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Effects of Expatriate Demographic Characteristics on Adjustment:
A Social Identity Approach1
1 This is a preprint of an article published in Human Resource Management, 48(2), 311-328, March/April 2009,
available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hrm.20281/abstract (Please cite the publisher’s
version.)
Jesse E. Olsen Doctoral Candidate
Georgia Institute of Technology
College of Management
800 West Peachtree Street NW
Atlanta, GA 30308
Luis L. Martins Associate Professor
Georgia Institute of Technology
College of Management
800 West Peachtree Street NW
Atlanta, GA 30308
ABSTRACT: Expatriates are receiving growing emphasis by both scholars and practitioners as
organizations are increasingly going global and need expatriates to manage their operations in
various parts of the world. A key factor affecting an expatriate’s success in an international
assignment is the support that the expatriate receives from host country nationals (HCNs) with
whom he/she works. However, researchers interested in understanding expatriate success have not
examined the phenomenon much from an HCN perspective. At the same time, although we have
gained a significant understanding of the roles of psychological, organizational, and contextual
variables in the international assignment, there is still much to be understood about how
expatriates’ demographic characteristics affect their experiences in international assignments.
Current findings regarding effects of demographic characteristics are often inconsistent,
highlighting the need for more complex theorizing. This paper reviews recent research on the
effects of expatriate demographic characteristics and proposes a social identity approach to
understanding how these characteristics affect HCN support for the expatriate. It seeks to develop
theory that addresses discrepancies in extant empirical findings, and provides propositions to guide
future research in the study of expatriates. The paper also discusses implications of the framework
proposed for both researchers and practitioners.
Keywords: expatriates, host country nationals, demographics, diversity, Social Identity Theory,
international HRM, global careers
Organizations that wish to succeed in this era of globalization are realizing that they must
turn to international markets in order to remain competitive. An integral part of setting up a
subsidiary overseas, acquiring a foreign organization, or participating in an international joint
venture is a successful expatriate or international assignment program. However, many
assignments end in the premature return of the expatriate or in expatriate attrition (GMAC, 2007),
while some expatriates may experience psychological withdrawal even as they remain in their
international assignment (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Tung, 1981). A
recent study reveals that the expatriate’s inability to adjust to the new environment is a key factor
leading to unsuccessful expatriate assignments, with 57 percent of human resource managers
surveyed citing this as a problem; only partner dissatisfaction was mentioned more frequently
(GMAC, 2007).
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Research to date has made considerable advances in defining and describing expatriate
adjustment (e.g., Black, 1988; Black & Stephens, 1989), as well as understanding many of the
antecedents and consequences of the phenomenon (see Harrison, Shaffer, & Bhaskar-Shrinivas,
2004 for a recent review). The current dominant model of expatriate adjustment suggests, among
other things, that those who surround an expatriate while on assignment—the host country
nationals (HCNs)—may play a role in expatriate adjustment through the support that they
provide to the expatriate (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991). However, few researchers (Toh
& DeNisi, 2003, 2005; Varma, Toh, & Budhwar, 2006) have examined how HCNs might
contribute to adjustment, or the factors that determine HCN support for an expatriate.
Additionally, a review of the literature reveals that research on expatriates has tended to
focus primarily on psychological, organizational, and contextual variables as predictors of an
expatriate’s experience on an international assignment. One set of variables that has not been
explored in much detail is expatriate demographics. Furthermore, the little empirical research
that does exist on the effects of expatriate demographics has been inconclusive. Understanding
the effects of these characteristics on the expatriate experience is important as the pool of
expatriate managers grows increasingly diverse, reflecting the changing nature of the workforce
and increased global mobility of employees (Inkson, Arthur, Pringle, & Barry, 1997). For one,
such an understanding is likely to contribute to organizations’ abilities to develop their diverse
pool of employees. There is evidence that a lack of understanding of the effects of expatriate
demographic characteristics could lead to poor decision making based on weak assumptions, and
in the process deprive certain individuals the opportunity to pursue global careers. For example,
as is discussed in further detail in a later section, erroneous assumptions about how women will
adjust to international assignments have in the past caused some organizations to maintain low
percentages of female expatriates (Adler, 1984, 1987, 1993, 1994, 2002).
Secondly, researchers have noted the importance of the international assignment in
contributing to an expatriate’s career development (e.g., Feldman & Thomas, 1992; Selmer,
Ebrahimi, & Mingtao, 2002; Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002). At the same time, successful
multinational corporations are noting the importance of training employees to function across
cultures (Metcalfe & Rees, 2005). A better understanding of the effects of expatriate
demographic characteristics could contribute not only to the personal and professional
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development of the expatriate, but also to organizations’ abilities to develop effective training
and international human resource development programs.
This paper seeks to explore how expatriates’ demographic characteristics may play a role
in their experience in international assignments. Specifically, we use Social Identity Theory as
the basis of a theoretical framework of the relationship between expatriate demographic
characteristics and HCN support. In the process, we also attempt to explain inconsistent results in
the literature on the effects of expatriates’ demographic characteristics, and seek to address the
need to explore the role of HCNs. In the section below, we first discuss expatriate adjustment
and extant research on HCN support, and then provide a brief overview of the relevant research
on social identity that forms the basis of the framework proposed. Next, we use social identity
theory to examine prior research and form new propositions on the effects of demographic
characteristics on HCN support. Finally, we discuss the implications of our framework for both
research and practice.
DEFINITIONS AND KEY CONCEPTS
Expatriates are defined as “employees of business organizations, who are sent [to another
country] on a temporary basis to complete a time-based task or accomplish an organizational
goal” (Harrison et al., 2004). Human resource practitioners note the high turnover rate among
expatriates, as well as the prominence of premature returns (GMAC, 2007). In addition,
researchers in this field have pointed out that some expatriates may experience psychological
withdrawal (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Tung, 1981), which may be
even more costly to the organization than physical withdrawal (Harzing, 1995). In any event,
assignment failure may take various forms. Low performance, attrition, and psychological
withdrawal are all undesirable outcomes, potentially leading to high costs to the organization.
According to human resource practitioners, expatriates’ inability to adjust is one of the
biggest reasons for failure (GMAC, 2007). Expatriate adjustment has been commonly defined as
“the degree of comfort or absence of stress associated with being an expatriate” (Bhaskar-
Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005). Prior research has found that expatriate adjustment is
related to critical organizational variables (Harrison et al., 2004). For example, it is negatively
related to withdrawal cognitions, i.e., an expatriate’s intentions to leave an assignment (e.g.,
Black & Stephens, 1989; Gregersen & Black, 1990; Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak, 2005;
Takeuchi, Yun, & Russell, 2002) and positively related to satisfaction (both work- and non-
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work-related) (e.g., Nicholson & Imaizumi, 1993; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998). Expatriate
adjustment has also been found to be positively related to performance (e.g., Kraimer, Wayne, &
Jaworski, 2001; Parker & McEvoy, 1993), though recently some have challenged the extent to
which researchers have claimed these constructs to be related (Thomas & Lazarova, 2006).
Relatively little expatriate research focuses on host country nationals (HCNs), or the
natives of the host country, with whom the expatriate may have contact on assignment. The little
research that does exist on this subject finds that expatriates with large and diverse networks
experience greater adjustment (Johnson, Kristof-Brown, van Vianen, & de Pater, 2003; Wang &
Kanungo, 2004) and that HCN coworker support is positively related to expatriate adjustment
(Aryee & Stone, 1996; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999; Toh, 2003). Scholars taking the HCN
into consideration primarily refer to HCN co-workers of the expatriate (e.g., Toh & DeNisi,
2003; Varma et al., 2006), rather than to HCNs in general—both within and outside of the
organizational setting (see Johnson et al., 2003 for an exception). Because of the work-oriented
goals of the expatriate’s assignment abroad, this paper will also focus on HCN co-workers,
though much of the discussion to follow may also be applicable with modification to the
expatriate’s HCN acquaintances outside of the organization.
We should note that expatriates may have different modes of adjustment, one of which
may be to regress into an “environmental bubble” of the home country, i.e., an enclave “which
shelter[s] them off from the environment of the host society” (Cohen, 1977: 16). This would
essentially isolate the expatriate from the host country and allow for an existence somewhat
similar to that he or she had at home. However, we posit that the primary objectives of many
modern organizations (e.g., transferring technology, knowledge, and organizational culture to the
host country, or building local business relationships; see GMAC, 2007) require expatriates to
interact with HCN co-workers. Although environmental bubbles undoubtedly exist, most
business expatriates in this era must be able to adjust to the host country and interactions with its
natives. Our paper applies to these expatriates, rather than to those who are able to confine
themselves to environmental bubbles.
Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory or “SIT” (e.g., Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, 1985) provides a
sound theoretical basis for understanding HCN support, and in particular, how it is affected by
the expatriate’s demographic characteristics. SIT proposes that individuals derive their sense of
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self through membership in social groups (e.g., Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, 1985). At a basic
level, the theory addresses individual behavior within the context of groups and both actual and
perceived group membership. In its original formulation, SIT seeks to explain inter-group
behavior and is based on the assumptions that 1) individuals seek a positive self-concept, 2)
group memberships tend to carry with them socially-defined positive or negative evaluations,
and 3) individuals evaluate their own groups via comparisons with other groups (Tajfel &
Turner, 1979). Tajfel and Turner (1979) note that through the process of ingroup-outgroup
differentiation, one shows favoritism toward his/her own group and acts discriminatorily against
the relevant outgroup(s). Such biases have important implications in organizations, as they can
facilitate or inhibit cooperative and supportive behavior (Ashforth & Mael, 1989).
A major advance in the SIT literature is Turner’s (1985) introduction of self-
categorization theory (SCT), which seeks to further explain the cognitive processes behind social
identification as the basis of inter-group dynamics. Turner (1985) posits that an individual’s
overall self-concept is composed of a number of situation-specific identities (both personal and
social) that are activated as appropriate. At the social level, one categorizes oneself and others
into groups, and through this process of social categorization, individuals are depersonalized, or
viewed in terms of their group prototypicality, rather than as unique individuals. (Hogg & Terry,
2000; Turner, 1985). This line of research has also pointed out that the salience of a social
category is important in determining whether that aspect of one’s identity or that of others, is
activated in interpersonal interactions (e.g., Brewer & Brown, 1998; Fiske & Taylor, 1991;
Oakes, 1987).
Social Identity Theory and Expatriate Research
Despite the potential for SIT to inform the fundamental bases of HCN support for
expatriates, it is only very recently that researchers have begun utilizing it as the theoretical
underpinning for understanding the expatriate experience (e.g., Carr, Rugimbana, Walkom, &
Bolitho, 2001; Toh & DeNisi, 2003, 2005; Varma et al., 2006). A review of the literature
revealed a dissertation (Toh, 2003) and subsequent theoretical publication (Toh & DeNisi, 2003)
largely utilizing Turner’s (1985) SCT as the framework for a model that attempts to explain
HCNs’ organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) toward facilitating expatriates’ adjustment.
This research suggests that HCNs’ classification of the expatriate as a member of their ingroup is
positively related to their adjustment-facilitating OCBs (Toh, 2003). This suggestion is in
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agreement with Ashforth and Mael’s (1989) discussion of cooperation with coworkers and
support for the organization as outcomes of organizational identification.
Another study, by Carr and colleagues (2001), suggests that a prestige factor plays a role
in expatriate-HCN relations. The researchers asked Tanzanian business undergraduate students
about how they feel human resource managers would select job candidates from different
countries. All else being equal, the respondents indicated that fellow Tanzanians would first be
preferred for the job, followed by Western expatriates, and lastly East Africans. The authors
suggest that the ingroup is preferred over both outgroups, as would be predicted by the notion
put forth in SIT that individuals show favoritism toward their own groups (Tajfel & Turner,
1979). Furthermore, the study supports the proposition of SIT that given two outgroups, the one
that is more subject to comparison would be more subject to social competition (Tajfel & Turner,
1979). Carr et al. (2001) explain that Tanzanians would view Westerners, who generally come
from countries that differ considerably from Tanzania, as less comparable to themselves than
nationals from nearby countries which they may see as more similar to Tanzania. This
application of SIT, though related to expatriate selection rather than to HCN support, lends
empirical support to the idea that HCNs tend to categorize expatriates based on the processes
identified by SIT.
Overall, whereas SIT has the potential to inform understanding of the mechanisms
underlying expatriates’ experiences in international assignments, we have barely scratched the
surface in terms of applying the theory, especially when it comes to understanding HCN support.
In the remainder of this section, we propose some core propositions about the social identity
dynamics underlying international assignments, and then use those as the foundation for the
framework connecting expatriate demographics to HCN support in the following section.
By definition, the expatriate is a foreigner in the host country, so his/her membership in a
“foreigner” outgroup will likely be salient to the HCNs initially (Toh, 2003; Toh & DeNisi, 2003,
2005). SIT research has found that salient demographic characteristics are likely to be used as
bases for social categorization, as they are more readily cognitively available (Brewer & Brown,
1998; Tsui, Egan, & O'Reilly, 1992). Thus, a starting proposition may be stated as follows:
Proposition 1: HCNs will initially categorize an expatriate as a member of a foreigner
outgroup.
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Additionally, the expatriate is likely to be viewed by the HCNs as a member of another
department or organizational unit within the same super-ordinate organization. According to
Ashforth and Mael (1989), unless members of separate organizational units share a strong
organizational identity, the identities of their respective units are likely to be salient, possibly
leading each party to view the other negatively. Applying this principle to the international
assignment, we propose that
Proposition 2: The stronger the super-ordinate organizational identity, the more likely
the expatriate and HCNs will share a common identity in the organizational group.
However, the weaker the super-ordinate organizational identity, the more likely the
expatriate and HCNs will be to view one another as a member of an outgroup in terms of
their subordinate organizational unit membership.
Consistent with an approach using SIT and related research (like that of Toh & DeNisi,
2003; Varma et al., 2006), it may be posited that if HCNs and expatriates identify with the same
social group, HCNs will be more willing to support the group through cooperation with
expatriate members at work and possibly even outside of work. Additionally, interactions should
occur more easily between expatriates and HCNs if they identify with the same social group.
These arguments are consistent with the propositions of SIT that individuals will be more likely
to have positive attitudes and behavior toward those that they classify as belonging to one of
their ingroups (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Therefore, in general, and forming a basic proposition
in this paper,
Proposition 3: As the salience (from the perspective of the HCNs) of a social identity
common to the expatriate and HCNs increases, HCN support of the expatriate will also
increase.
A common social identity may take any of a number of forms, such as that of a cultural,
racial, or organizational group. However, SIT posits that the categorization processes described
above will be based on the most salient characteristics at a given time. Thus, it is likely that
demographic characteristics will be used, at least initially, as the expatriate and HCNs interact
with each other, since such characteristics are “observable or readily detectable attributes”
(Milliken & Martins, 1996: 403). It is important to note that membership in a foreigner outgroup
is normally based on such salient and fixed characteristics that a “foreign” individual has little to
no social mobility (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) on this dimension. In other words, an expatriate who
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has been categorized by HCNs as a foreigner based on dimensions such as national origin, race,
or ethnicity will often be hard-pressed to remove him- or herself from the foreigner outgroup in
the eyes of the HCNs (Toh & DeNisi, 2003; Varma et al., 2006). As will be discussed, this may
work to the expatriate’s advantage or disadvantage, and expatriates will have varying rates of
success in moving into HCN ingroups, depending on their demographic characteristics and the
characteristics of the host country. Foreign outgroup membership may be so salient to HCNs that
an expatriate is unable to benefit from his/her membership in a prestigious group (such as the
dominant sex in that particular culture, or as an elder to be respected in a culture emphasizing
Confucian values). On the other hand, the expatriate may be able to benefit from his/her
foreignness if there is risk of being categorized on some less favorable dimension (for example,
if he/she is a member of the non-dominant sex in that country). These phenomena will be further
discussed in the sections on expatriate sex and age.
The remainder of this paper will thus use a social identity approach to explore how the
demographic characteristics of both expatriates and HCNs may come into play in explaining
HCN support for expatriates.
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND HCN SUPPORT: A SOCIAL IDENTITY
APPROACH
Whereas SIT is one of the most commonly used theories in research on the effects of
demographic characteristics in the literature on workforce diversity (see Milliken & Martins,
1996; van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007; and Williams & O'Reilly, 1998 for reviews), it has
not been applied similarly in research on expatriates. In this section we use SIT to propose
relationships between demographic characteristics and HCNs’ adjustment-facilitating support for
expatriates. In the process, we also suggest potential explanations for prior inconsistencies in
findings regarding the effects of demographic characteristics on expatriate adjustment. Our
arguments and propositions focus on the following demographic characteristics that have been
central in research on expatriates and on diversity in organizations: national origin,
race/ethnicity, sex, and age.
National Origin
A review of the literature reveals that research on expatriate national origin has
approached the topic from the standpoint of the expatriate, without much regard for how it may
affect the behaviors and attitudes of HCNs. In the 1980s, research on expatriate national origin
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largely explored American expatriates in comparison to expatriates from other countries.
Researchers suggested that due in part to insufficient training programs, Americans had a more
difficult time adjusting in the host country than did expatriates of other nationalities (Kobrin,
1988; Tung, 1981; Tung, 1982, 1987). However, this effect was not seen in later research (Parker
& McEvoy, 1993; Tung, 1998). Tung, who had in the 1980s noted Americans’ difficulties with
adjustment, later observed that the Americans in her 1998 sample seemed to be more
“cosmopolitan,” with more previous experience abroad and a greater knowledge of other
languages and cultures (Tung, 1998). This research mainly reflects differences in the preparation
and training of expatriates across countries, rather than how national origin is perceived and
evaluated by individuals in the host country.
More recent work that investigates the effect of an expatriate’s national origin on
international assignment outcomes has essentially focused on the expatriate’s cultural distance
(discussed below) from the country of assignment. However, there has been little recent research
that investigates the effect of national origin itself (for exceptions, see Selmer, Ebrahimi, &
Mingtao, 2000a, b; Selmer, Ling, Shiu, & de Leon, 2003).
Whereas an expatriate’s national origin is a determinant of the cultural distance between
the home country and the host country, SIT suggests that national origin itself may have effects
that are separate from cultural distance. Individuals are as likely to have positive or negative
social evaluations of other nations as they are of any other social group, creating an effect that is
triggered by national origin rather than cultural distance. The self-enhancement motive proposed
by SIT (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) suggests that if the expatriate comes from a country that is seen
as prestigious by the HCNs, the HCNs may be more likely to adopt him/her as a member of
some common group or strive to belong to a common group with the prestigious expatriate. As a
result, the expatriate may experience increased HCN support. On the other hand, an expatriate
from a country that is seen as less prestigious than the host country will be less likely to be
included in a common social group categorization by the HCNs. The HCNs may exhibit less
interest in including such an expatriate in informal groups, may demonstrate competitive
behavior or may simply avoid the expatriate, thus providing less adjustment-facilitating support
than they would to an expatriate whom they perceive as being from a higher-prestige country.
Indeed, although Carr et al.’s (2001) study deals with selection as an outcome, it suggests that a
country’s prestige plays a role in HCNs’ attitudes and behaviors toward an expatriate. Therefore,
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Proposition 4: The more prestigious an expatriate’s country of origin as viewed by the
HCNs, the more support the expatriate will receive.
As noted above, rather than examine an expatriate’s nationality itself, much of the
research in this area has examined cultural distance instead. Researchers have referred to cultural
distance as cultural toughness (e.g., Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) and culture novelty (e.g., Black
et al., 1991), and have measured this construct in various ways (Selmer et al., 2003). However,
most researchers have generally defined cultural distance as the “distance between native and
host cultures” (Harrison et al., 2004), or the degree of difference between the expatriate’s home
culture and the culture of the host country.
Much of this research has focused on how cultural distance directly impacts the
experience of the individual expatriate. For instance, researchers have suggested that high
cultural distance, or large differences between the host and home countries, will negatively affect
expatriate adjustment (Harrison et al., 2004; Parker & McEvoy, 1993). This proposition has
indeed received support in a recent meta-analysis (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Such research
often concludes with recommendations as to what the individual and/or his organization can do
to overcome any negative effects of cultural distance. However, this expatriate-focused approach
has produced fairly inconsistent findings across and within studies. For example, although Parker
& McEvoy (1993) found a negative relationship between cultural distance and interaction
adjustment (the degree to which the expatriate is able to adjust to interactions with the HCNs),
they found a surprising positive relationship between cultural distance and general adjustment
(the degree to which the expatriate is able to adjust to the general culture and environment).
Some research has found that the directionality of the differences may be an important
consideration. For example, if an expatriate is assigned to a culturally distant country in which
conditions are perceived as superior in some way to the expatriate’s native country (better
economic/political conditions, higher standards of living, etc.), expatriate outcomes such as
adjustment could be facilitated (Harrison et al., 2004). In fact, results from a recent qualitative
study of Chinese expatriates in Hong Kong and Hong Kong expatriates in China support this
argument. Although cultural distance is the same for each group, Chinese expatriates seemed to
adjust more easily in Hong Kong than did Hong Kong expatriates in China (Selmer et al., 2003).
One potential explanation for the inconsistent findings as well as the directional findings
noted above, is that the perceptions of HCNs and their effects on their support for the expatriate
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need to be taken into account. Differences between cultures essentially equate to differences
between cultural group prototypes. Greater cultural difference, or cultural distance, therefore
produces a greater sense of differentiation for members in each group. Although research to date
has used objective measures of cultural distance or differences from the point of view of the
expatriate, we posit that the perceptions of the HCNs are an important consideration. Because
HCNs choose whether or not to accept the expatriate into their ingroup, their categorization of
the expatriate is likely to have a big impact on their interactions with the expatriate. SIT suggests
that the more salient a demographic characteristic, the more likely it is to be used as the basis for
social categorization (e.g., Brewer & Brown, 1998; Fiske & Taylor, 1991; Oakes, 1987). Since a
larger perceived cultural distance will be more salient, we propose that:
Proposition 5: From the point of view of the HCN, cultural distance between the
expatriate’s culture and the host culture will be positively related to the salience of the
expatriate as an outgroup member.
According to Tajfel and Turner (1979), the salience of an outgroup can lead an individual
to attempt to positively differentiate his/her ingroup from the outgroup, leading to social
competition. The above proposition suggests that high cultural distance between an expatriate
and HCNs leads to greater salience of their respective group memberships. The increased group
salience may lead to social competition, inhibiting support and cooperation between the
expatriate and HCNs. This is likely an underlying mechanism for the negative relationship
between cultural distance and outcomes such as expatriate adjustment generally found in
research to date. We therefore propose the following:
Proposition 6: The greater the cultural distance between the expatriate’s culture and the
host culture from the point of view of the HCNs, the less supportive will be the HCNs’
attitudes and behaviors toward the expatriate.
Race and Ethnicity
Consistent with research on cultural anthropology, we use the term “race” to refer to a
classification of “people on the basis of selected biological traits such as skin color and facial
features,” (Miller, 2002, 389) and the term “ethnicity” to refer to “group affiliation based on
features such as a distinct history, language, or religion” (Miller, 2002, 393). In the diversity
literature, researchers have combined the two into “racioethnicity” (e.g., Cox, 1993; Elsass &
Graves, 1997; Martins, Milliken, Wiesenfeld, & Salgado, 2003). Although most expatriate
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researchers report the nationalities of their research participants, we were unable to find studies
that noted expatriates’ racial or ethnic backgrounds. However, this dimension is important as the
pool of expatriates is likely to become increasingly more diverse in race and ethnicity with the
continuing globalization of business and the use of third country nationals (Adler, 2002).
Race and ethnicity capture important elements of demographic difference beyond
national origin, and are likely to be subject to the prestige effects noted in the arguments above.
Researchers have found that individuals have an implicit perception of the hierarchical ordering
of certain races, and may have positive or negative stereotypes of particular races and ethnicities
(Song, 2004). Thus, it may be expected that two expatriates from the same country of origin may
be perceived and categorized differently in the same host country. Expatriates whose
racioethnicities are categorized as prestigious may enjoy more support from HCNs based on the
HCNs’ desire for self-enhancement through categorization of themselves in the same ingroup as
the expatriate. Conversely, expatriates whose racioethnicities are categorized negatively by
HCNs may be considered to be part of the outgroup, and may not receive adjustment-facilitating
support from the HCN. Thus,
Proposition 7: The more prestigious an expatriate’s racial or ethnic group as viewed by
the HCNs, the more support the expatriate will receive from the HCNs.
This proposition may be modified in the case of expatriates whose racioethnicity is
similar to those of the HCNs. Expatriates who are of the same or similar race as the HCNs will
share physical similarities, which the diversity literature (e.g., Tsui et al., 1992; van Knippenberg
& Schippers, 2007) suggests will lead to categorization of one another into a common social
group. However, HCNs will likely initially expect a racially similar expatriate to be skilled in
their language and cultural practices, and may categorize the expatriate as a foreigner if the
expatriate is not knowledgeable in these areas. A social identity approach suggests that racial or
ethnic similarities of an expatriate to HCNs will cause him or her to be subject to more relevant
comparison and thus possibly greater social competition (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, 1985).
This argument is supported by the findings of Carr et al.’s (2001) study of Tanzanians’
preferences between fellow Tanzanians and other Africans. In this situation, it is likely that
outgroup categorization is a result of differences in language and ethnicity, rather than race.
Thus, we expect that cultural and linguistic knowledge will moderate the relationship
between an expatriate’s racioethnic similarity to HCNs and the support provided by HCNs.
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Expatriates who are racioethnically similar to HCNs and are also adept at the host country
culture and language will be more likely to be categorized by HCNs into their ingroups and are
consequently more likely to receive adjustment-facilitating support from them, than will
expatriates who are racioethnically similar to HCNs but are not adept at the host country culture
and language. In other words,
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Proposition 8: An expatriate’s knowledge of the culture/language of the host country will
moderate the relationship between the expatriate’s racioethnic similarity to HCNs and
HCN support, such that when knowledge of the culture/language is higher, the
relationship between racioethnic similarity and HCN support will be stronger than when
knowledge of the culture/language is lower.
Selmer et al’s (2000a) study of Western and Chinese expatriates in Hong Kong seems to
support this proposition, though the results of the study were contrary to the authors’ hypotheses.
The researchers expected the Chinese expatriates to adjust more easily than the Western
expatriates, but they found the opposite in their study. The authors note that the Western
expatriates were generally fluent in English, which is the language of business in Hong Kong,
while the primarily Mandarin-speaking Chinese were not generally very skilled in either English
or the Hong Kong Cantonese dialect. Further support for our proposition is seen in Selmer et al’s
(2000b) investigation of Chinese expatriates in Hong Kong. This study revealed that Cantonese-
speaking Chinese from the neighboring Guangdong province were better adjusted than other
Chinese, though cultural distance may also be playing a role here.
Clearly, the above proposition would be difficult to apply to an expatriate in a racially or
ethnically diverse host country. For example, a Chinese or a French expatriate in a major city in
the US is similar in race and ethnicity to many Americans. The HCNs’ expectations of each
expatriate’s abilities should not differ, since one looks or acts no more or less foreign than the
other. The race or ethnicity of an expatriate would therefore be a poor predictor of HCN support
in a major city in the US or in many racially and ethnically diverse countries. This argument is
consistent with a finding in the diversity literature, that the racioethnic diversity of teams within
an organization did not affect group functioning in an organizational context that was
racioethnically diverse, but had strong effects on group functioning in the less racioethnically
diverse organizational context (Martins et al., 2003). Thus, we expect that,
Proposition 9: As the racial and ethnic diversity of the host country increases, the
salience of the expatriate’s race and ethnicity to HCNs will decrease, weakening the
effect of his/her race and/or ethnicity on HCN support.
Sex
In the samples used in empirical research on international assignments, males far
outnumber females. In fact, it has been estimated that only 20% of expatriate assignments are
15
filled by females (GMAC, 2007), though this is quite an increase from 12-15% in the late 1990s
(Selmer & Leung, 2003a, b; Windham, 1997, 1998). Notably, research shows that women are not
any less willing than men to go on overseas assignments (Adler, 1984, 1987, 1993, 1994; Hill &
Tillery, 1992; Tung, 1998). Perhaps more importantly, there is empirical support for the notion
that female expatriates do not experience significantly lower levels of adjustment (Morley &
Flynn, 2003; Selmer, 2001; Selmer & Leung, 2003b for sociocultural adjustment, but not
psychological adjustment), lower levels of performance (Caligiuri & Tung, 1999), or higher
levels of prejudice (Varma et al., 2006; Westwood & Leung, 1994) than their male counterparts.
Adler (1993; 1994; 2002) attempts to dispel certain misconceptions that managers may
have about sending female employees overseas. In particular, she suggests that even in male-
dominated cultures, female expatriates are typically viewed in the host country as foreigners who
happen to be women, rather than as women who happen to be foreigners (Adler, 1993, 1994,
2002). Adler’s suggestion has important implications for social identity processes related to the
sex of an expatriate. The findings described above imply that to HCNs, the salience of a female
expatriate’s membership in the foreigner outgroup is generally greater than the salience of her
membership in the female sex group, thus negating or minimizing any negative impacts on HCN
support that may be due to a country’s level of male domination. In other words, identification as
a member of a socially inferior group (i.e., as a female in a male-dominated society) could lead
to less adjustment-facilitating support from HCNs, but Adler (1993; 1994; 2002) suggests that
female expatriates are first identified as members of cultural or national groups that may not
necessarily be evaluated as socially inferior.
It may be useful to approach this subject with a concrete example. In a relatively male-
dominated country like Japan, for instance, a Western female expatriate would be identified by
Japanese nationals primarily as a Westerner, rather than as a female. The Japanese would likely
treat her in the same manner that they would treat a Western male, and her likelihood of
receiving HCN support should be no different than that of her male counterpart. Drawing upon
the discussion above for race and ethnicity, a social identity approach would suggest that in the
same environment, a non-native Japanese female expatriate of Japanese ethnicity (a Japanese-
American, for example) would not have a foreigner identity that was salient to Japanese HCNs
and will likely be identified first as a female. This expatriate would thus be expected by the
HCNs to behave like a female HCN and would also be treated as such by the HCNs, reducing the
16
amount of adjustment-facilitating support she would otherwise receive. Although the HCNs are
likely to recognize that the expatriate is a foreigner when she speaks (or does not speak) their
language, we posit that ethnic similarities will prevent HCNs from categorizing her in the same
way that they are likely to categorize ethnically dissimilar expatriates. As per proposition 8, we
posit that she will not easily be categorized as an ingroup member because of the salience of
cultural/linguistic differences, but it will also be difficult for HCNs to see beyond her ethnic
similarity to exclude her from categorization into the (non-dominant) female group.
Proposition 10: In a country in which males (or females) dominate females (or males), a
female (or male) expatriate will receive more HCN support as salience (as perceived by
HCNs) of the expatriate’s foreigner outgroup membership increases, because the relative
salience of her (or his) non-dominant sex will decrease.
Age
Although age is commonly measured as a means to detect differences or similarities
between samples, it is not often explored as a predictor of international assignment outcomes.
The work of Selmer (2001) and Morley and Flynn (2003), however, are examples of research
investigating expatriate age in such a way. In Selmer’s (2001) study, the adjustment of
expatriates in Hong Kong was found to correlate positively with age, due to Asian/Confucian
values which place importance on respecting those of older age. Morley and Flynn’s (2003)
study in Ireland shows no such relationship, but this inconsistency with Selmer’s (2001) findings
may be due to differences between Celtic and Confucian values.
SIT suggests a potential explanation for their results. The relatively large number of
foreigners in Hong Kong today has likely caused the distinction of the foreigner outgroup to fade
in such a manner that foreignness is not as salient as age. If age is valued by HCNs and is salient
even in foreigners, older expatriates essentially belong to a prestigious group in the eyes of the
HCN, calling for greater respect and support. However, if age is not valued by HCNs in such a
way, older expatriates and younger expatriates are likely to be viewed as equals, and only their
foreignness will be salient. Therefore,
Proposition 11: In a country with a culture emphasizing respect for age, the positive
relationship between an expatriate’s age and HCN support is moderated by the salience
(as perceived by HCNs) of the expatriate’s foreigner outgroup membership. Specifically,
as salience increases, the relationship between age and HCN support will weaken. In a
17
country without such emphasis on respecting older individuals, there will be no
relationship between an expatriate’s age and HCN support.
Thus, we propose that while the disadvantages of belonging to a lower status social group
can be overridden by the salience of one’s foreign outgroup membership (as per the discussion
about sex), so too can the advantages of belonging to a prestigious group be overridden by that
foreign outgroup membership (as per this discussion about age). We should note that while some
studies present correlation tables in which the correlation between age (as a control variable) and
adjustment are presented, studies that specifically investigate age as a main effect are uncommon.
Additionally, because many studies use heterogeneous (with respect to national origin) expatriate
samples, correlational data are difficult to interpret in terms of this proposition.
DISCUSSION
In this paper, we have used SIT to develop a HCN-centric model of the effects of an
expatriate’s demographic characteristics on the support he/she receives from HCNs at work
during an international assignment. Prior research has argued that HCN support leads to greater
expatriate adjustment (Aryee & Stone, 1996; Shaffer et al., 1999; Toh, 2003), and our approach
helps to address some inconsistent findings in research on expatriate demographic characteristics
and their effects on outcomes such as adjustment. This approach has several implications for
research and for practice.
Future Research Directions
Going beyond simple similarity effects, the SIT approach suggests that how an
expatriate’s demographic characteristics are perceived by HCNs matters greatly in determining
their effects. For example, in understanding the mixed effects of an expatriate’s age on HCN
support, SIT suggests that it is the meaning ascribed to age by HCNs that may influence the
extent of adjustment-facilitating support provided by the HCNs. Future research may measure
HCNs’ perceptions of expatriate age and their actual adjustment-facilitating supportive
behaviors. These may then be compared across cultures with and without underlying Confucian
values that emphasize a respect for older age.
The discussion above suggests that research on the international assignment needs to go
further than it currently has in integrating HCN characteristics and perceptions into models of
expatriate adjustment. It suggests that some results might only make sense when contextualized
in HCN characteristics or perceptions. For example, it might be useful for researchers to take
18
into account the demographic distance (e.g., Tsui et al., 1992) between an expatriate and the
workgroup into which they are assigned. Also, using survey or observational methods to
examine whether expatriates with specific characteristics are included in the ingroups of key
HCNs would help in improving our understanding of the link between expatriates’ demographics
and HCN support. In this area, researchers could also draw on social network theory, as has been
done in similar research on the effects of demographic characteristics in organizational groups
(e.g., Mehra, Kilduff, & Brass, 1998).
In reviewing the literature on the effects of demographic characteristics on expatriates’
experiences, we are struck by the relative lack of research in the area. Interestingly, there is a
relatively large literature on the effects of demographic differences in workgroups (see Milliken
& Martins, 1996; van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007; Williams & O'Reilly, 1998, for reviews)
and demographic differences (see Riordan, 2000 for a review) in domestic settings, which has
developed an extensive theoretical foundation linking demographic characteristics to individual
and group outcomes. In particular, this literature has drawn heavily on SIT and related theories to
develop propositions that could have potential applicability to understanding the effects of
expatriates’ demographic characteristics. Thus, expatriate researchers may benefit from the use
of a “diversity lens” when examining expatriates within the context of a workplace consisting
primarily of HCNs. In addition, longitudinal studies that examine the effect of the workplace’s
demography on HCN attitudes and behaviors throughout an expatriate’s assignment could
provide unique insights into the expatriate adjustment process and HCNs’ roles in it.
One area in which a SIT lens could provide good insights is the effects of expatriate race
and ethnicity on HCN support. Because racioethnicity is a visible or readily accessible
characteristic (e.g, Milliken & Martins, 1996), it has been found to be a strong basis for social
identification and categorization and consequent interpersonal interactions and outcomes (e.g.,
van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007). Interestingly, although researchers often make note of
expatriate nationality in their studies, they rarely assess racioethnicity. However, in an
increasingly diverse world, and a consequently racially and ethnically diverse pool of expatriates
emanating from the same country, it is important to also consider race and ethnicity in this area
of research.
Moreover, whereas much attention on the experience of expatriates in international
assignments has focused on the characteristics of the expatriate (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005;
19
Black et al., 1991; Harrison et al., 2004), our approach suggests that how these characteristics
relate to those of HCNs is very important in understanding their effects on the expatriate’s
experience in an international assignment. Thus, for example, SIT helps us realize that the
comparison of an expatriate’s racioethnic background with the racioethnic makeup of the host
country may help to set expectations in terms of the degree of HCN supportiveness. Specifically,
if the expatriate is racioethnically similar to the HCNs or if the host country is very diverse,
HCNs’ expectations of the expatriate will be greater, making knowledge of the host country’s
culture and language more critical to gaining HCN acceptance and support. Otherwise, while
such knowledge will undoubtedly aid a dissimilar expatriate in a homogeneous host country,
social comparisons may be less relevant, and HCN expectations will not be as high. On one hand,
such expatriates will have a difficult time overcoming categorization into a foreigner outgroup.
On the other hand, he/she may be better able to rely on a prestigious status to win the support of
the HCNs. Alternatively, if such a prestigious group membership is unavailable, the
superordinate organizational identity could be emphasized. Additionally, organizational factors,
such as the provision of support staff (e.g., translators, interpreters, bilingual assistants, etc.), in
the country of assignment may be sufficient to facilitate the expatriate’s adjustment without
HCNs actually identifying with the expatriate. Although very large sample sizes are likely
needed to explore these phenomena, future research should explore the characteristics and
perceptions of both HCNs and expatriates across multiple countries, using demographically
diverse samples.
Also, with an increase in the percentage of expatriates made up of women, it is important
to develop a more theoretically-grounded understanding of the effects of sex on HCN support as
well as expatriate adjustment. Although much research suggests that males do not generally have
an advantage over females on international assignments, we suggest that there may be
circumstances in which they do. Additionally, some research has suggested that females may
actually have an advantage in certain circumstances. For example, Selmer and Leung (2003b)
found that Western female expatriates in Hong Kong adjusted better to work and to interactions
with HCNs than did their male counterparts. Varma et al. (2006) similarly found that female
American expatriates were preferred over male American expatriates by Indian HCNs. Selmer
and Leung (2003b) posit that the phenomenon may be due to the tendency for Western cultures
to emphasize nurturing and relationship orientation in female gender roles. Empirical research
20
that takes into account gender identification, role identities, and social categorizations may
present a clearer picture of how an expatriate’s sex affects how much support the expatriate
receives from HCNs. An interesting extension of this research would be an examination of the
interaction between sex and race/ethnicity on HCN support.
We also recognize that more complex interactions may exist among the phenomena
described in the propositions presented. For example, HCN support may be influenced in a very
complicated manner when cultural distance between the countries, relative prestige, and
racioethnic similarity between the expatriate and HCNs are all taken into consideration together2.
We have limited our discussion to less complicated relationships, but future theoretical and
empirical work should explore these higher-order interactions.
Finally, placing the focus back on the expatriate, future research could use SIT to
understand how expatriates identify with their organizations, professions, and demographic
groups. Researchers note that not only do individuals identify with groups who share their
demographic characteristics (Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1986) or organizational membership
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989), but that they may also form professional identities independent of their
organizational identities (Ibarra, 1999). Circumstances in which two or more of these identities
conflict can be problematic. For example, research suggests that individuals may leave or
threaten to leave their organizations if they perceive incongruence with their professional
identities (Pratt & Rafaeli, 1997). Expatriate research has already noted the low availability of
career development programs for expatriates (Selmer, 1999), indicating that organizations are
not taking expatriates’ professional identities into consideration. An understanding of how an
expatriate’s various identities relate, as well as how these identities can be aligned to avoid
conflict, may have important implications for expatriate turnover and premature return, and for
developing ways to channel executive career development though international assignments.
Practical Implications
In addition to its implications for theory, a SIT approach to the effects of demographic
characteristics on HCN support also suggests several implications for practice. It suggests that in
preparing expatriates for international assignments, organizations should consider the
expatriates’ personal characteristics as they relate to properties of the host country. Such a
contextually situated approach will, for example, suggest that a Japanese-American woman
2 We thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion.
21
expatriate sent to Japan should receive somewhat different preparation for the assignment than
an Irish-American woman expatriate sent to the same country. Such a more differentiated
approach will result in better preparation for the individual expatriates involved, since a generic
training approach might not really prepare each individual equally well for the specific
challenges that they are likely to face, thus perhaps handicapping their success. Whereas a
superficial application of such a differentiated approach might raise ethical and possibly legal
issues, a well-designed differentiated approach of the type discussed above might in fact
empower each expatriate more and enhance their chances of success in their assignments. This is
important in opening the door to “boundaryless” global careers (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996) for
all individuals in an increasingly diverse global labor market.
Further moving the lens to HCNs, a SIT approach suggests implications for the selection
and training of HCNs who will be working with the expatriate. HCNs who are sensitized to the
social identity processes underlying much of the interactions at work will probably be less likely
to use demographic characteristics as the basis for their cognitive categorizations of, and
interactions with, expatriates. Such a sensitization may instead lead to more individuation of an
expatriate by HCNs (i.e., they will see the expatriate for his or her individual characteristics as
opposed to seeing the expatriate as being representative of the demographic group to which the
expatriate belongs), which researchers have found to improve relationships and interactions at
work (e.g., Brewer & Brown, 1998). Thus, HCNs who are sensitized to the social identity
processes underlying interactions with expatriates may be more accepting and supportive of
expatriates, which will facilitate the expatriate’s adjustment and subsequent success.
Organizations should therefore develop selection and training programs to equip HCNs with this
sensitivity.
Finally, a SIT approach suggests that organizations can also implement socialization
programs to facilitate interactions between expatriates and HCNs. Such programs set the stage
for positive inter-group contact, which should result in the breaking down of inter-group biases
based on demographic characteristics, and consequently to greater acceptance of an individual
who is demographically different (e.g., Allport, 1954; Brewer & Brown, 1998). In addition, they
may also increase the salience of a common organizational identity, allowing HCNs and
expatriates to better identify with one another, thus facilitating HCN support.
CONCLUSION
22
Expatriate research has come a long way in a short amount of time to describe in
impressive detail the nature of the international assignment. HCN support is unquestionably
critical in the success of many expatriate programs. This paper has sought to advance
understanding of the international assignment by integrating a rigorous theoretical foundation
into the discussion of the effects of expatriates’ demographic characteristics on HCN support.
We have provided a unique perspective that focuses on the HCNs and their perceptions.
Additionally, because the identification and explanation of discrepancies, anomalies, or
exceptions in current theoretical arguments is an important part of theory-building (Carlile &
Christensen, 2005), this paper makes a contribution to the literature by using SIT to address
certain discrepancies that currently exist in empirical research on the link between demographic
characteristics and expatriate adjustment. We believe that SIT provides a rich theoretical
foundation for understanding the expatriate experience, and have developed some propositions,
ideas for future research, and suggestions for practitioners.
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
Jesse E. Olsen is a doctoral candidate in organizational behavior at the Georgia Institute of Technology
College of Management. His research interests include workforce diversity and diversity management, social
identity theory, and international organizational behavior and HRM.
Luis L. Martins is an Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Georgia Institute of
Technology College of Management. He conducts research on diversity in organizations and on managerial
cognition. He is currently studying these topics in the context of global work and work arrangements and processes
enabled by information and communication technologies.
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