. Schools in the

urban setting were found performing better than those in the rural settings. The mean score

for the highest performing school was 87% while that of the least performing one was 61%.

The same school which performed best in the reading comprehension also performed best in

the listening comprehension.

32

The hand writing test was composed of three parts: copying words, labeling diagrams and

copying sentences. Students were asked to copy four separate words and almost all of them

were able to copy the words with legible handwriting. The reliability of the test was very high

(Cronbach‘s Alpha = .889). The mean item difficulty was .96with the range of .95 to .98. The

mean scaled scored was 3.86 with a standard deviation of .634.

Students were asked to write the names of diagrams. The reliability of the test of labeling

diagrams was very high (Cronbach‘s Alpha = .835). The mean item difficulty was .96 with

the range of .95 to .96. The mean scaled scored was 2.86 with a standard deviation of .299.

Most students were able to write the caption to the familiar diagrams they were asked to

label.

The reliability of the test of labeling diagrams was very high (Cronbach‘s Alpha = .904). The

mean item difficulty was .787with the range of .588. The mean scaled scored was 12.58 with

a standard deviation of 3.58. Most students were able to write the caption to the familiar

diagrams they were asked to label. The main problems observed in handwriting were

inability to break words using spaces and the use of punctuation marks. The difficulty level

of the use of end of sentences punctuation marks were 0.49 for four points (full stop) and

0.37 for question marks.

This study used the EGRA Ethiopia tools prepared in Amharic with slight modifications.

There is a significant disparity in the results achieved by the students who took part in this

study, compared with the results achieved by average students in the Amhara region on the

National EGRA. On the whole, students in this study performed significantly better than

students in the National Study, where almost 50% of 2nd

graders were unable to read a single

word on the Reading Comprehension test. Though some differences in testing methodology

existed between the two studies, based on one-to-one discussions with students, teachers and

school administrators, the ongoing activities of EDA in these schools and communities were

identified as a significant contributing factor to the positive outcomes. Even if the

performance of the students is better when compared with the previous study this does not

mean students achieved the expected levels. Further consultation with teachers and

administrators suggested that schools in the rural areas not heavily served by EDA activities

would probably not have achieved similar results.

Looking at the background variables, almost all students have the Amharic Text book and

89.4% use it regularly in their class, 66.9% of the students have someone who helps them in

33

their studies at home. In 86.4% cases there is at least one other person who is currently

enrolled in school, in 60.2% cases their mother or a female guardian can read and write while

79.8% said their father or a male guardian can read and write. About 53.2% said they have

books other than their textbooks in their house and 72.4% said they read books other than

their textbooks, 51.5% discuss about the books they read with their friend, 67.1% said there is

someone who reads books to them at home and in 55.3% cases parents tell them short stories

or fables.




In 54.9% cases the students attended preschool education.

In some schools there are libraries and in others they do not have. In schools where there are

libraries students in the early grades have limited accesses. In one of the schools there are

enough books that are written for children while in others there are few. In all the schools

each student has the Amharic textbook and teachers have Teacher‘s Guide. Experts in the

field advise that one of the strongest predictors of reading achievement is the availability of

print materials in schools and at home. It is good that each student has a textbook; however

books written for children are equally important and they should be abundant.

The time allocated for Amharic is four periods a week and out of this in most cases not more

than an hour is used for reading. Researches show that at the early grade levels a school

should allocate a minimum of one hour per day for reading. The time allocated for teaching

the mother tongue including reading, writing and other communication skills in the schools

relative to other subjects is relatively low suggesting again an underestimation of the critical

nature of these skills. One need not, however, lose sight of the critical roles of these two

skills in learning other skills. When students learn these two skills, they are also learning a

method of learning other subjects. Tailored teachers trainings, time on reading and abundance

of print in the school are believed to enhance reading levels in young children.

The major problems related to teaching and learning how to read according to the directors

and teachers were the absence of clear, standardized guidelines for teachers on how to teach

reading and writing, a poor culture of regular reading, limited access to print materials, a lack

of parental support and limited time allocated to Amharic subject.

34


encountered by providing tutorial sessions, creating book corners and mini-libraries and

differentiating students into groups. To address the problems mentioned above, they also

suggested: a be provision of targeted continuous professional development support for

teachers by experts in the field, that reading centers be established at schools as well as in the

community, that print materials for children be abundant and that children should pass

through preprimary classes and be fully prepared before they join Grade 1.

In almost all cases teachers and directors did not get any special training on how to teach




writing, it follows that students should have better skills in reading and writing. Teachers

who had received training claimed that their pre-service or in-service training was short and

insufficient.

Print materials were not observed to be found in sufficient quantity either at the school or the

classroom level. In some cases, words displayed on school walls are observable but only in

limited numbers. In some classrooms, only teaching materials, such as, textbooks, teacher

guides, teacher-written letters (on classroom walls), etc., are noticeable, yet not found in

sufficient quantities. It is only in limited cases that student works, such as, student written

letters or and writing examples (such as, newspapers, posters, maps, etc.) are displayed on

bulletin boards and school and classroom walls.

Furthermore students were not observed reading individually or in groups inside or outside

the school. The absence of student work and independent or shared reading suggest that

teacher centered education is prominent in the observed schools.

35

4.2 Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions are made:

There exist variations in the achievement levels within and between schools this is

in line with other studies conducted in Ethiopia at different levels.

Students in the urban schools were performing better than their counterparts in

rural schools.

Attendance of preprimary classes strongly determined the reading comprehension

score

Availability of books other than textbooks determined the reading comprehension

score

Girls are performing better than boys and this is quite different from other large

scale studies conducted in Ethiopia including EGRA.

Teachers and directors are not trained to address with techniques that help to

overcome reading difficulties.

Teachers are not getting continuous support and follow up from reading experts.

Students are not getting the necessary support required to excel in basic literacy.

The reading culture within and outside the school is poor.

There are limited print materials targeted to young children in schools and at

home.

Sufficient time is not allotted for independent and shared reading.

Parental support is limited and students come to school without the necessary

preparation.

Students in urban school, and communities where EDA has directed it actions

seem to be much more advanced than students in rural areas, where EDA has not

been active.

36

4.3 Recommendations

In this study most students from rural schools as well as the urban ones were found struggling

to recognize words and read sentences targeted at the level of Grade 2. The study showed that

teachers lack support and basic content knowledge of how to teach reading, instructional time

for reading is minimal, students have few interactions with print, and students did not get the

necessary parental support.

Researches show that a special area in the brain becomes active when students start reading

faster. When that area is activated, reading becomes effortless and automatic. Students‘

progress from decoding individual letters to perceiving entire words and turn their attention

to the meaning of texts rather than the letters. The prerequisite for activating the visual word

form is practice. Based on the findings of the study and other best practices quick and

sizeable gains are possible, if the following recommendations are applied:

Establishing preprimary classes in the rural areas to enhance reading

preparedness;

Focusing attention on rural schools;

Establishing reading corners and mini libraries in schools and in the community;

Producing culturally relevant supplementary reading materials targeted to age and

grade levels;

Making sufficient amounts of print materials for students to practice and take

home;

Providing teachers and school directors with tailor made intensive trainings on

how to teach reading and writing at early grades;

Provision of relatively short and defined courses on reading fundamentals, with

specific speed and accuracy objectives;

Placement of the better teachers in the lower grades wherever possible and

supplying scripted lesson plans and materials that teachers of limited education

can easily follow;

Intensive supervision, systematic visits and informal reading assessments;

Use of additional instructional time for reading, creating community awareness of

reading needs and monitoring; and

Introducing adult literacy program in the rural areas and creatingconducive

environment where children can practice reading with their parents.

37

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