effect of vegetable and mineral oil-in-water...

EFFECT OF VEGETABLE AND MINERAL OIL-IN-WATER

EMULSION CUTTING FLUIDS IN TURNING AISI 4340

STEEL WITH COATED CARBIDE TOOLS

SUNDAY ALBERT LAWAL

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

PHILOSOPHY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA

KUALA LUMPUR

2013

ii

UNIVERISTY MALAYA

ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION

Name of Candidate: Sunday Albert Lawal

Registration/Matric No: KHA100081

Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy

Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this work”): Effect of Vegetable

and Mineral Oil-in-Water Emulsion Cutting Fluids in Turning AISI 4340 Steel with

Coated Carbide Tools

Field of Study: Machining

I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:

(1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work;

(2) This Work is original;

(3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for

permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract form, or reference to or reproduction of any

copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and

its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work;

(4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of

this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work;

(5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright of this Work to the University of

Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any

reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the

written consent of UM having been first had and obtained;

(6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright

whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subjected to legal action or any other action as

may be determined by UM.

Candidate’s Signature Date: 30/10/2013

Subscribed and solemnly declared before,

Witness’s Signature Date:

Name:

Designation:

iii

UNIVERISTY MALAYA

PERAKUAN KEASLIAN PENULISAN

Nama: Sunday Albert Lawal

No. Pendaftaran/Matrik: KHA 100081

Nama Ijazah: Doktor Falsafah

Tajuk kertas Projek/ Laporan Penyelidikan/Disertasi /Tesis ( “Hasil Kerji ini”): Kesan sayuran dan

Mineral Minyak dalam Air Emulsi Keratan Cecair dalam pusing AISI 4340 Steel dengan bersalut

karbida Alat

Bidang Penyelidkan: pemesinan

Saya dengan sesungguhnya dan sebenarnya mengaku bahawa:

(1) Saya adalah satu-satunya pengarang/penulis Hasil Kerja ini,

(2) Hasil Kerja ini adalah asli;

(3) Apa-apa penggunaan mana-mana hasil kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta telah dilakukan secara

urusan yang wajar dan bagi maksud yang dibenarkan dan apa-apa petikan, ekstrak, rujukan atau

pengeluaran semula daripada atau kepada mana-mana hasil kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta

telah dinyatakan dengan sejelasnya dan secukupnya dan satu pengikitirafan tajuk hasil kerja terja

tersebut dan pengarang/penulisnya telah dilakukan di dalam Hasil Kerja ini.

(4) Saya tidak mempunyai apa-apa pengetahuan sebenar atau patut semunasabahnya tahu bahawa

penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini melanggar suatu hakcipahasil kerja yang lain,

(5) Saya dengan ini menyerahkan kesemua dan tia-tiap hak yang terkandung di dalam hakcipta Hasil

Kerja ini Universiti Malaya (“UM”) yang seterusnya mula dari sekarang adalah tuan punya

kepada hakcipta di dalam Hasil Kerja ini dan apa-apa pengeluaran semula atau penggunaan

dalam apa jua bentuk atau dengan apa juga cara sekalipun adalah dilarang tanpa terlebih dahulu

mendapat kebenaran bertulis dari UM,

(6) Saya sedar sepenuhnya sekiranya dalam masa penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini saya telah melanggar

suatu hakcipa hasil kerja yang lain sama ada dengan niat atau sebaliknya, saya boleh dikenakan

tindakan undang-undang atau apa-apa tindakan lain sebagaimana yang disputuskan oleh UM.

Tandatangan Calon Tarikh

Diperbuat dan sesungguhnya diakui di hadapan,

Tandatanga Saksi Tarikh

Nama:

Jawatan:

iv

ABSTRACT

Cutting fluids have been used extensively and play a significant role in machining

processes. Cutting fluids affect the productivity of machining operations, tool life,

quality of workpiece and prevent the cutting tool and machine from overheating as well.

In general, a successful cutting fluid must not only improve the machining process

performance, but also fulfill a number of requirements which are non-toxic, non-

harmful to health for operators, not a fire hazard, not smoke or fog in use and cost less.

One of the drawbacks of using conventional (mineral) oil based cutting fluids is the

waste disposal after being used. Mineral oil has also poor biodegradability thus induces

the potential for long term pollution of the environment. In this study, a comprehensive

literature review of application of vegetable oil-based cutting fluids in machining

different workpiece materials with different tool materials was done.

This study is divided into two main sections, the first section focused on the properties

of palm kernel and cottonseed oils and formulation of oil-in-water emulsion cutting

fluids using the two oils. The selection of cutting fluid additives (emulsifier,

anticorrosive agent, antioxidant and biocide) for the formulation of oil-in-water

emulsion using palm kernel and cottonseed oils are not dangerous or problematic to the

environment or harmful to workers. The formulation of cutting fluid was based on

Design of Experiment (DOE) of 24 full factorial designs and statistical analysis of the

response value (pH) was employed using version 6 of DOE® software. The pH values of

10.46 and 10.98 were obtained for the palm kernel oil and cottonseed oil respectively,

which are within the acceptable standard for cutting fluid for machining processes.

The second section considered the effect of the two formulated oil-in-water emulsion

cutting fluids in turning AISI 4340 steel with coated carbide tools and compared with

conventional (mineral) oil-based cutting fluid. Taguchi method with L27 (34) orthogonal

v

array for experimentation was adopted. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were

output variables considered for experimentation. In addition to the cutting parameters,

type of cutting fluid used was also considered as one of the critical input parameters

while designing the experiment. Cutting force, surface roughness and tool wear are the

output parameters obtained from the trials conducted as per L27 array experimentation

and further analyzed. Minitab 14 statistical analysis software widely used in engineering

application was used in the analysis of signal- to- noise (S/N) (dB) ratio and ANOVA

for surface roughness, cutting force and tool wear. The ANOVA analysis shows that

cutting speed (64.46%) and feed rate (32.19%) significantly affected surface roughness.

Depth of cut (33.15%) and cutting fluid (51.12%) significantly affected cutting force

and while cutting speed (85.36%) and feed rate (4.81%) significantly affected tool wear.

The effect of cutting fluids on the type of chip formed was equally accounted for.

Confirmation tests applied for Taguchi results and regression equations indicate reliable

results.

vi

ABSTRAK

Bendalir pemotong telah digunakan secara meluas dan memainkan peranan penting

dalam proses pemesinan. Bendalir pemotong menjejaskan produktiviti operasi

pemesinan, kehidupan alat, kualiti bahan kerja dan mencegah alat memotong dan mesin

daripada terlalu panas juga. Secara umum, cecair pemotongan yang berjaya mesti bukan

sahaja meningkatkan prestasi proses pemesinan, tetapi juga memenuhi beberapa

keperluan yang bukan toksik, tidak berbahaya kepada kesihatan bagi pengendali, tidak

bahaya kebakaran, bukan asap atau kabut dalam penggunaan dan mempunyai harga .

Salah satu kelemahan menggunakan konvensional (mineral) berasaskan minyak

memotong cecair adalah pelupusan sisa selepas digunakan. Minyak mineral telah juga

biodegredasi miskin itu mendorong potensi untuk pencemaran jangka panjang alam

sekitar. Dalam kajian ini, kajian literatur yang menyeluruh permohonan sayur-sayuran

berasaskan minyak memotong cecair dalam bahan pemesinan bahan kerja yang berbeza

dengan bahan-bahan alat yang berbeza telah dilaporkan. Pemboleh ubah biasa yang

biasanya disiasat memotong berkuat kuasa, memakai alat, kehidupan alat, kekasaran

permukaan dan morfologi cip.

Kajian ini dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian utama, bahagian pertama memberi

tumpuan kepada sifat isirung sawit dan minyak cottonseed dan pembentukan emulsi

minyak dalam air cecair pemotongan menggunakan dua minyak. Pemilihan memotong

tambahan cecair (pengemulsi, agen anticorrosive, antioksidan dan biocide) untuk

pembentukan emulsi minyak dalam air menggunakan isirong sawit dan minyak

cottonseed tidak berbahaya atau bermasalah kepada alam sekitar atau berbahaya kepada

pekerja. Pembentukan cecair pemotongan berdasarkan JAS 24 reka bentuk faktoran

penuh dan analisis statistik nilai tindak balas (pH) telah digunakan menggunakan versi 6

perisian DOE ®. Nilai pH 10,46 dan 10,98 diperolehi untuk minyak isirong sawit dan

vii

minyak cottonseed masing-masing, yang berada dalam standard yang diterima untuk

proses pemesinan cecair pemotongan.

Bahagian kedua dianggap kesan dua dirumuskan emulsi minyak dalam air memotong

cecair dalam beralih AISI 4340 keluli dengan alat karbida bersalut dan berbanding

dengan (mineral) konvensional cecair pemotongan berasaskan minyak. Kaedah Taguchi

dengan L27 (34) pelbagai ortogon untuk uji kaji telah diguna pakai. Kelajuan

pemotongan, kadar suapan dan kedalaman pemotongan dianggap untuk percubaan.

Dalam tambahan kepada parameter memotong, jenis memotong bendalir yang

digunakan juga dianggap sebagai salah satu parameter input kritikal manakala mereka

bentuk eksperimen. Kuasa memotong, kekasaran permukaan dan memakai alat

parameter output yang diperolehi daripada ujian yang dijalankan sebagai satu L27

pelbagai eksperimen dan seterusnya dianalisis. Minitab 14 perisian analisis statistik

yang digunakan secara meluas dalam aplikasi kejuruteraan telah digunakan dalam

analisis isyarat kepada hingar (S / N) nisbah (dB) dan ANOVA bagi kekasaran

permukaan, memotong kekerasan dan memakai alat. Analisis ANOVA menunjukkan

bahawa kelajuan pemotongan (64.46%) dan kadar suapan (32.19%) dengan ketara

mempengaruhi kekasaran permukaan. Cecair kedalaman pemotongan (33.15%) dan

memotong (51.12%) dengan ketara menjejaskan daya pemotongan dan semasa

memotong kelajuan (85.36%) dan kadar suapan (4.81%) dengan ketara menjejaskan

memakai alat. Kesan pemotongan cecair kepada jenis cip yang terbentuk sama

diambilkira. Ujian pengesahan yang digunakan untuk Taguchi keputusan dan persamaan

regresi menunjukkan keputusan yang boleh dipercayai.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I will bless the Lord at all times; His praise shall continually be in my mouth

(Psalms 34:1)

I am grateful to God almighty who kept me throughout this period of my studies. Your

praise shall continually be in my mouth.

If I have seen further, it is by standing on ye shoulders of giant” Isaac Newton

(February 5th, 1676)

Prof Imtiaz Ahmed Choudhury is an academic giant on whose shoulders I stood within

this period of my search for knowledge so as to contribute my own quota to the field of

machining process. Professor Imtiaz took the supervision responsibility with patience

and was always willing to make contribution to every aspect of this research and above

all his feedbacks were timely. Though, very busy and meticulous, he is a wonderful

teacher, accessible supervisor and friendly. He has held my hands through the most

challenging moments of working on this research. He handled my challenges of

intercultural communication with “motherly” understanding. I am grateful to God for

putting me under his guide at this most critical stage of my search for knowledge. I am

indebted to my co-supervisor- Assoc. Prof Dr. Nukman Yusoff for the roles he played in

my search for knowledge. I am grateful to you sir.

I will like to thank my teachers who had contributed in one way or the other to my

academic career: Messrs A.A. Akure and D.O Aina were among the first teachers that

taught me how to count the numbers and pronounce letters in English language. Messrs

S.A Olorunyomi (Mathematics); George (Chemistry); Jacob (Physics) and Joseph

(Biology), these were men that inspired me to study science subjects at secondary

school level. Professor F.O Akinbode and Professor M.S Abolarin of Federal University

of Technology, Minna, Nigeria supervised my first and second degree respectively. I am

grateful to all members of Manufacturing Integration System research group of

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya

for the many ways they have contributed to the completion of this study.

I am indeed grateful to the University of Malaya for funding this research from grant’s

number PV019/2011A. I equally want to appreciate the Federal Government of Nigeria

for supporting my studies with Education Trust Fund (ETF) grant and for Federal

University of Technology, Minna to have released me for this program. I wish to

appreciate all my friends who have kept in touch with me all these years, your calls,

emails and SMS were received at the moment when they were mostly needed. I

especially thank the leadership of Pantai Baptist Church, Petaling Jaya, especially the

International Student Ministry (ISM) and Cell Group headed by Mr Foo and Mr Prathab

respectively for making my stay in Malaysia a worthwhile. I am grateful to Full

Redemption Chapel, Wukari and Life Camp Christian Church Jebba North, both in

Nigeria for their prayers support throughout my stay away from home.

I will not forget in hurry the roles played by these colleagues and friends like Messrs

Ajayi Owolabi Badmus, Sunday Ukpata and Bello Abdulkadir and Dr. Benjamin

Ugheoke toward the success of this program. I say thank you all. I wish to thank Dr

(Mrs). Ruth Araga for securing the admission for this program at a time that I had

given up.

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my siblings and in-laws for their supports

throughout this program. I appreciate the different roles you all played in my life during

the course of this program. My sincere prayer is that God will reward you all. I like to

thank my parents for their contributions to my career, especially my mother, Late Mrs

Ajoke Lawal, I cannot forget in hurry the critical roles played by her. She defied all

odds and stood her ground to see that I was enrolled into primary school and not only

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that, she bravely sacrificed all to keep me in the system. Thank you a million times

mama.

I am eternally grateful to my wife, Mrs. Comfort Modupe Lawal and children: Favour

Oyinnoyi, Grace Ahuoyiza, Joy Ohunene and Simpa Albert for their enormous

sacrifices to give me the peace of mind needed for doctoral studies and bearing with my

absence. Words alone cannot capture my appreciation and I say thank you and may God

almighty bless you all in Jesus name (amen).

xi

TABLE OF CONTENT

Declaration------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii

Pengisytiharan-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii

Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv

Abstrak----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi

Acknowledgements------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii

Table of content-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------xi

List of Figures------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xvi

List of Tables-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xx

List of acronyms--------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxiii

CHAPTER 1---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

1.1 Background of study----------------------------------------------------------------1

1.2 Objectives ----------------------------------------------------------------------------8

1.3 Justification of study----------------------------------------------------------------8

1.4 Scope of study----------------------------------------------------------------------13

1.5 Structure of the thesis--------------------------------------------------------------14

CHAPTER 2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15

2. Literature review-----------------------------------------------------------------------15

2.1 Vegetable oil-based cutting fluid -----------------------------------------------15

xii

2.1.1 Formulation--------------------------------------------------------------------15

2.1.2 Composition-------------------------------------------------------------------17

2.1.3 Characterization---------------------------------------------------------------19

2.1.3.1 Sulfonate castor oil-based cutting fluid-------------------------------20

2.1.3.2 Crude soybean oil-based cutting fluid---------------------------------22

2.1.3.3 Raw and refined sunflower oil-based cutting fluids-----------------23

2.2 Applications of vegetable oil-based cutting fluid in machining processes-24

2.2.1 Turning process with different workpieces---------------------------------25

2.2.1.1 AISI 4340 steel------------------------------------------------------------25

2.2.1.2 AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel--------------------------------------26

2.2.2.3 AISI 1040 steel-----------------------------------------------------------27

2.2.2.4 Mild steel------------------------------------------------------------------29

2.2.2.5 Inconel 600 alloy---------------------------------------------------------30

2.2.2.6 AISI 9310 steel-----------------------------------------------------------32

2.2.2 Drilling process with different workpieces--------------------------------34

2.2.2.1 Titanium alloys------------------------------------------------------------34


2.2.2.3 AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel---------------------------------------37

2.2.3 Milling process with different workpieces---------------------------------39

xiii


2.2.3.2 AISI 420 stainless steel---------------------------------------------------41

2.2.4 Grinding process with different workpiece--------------------------------42

2.2.4.1 Mild steel (SAE 1020)-----------------------------------------------------42

2.2.4.2 Hardened bearing steel (100Cr6, 6HRC)-------------------------------43

2.2.5 Limitation of cutting fluid in machining------------------------------------45

CHAPTER 3-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------46

3. Research Methodology and Materials---------------------------------------------46

3.1 Experimental method for formulation of cutting fluid-------------------------46

3.1.1 Determination of selected properties of vegetable oils-------------------46

3.1.2 Oxidative and thermal stabilities of PKO and CSO----------------------46

3.1.3 Pour point of PKO and CSO-------------------------------------------------47

3.1.4 Materials for formulation of cutting fluid----------------------------------48

3.1.4.1 Vegetable and mineral oils--------------------------------------------------48

3.1.4.2 Water quality requirement for cutting fluid formulation---------------50

3.1.4.3 Additives----------------------------------------------------------------------51

3.1.5 Formulation of cutting fluids using design of experiment---------------53

3.1.5.1 Preliminary study-------------------------------------------------------------57

3.1.5.2 pH value------------------------------------------------------------------------57

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3.1.5.3 Viscosity------------------------------------------------------------------------58

3.1.5.4 Corrosion level-----------------------------------------------------------------58

3.1.5.5 Stability-------------------------------------------------------------------------59

3.2 Materials -------------------------------------------------------------------------------59

3.2.1 Workpiece material -------------------------------------------------------------59

3.2.2 Cutting tool material-------------------------------------------------------------60

3.3 Experimental design and instrumentation-------------------------------------------60

3.3.1 Cutting force----------------------------------------------------------------------64

3.3.2 Surface roughness----------------------------------------------------------------65

3.3.3 Flank wear-------------------------------------------------------------------------67

3.3.4 Chip formation--------------------------------------------------------------------67

CHAPTER 4---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------69

4. Results and Discussion------------------------------------------------------------------69

4.1 Properties of vegetable oils------------------------------------------------------------69

4.2 Oxidative and thermal stabilities of PKO and CSO -------------------------------72

4.3 Pour point of PKO and CSO----------------------------------------------------------75

4.4 Formulation----------------------------------------------------------------------------78

4.4.1 Preliminary study result--------------------------------------------------------78

4.4.2 pH value and ANOVA analysis for cutting fluid---------------------------78

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4.4.3 Optimization process and confirmation test---------------------------------92

4.4.3.1 Viscosity------------------------------------------------------------------------93

4.4.3.2 Corrosion level-----------------------------------------------------------------93

4.4.3.3 Stability-------------------------------------------------------------------------94

4.4.3.4 Characteristics of cutting fluids----------------------------------------------94

4.5 Turning experiment--------------------------------------------------------------------95

4.5.1 Cutting force---------------------------------------------------------------------99

4.5.2 Surface roughness---------------------------------------------------------------108

4.5.3 Flank wear-----------------------------------------------------------------------116

4.5.4 Confirmation test----------------------------------------------------------------127

4.5.5 Chip formation------------------------------------------------------------------129

CHAPTER 5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------132

5 Conclusion and recommendations-------------------------------------------------------132

5.1 Conclusions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------132

5.2 Recommendation for future work---------------------------------------------------135

References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136

List of publication-----------------------------------------------------------------------------145

Appendices--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of typical vegetable oil-------------------------------------3

Figure 1.2 Characteristics of application of cutting fluids---------------------------------6

Figure 1.3 Classification of water –soluble fluids-------------------------------------------6

Figure 2.1: Implication of pH value on worker’s health and materials-------------------19

Figure 2.2: Biodegradation test of cutting fluid----------------------------------------------21

Figure 2.3: Corrosion level ---------------------------------------------------------------------22

Figure 2.4 Global warming potential (GWP)--------------------------------------------------44

Figure 3.1: Constituents of oil-in-water emulsion cutting fluid-----------------------------50

Figure 3.2: Mixture process----------------------------------------------------------------------55

Figure 3.3 Mixing with mechanical overhead stirrer-----------------------------------------57

Figure 3.4 pH value measurement--------------------------------------------------------------58

Figure 3.5 Experimental setup for turning process------------------------------------------64

Figure 3.6 Experimental setup for surface roughness----------------------------------------65

Figure 3.7 Microscope setup for flank wear measurement----------------------------------67

Figure 4.1 Gas chromatographic profile of palm kernel and cottonseed oil--------------71

Figure 4.2: TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for PKO--------------73

Figure 4.3: TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for CSO--------------74

Figure 4.4 TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for PKO and CSO---75

xvii

Figure 4.5 DSC curves for PKO and CSO with and without additives-------------------77

Figure 4.6 Normal distribution plot for PKO cutting fluid----------------------------------81

Figure 4.7 Residual plot used to check the errors for PKO cutting fluid -----------------82

Figure 4.8 Residual plot to check for independence for PKO cutting fluid---------------83

Figure 4.9 Scatter plot of predicted against actual for PKO cutting fluid-----------------84

Figure 4.10 Contour plot for PKO cutting fluid----------------------------------------------85

Figure 4.11 Interaction plot for PKO cutting fluid-------------------------------------------86

Figure 4.12: Normal distribution plot for CSO cutting fluid------------------------------89

Figure 4.13: Residual plot used to check the errors for CSO cutting fluid -------------89

Figure 4.14: Residual plot to check for independence for CSO cutting fluid------------90

Figure 4.15: Scatter plot of predicted against actual for CSO cutting fluid---------------91

Figure 4.16: Contour plot for PKO cutting fluid---------------------------------------------

Figure 4.17: Corrosion level test---------------------------------------------------------------94

Figure 4.18: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for cutting force------------------------------99

Figure 4.19: Contour plots for cutting force-------------------------------------------------101

Figure 4.20: 3D Surface graph for cutting force--------------------------------------------102

Figure 4.21: Normal probability plot for cutting force-------------------------------------102

Figure 4.22: Pareto chart for cutting force---------------------------------------------------103

Figure 4.23: Interaction plots for cutting force---------------------------------------------105

xviii

Figure 4.24: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 160 m/min, feed rate of 0.18

mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.0 mm ----------------------------------------------------------107


mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm---------------------------------------------------------107


mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm-----------------------------------------------------------108

Figure 4.27: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for surface roughness------------------------109

Figure 4.28: Contour plots for surface roughness-------------------------------------------111

Figure 4.29: 3D Surface graph for surface roughness--------------------------------------111

Figure 4.30: Normal probability plot for surface roughness------------------------------112

Figure 4.31: Pareto chart for surface roughness---------------------------------------------113

Figure 4.32: Interaction plots for surface roughness---------------------------------------114




mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm-------------------------------------------------------- 115


mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm----------------------------------------------------------116

Figure 4.36: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for flank wear---------------------------------117

Figure 4.37: Contour plots for flank wear----------------------------------------------------119

Figure 4.38: 3D Surface graph for flank wear-----------------------------------------------119

xix

Figure 4.39: Normal probability plot for flank wear----------------------------------------120

Figure 4.40: Pareto chart for flank wear------------------------------------------------------120

Figure 4.41: Interaction plots for flank wear-------------------------------------------------122




mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm---------------------------------------------------------124


mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm----------------------------------------------------------124

Figure 4.45: Flank wear at 50 × magnification---------------------------------------------125

Figure 4.46: Flank wear at 200× magnification --------------------------------------------126

Figure 4.47: Type of chip formation---------------------------------------------------------130

xx

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Merits and demerits of vegetable oils as lubricants-----------------------------5

Table 1.2: List of recent researches in the machining of AISI 4340 steel ---------------11

Table 2.1: Additives in vegetable oils--------------------------------------------------------18

Table 2.2: Characterization of new cutting fluids------------------------------------------21

Table 2.3: Emulsifiers properties-------------------------------------------------------------23

Table 2.4: Characterization of vegetable based cutting fluids----------------------------24

Table 2.5: Input parameter and their levels-------------------------------------------------27

Table 2.6: Experimental specifications------------------------------------------------------31

Table 2.7: Basic characteristics of cutting fluids------------------------------------------36

Table 2.8: Characteristics of vegetable based cutting fluids-----------------------------37

Table 2.9: Characteristics of vegetable based cutting fluids for milling process------39

Table 2.10: Machining inputs and their levels---------------------------------------------40

Table 2.11: Prices of coolants----------------------------------------------------------------45

Table 3.1 Oil samples for TG analysis------------------------------------------------------47

Table 3.2: Variables and levels employed in the factorial design-----------------------54

Table 3.3: 24 full factorial experimental design matrix-----------------------------------56

Table 3.4: Chemical composition of AISI 4340 steel-------------------------------------59

Table 3.5: Typical physical and thermal properties of AISI 4340 steel----------------59

xxi

Table 3.6: Process parameters and their levels--------------------------------------------61

Table 3.7: Experimentation layout using an L27 orthogonal array--------------------62

Table 3.8: MAHR Perthometer data sheet-------------------------------------------------66

Table 4.1: Fatty acid composition of palm kernel and cottonseed oils----------------70

Table 4.2: Selected physical properties of palm kernel and cottonseed oils----------72

Table 4.3: Results of pour point-------------------------------------------------------------76

Table 4.4: Results of stability and pH values----------------------------------------------78

Table 4.5: pH value of 24 full factorial with random run order indicated--------------79

Table 4.6: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the pH value model--------------------80

Table 4.7: Statistical value for PKO cutting fluid-----------------------------------------80

Table 4.8: pH value 24 full factorial with random run order indicated ----------------87

Table 4.9: Analysis of variance for the model---------------------------------------------87

Table 4.10: Statistical value for CSO cutting fluid----------------------------------------88

Table 4.11: Viscosity and pH value of formulated emulsion cutting fluids------------93

Table 4.12: Results for stability--------------------------------------------------------------94

Table 4.13: Characteristics of oil-in-water emulsion cutting fluids---------------------95

Table 4.14: Data from the experiment conducted------------------------------------------97

Table 4.15: S/N (dB) ratio values for responses-------------------------------------------98

Table 4.16: ANOVA analysis for cutting force-------------------------------------------101

xxii

Table 4.17: ANOVA analysis for surface roughness-----------------------------------110

Table 4.18: ANOVA analysis for flank wear--------------------------------------------118

Table 4.19: Optimal values for various output parameters----------------------------127

Table 4.20: Confirmation test percentage error ----------------------------------------128

Table A1: Chromatography data----------------------------------------------------------147

Table A2: Cutting force percentage reduction------------------------------------------148

Table A3 Surface roughness percentage reduction-------------------------------------149

Table A4: Flank wear percentage reduction---------------------------------------------150

xxiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AISI America institute of steel and iron

ANOVA Analysis of variance

DOE Design of experiment

DSC Differential scanning calorimetry

GC Gas chromatography

S/N ratio Signal-to-noise ratio

PKO Palm kernel oil

CSO Cottonseed oil

MO Mineral oil

TGA Thermo-gravimetric analysis

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