edwards - relationship between constructs and measures.pdf

7/29/2019 Edwards - Relationship between constructs and measures.pdf

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Psychological Methods Copyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.2000, Vol. 5, No. 2~ 155-174 1082-989X/00/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1082-989X.5.2,155

O n t h e N a t u r e a n d D i r e c t i o n o f R e l a t i o n s h i p s B e t w e e nC o n s t r u ct s a n d M e a s u r e s

Jeffrey R . EdwardsUnivers i ty of Nor th Carol ina a t Chapel Hi l l andUnivers i ty of Michigan Business School

Richard P. BagozziRice Univers i ty and Univers i ty of MichiganBusiness School

Theo ry developm ent typica l ly focuses on re la t ionships am ong theore tical con-structs, placin g li t tle emp hasis on relationships betw een cons tructs and measures. Inmo st cases , cons t ruc ts a re t rea ted as causes o f the i r measures . How ever , th is causa lf low is som et imes reversed, such tha t measures are v iewe d as causes o f cons t ruc ts.Procedures have been developed to ident ify and es t imate mod els tha t speci fy con-structs as causes or effects of measures. Ho we ver, these proc edure s prov ide l it t leguid ance for determining a priori wheth er constructs should be specified as causesor ef fec ts of the i r measures . Mo reover , these procedures address few o f the poss ib lecausal structures by which constructs and measures may be related. This art icledev elops principles for specifying the direction and structure o f relationships be-tween constructs and measures. These principles are i l lustrated using examplesfrom psy cho logica l, sociolo gical, and organizational research.

A t h e o r y c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s : o n e t h a ts p e c i f i e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t sa n d a n o t h e r t h a t d e s c r i b e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c o n -s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s ( B a g o z z i & P h i l li p s , 1 9 8 2 ; C o s t -h e r , 1 9 6 9 ) . P r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e o r y o f t e n p l a c e g r e a te m p h a s i s o n e x p l a i n i n g c a u s a l re l a ti o n s h ip s a m o n gc o n s t r u c t s b u t d e v o t e l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e n a t u r e a n dd i r e c t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s a n d

J e f f re y R . Edwa r ds , D e pa r tme n t o f M a na ge me n t , Ke na n -Flagler Business School , Univers i ty of Nor th Carol ina a tChapel Hi l l and Depar tment o f Organiza t ional Behavior andHum a n Re s ou r c e Ma na ge m e n t , Un i ve r s i ty o f Mi c h i ga nBus i ne s s Sc hoo l ; R i c ha r d P . Ba goz z i , De pa r tme n t o f Ma n-a ge me n t , J one s Gr a dua te Sc hoo l o f Ma na ge me n t , R i c e Un i -vers i ty and Depar tment of Marketing , Univers i ty of Michi -gan Business School.

W e thank Richard S . Blackburn , Kenneth A. Bol len , K yleD. Ca t t a n i , J a me s W. De a n J r . , Da v i d A . Ha r r i s on ,Lawrence R. James , Kei th A. Markus , Edward E. Rigdon,Alber t H. Segars, L arry J . Wil liams, and m emb ers of theSocie ty of Organiza t ional Beha vior for the i r helpful c om -ments dur ing the d evelopm ent of th is a r tic le .

Correspondence concerning th is a r t ic le should be ad-d r e s s ed t o J e f f r e y R . Edw a r ds , De pa r t me n t o f M a na ge me n t ,Kenan-Flagter Business School , Univers i ty of Nor th Caro-l ina , Camp us Box 3490 , Chapel Hi ll , Nor th Carol ina 27599-3490. Elect ronic mai l ma y be sent to j redwards@ unc.edu.

m e a s u r e s . T h e s e r e l a t io n s h i p s a r e o f p a r a m o u n t i m -p o r t a n c e b e c a u s e t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n a u x i l i a r y t h e o r yt h a t b r i d g e s t h e g a p b e t w e e n a b s t r a c t t h e o r e t i c a l c o n -s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r a b l e e m p i r i c a l p h e n o m e n a ( C o s t -n e r , 1 9 6 9 ) . W i t h o u t th i s a u x i l i a ry t h e o r y , t h e m a p p i n go f th e o r e ti c a l c o n s t r u c t s o n t o e m p i r i c a l p h e n o m e n a i sa m b i g u o u s , a n d t h e o r i e s c a n n o t b e m e a n i n g f u l l yt e s t e d ( B l a l o c k , 1 9 7 1 ) .

T h e n a t u r e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f r e l at i o n sh i p s b e t w e e nc o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n t h el i te r a t u re o n c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y a n d s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o nm o d e l i n g ( B l a l o c k , 1 9 7 1 ; B o l l e n , 1 9 8 9 ; D e V e l l i s ,1 9 9 1 ) . I n th i s l i te r a t u re , c o n s t r u c t s a r e u s u a l l y v i e w e da s c a u s e s o f m e a s u r e s , m e a n i n g t h a t v a r i a t io n i n ac o n s t r u c t l e a d s t o v a r i a t i o n i n i t s m e a s u r e s ( B o l l e n ,1 9 8 9 ) . S u c h m e a s u r e s a r e t e r m e d reflective b e c a u s et h e y r e p r e s e n t r e f l e c t i o n s , o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , o f a c o n -s t r u c t ( F o r n e l l & B o o k s t e i n , 1 9 8 2 ) . R e f l e c t i v e m e a -s u r e m e n t u n d e r l i e s c l a s s i c a l t e s t t h e o r y ( L o r d &N o v i c k , 1 9 6 8 ) , r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n ( N u n n a l l y ,1 9 7 8 ) , a n d f a c t o r a n a l y s i s ( H a r m a n , 1 9 7 6 ; K i m &M u e l l e r , 1 9 7 8 ) , e a c h o f w h i c h t r e a t s a m e a s u r e a s af u n c t i o n o f a l a t e n t v a r i a b l e ( i. e. , c o n s t r u c t ) p l u s e r r o r .

I n s o m e s i t u a t i o n s , m e a s u r e s a r e v i e w e d a s c a u s e so f c o n s t r u c t s ( B a g o z z i & F o r n e ll , 1 9 8 2 ; B l a l o c k ,t 9 7 1 ; B o l l e n & L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ; H e i s e , 1 9 7 2 ; M a c C a l -l u m & B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3) . S u c h m e a s u r e s a r e t e r m e d f o r -mative, m e a n i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t is f o r m e d o r i n d u c e d b y

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1 5 6 E D W A R D S A N D B A G O Z Z Ii t s m e a s u r e s ( F o r n e l l & B o o k s t e i n , 1 9 8 2 ) . 1 F o r m a t i v em e a s u r e s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r c o n st r u ct s c o n -c e i v e d a s c o m p o s i t e s o f s p e c i fi c c o m p o n e n t v a r ia b l e s,a s w h e n s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s ( S E S ) i s d e f i n e d i nt e r m s o f o c c u p a t i o n , ed u c a t i o n , a n d i n c o m e ( H a u s e r& G o l d b e r g e r , 1 9 7 1 ; M a r s d e n , 1 9 8 2 ) .

D i s c u s s i o n s o f r ef l e c ti v e a n d f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e sh a v e f o c u s e d p r i m a r i l y o n i d e n ti f ic a t io n a n d e s t i m a -t i o n i s s u e s ( B l a l o c k , 1 9 7 1 ; B o l l e n & L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ;M a c C a l l u m & B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e s e i s s u e s a r e c r i ti -c a l l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d b e -f o r e m o d e l s w i t h r e f l e c t i v e a n d f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e sc a n b e e m p i r i c a l l y t e st e d . H o w e v e r , l it t le a t t e n t i o n h a sb e e n d e v o t e d t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h m e a s u r e ss h o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d a s r e f l e c t i v e o r f o r m a t i v e i n t h ef i r s t p l a c e . R o u g h g u i d e l i n e s c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o me x a m p l e s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e r e f l e c t i v e a n d f o r m a t i v em e a s u r e s ( B o l l e n & L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ; M a c C a l l u m &B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3 ) , b u t t h e s e e x a m p l e s a r e o p e n t o d i f -f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d m a y n o t a p p l y t o m e a s u r e su s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y . C o v a r i a n c e s a m o n g m e a -s u r e s c a n h e l p d i f f e r e n t i a t e f o r m a t i v e f r o m r e f l e c t i v em e a s u r e s , b e c a u s e t h e s e c o v a r i a n c e s f o l l o w a p r e d i c t -a b l e p a t t e m f o r r e f l e c t i v e m e a s u r e s b u t a r e i n d e t e r m i -n a t e fo r fo r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s ( B o l l e n & L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ;B o l l e n & T i n g , 1 9 9 3 ) . H o w e v e r , t h i s a p p r o a c h p e r -m i t s o n l y te n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s , b e c a u s e i m p e r f e c t re -f l e ct i v e m e a s u r e s m a y y i e l d c o v a r i a n c e s t h a t d e v i a t ef r o m t h e p a t t e r n e x p e c t e d f o r s u c h m e a s u r e s , a n d f o r -m a t i v e m e a s u r e s m a y e x h i b i t c o v a r i a n c e s t h a t h a p p e nt o f o l l o w t h e p a t t e r n e x p e c t e d f o r r e f l e c t iv e m e a s u r e s .M o r e o v e r , a p a rt i c u la r p a t t e m o f c o v a r i a n c e s m a y b ec o n s i s t e n t w i t h n u m e r o u s c a u s a l s t r u c t u r e s ( B o l l e n &T i n g , 1 9 9 3 ; D u n c a n , 1 9 7 5 ; L e e & H e r s h b e r g e r , 1 9 9 0 ;M a c C a l l u m , W e g e n e r , U c h i n o , & F a b r i g a r , 1 9 9 3 ) .H e n c e , r e s e a r c h e r s c u r r e n t l y h a v e f e w c o n c e p t u a l o re m p i r i c a l c ri t e r ia f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r m e a s u r e ss h o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d a s r e f l e c t i v e o r f o r m a t i v e . T h i ss h o r t c o m i n g s e r io u s l y h a m p e r s t e s t s o f s u b s t a n t iv et h e o r i e s b e c a u s e i f th e c a u s a l s t r u c t u r e r e l a t i n g c o n -s t r u c t s t o m e a s u r e s i s s p e c i f i e d i n c o r r e c t l y , r e l a t i o n -s h ip s a m o n g c o n s t r u ct s c a n n o t b e m e a n i n g f u l l y t e s t ed( B l a lo c k , 1 9 7 1 ; M a c C a l l u m & B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3 ) .

T h i s a r t i c l e p r o v i d e s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r s p e c i f y -i n g t h e n a t u r e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e -t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s . T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r ed e r i v e d f r o m l o g i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l a r g u m e n t s r e -g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f c o n s tr u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s a n dt h e n a t u r e a n d f o r m o f t h e i r re l a t i o n s h i p ( B l a l o c k ,1 9 7 1 ; C o s t n e r , 1 9 6 9 ) . T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s p r o v i d e ap r i o r i c r i t e r i a b y w h i c h r e s e a r c h e r s c a n s p e c i f y t h e

c a u s a l d i r e c t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s . B y a p p l y i n g t h e s ep r i nc i p le s , r e s e a r c h er s m a y w o r k t o w a r d d e v e l o p i n ga u x i l i a r y t h e o r i e s l i n k i n g c o n s t r u c t s t o m e a s u r e s w i t ht h e s a m e p r e c i s i o n a n d r i g o r u s e d t o s p e c i f y r e l a t i o n -s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s .

W e b e g i n b y d e f i n i n g c o n s t ru c t s a n d m e a s u r e s a n da d d r e s s i n g k e y p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s su e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e s ed e f i n i t io n s . N e x t , w e d r a w f r o m p r i n c i p l e s o f c a u s a l -i t y t o d e v e l o p c r i t e r i a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o ft h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e .W e t h e n d e r i v e h y p o t h e t i c a l m o d e l s t h a t d e li n a te b a -s i c c a u s a l s t r u c t u r e s b y w h i c h a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a -s u r e m i g h t r e l a te . C u m u l a t i v e l y , t h i s d i s c u s s i o n y i e l d sg u i d e l i n e s f o r s p e c i f y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n ac o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e i n t e r m s o f ( a ) d i r e c t i o n ( i .e . ,w h e t h e r a c o n s t r u c t c a u s e s o r i s c a u s e d b y i t s m e a -s u r e s ) a nd ( b ) s t r uc t u r e ( i . e . , whe t he r t he r e l a t i ons h i pi s d ir e c t , in d i r e c t, s p u r i o u s , o r u n a n a l y z e d ) . W e t h e na p p l y t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s t o c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e sf r o m t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l , a n d o r g a n i z a -t i on a l l it e ra t ur e s. W e c o n c l u d e w i t h r e c o m m e n d a t i o n sf o r th e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h p a r ti c u l ar e m p h a s i s o nt h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a u x i l ia r y t h e o r i e s r e l a t i n g c o n s t r u c t st o m e a s u r e s i n t o s u b s t a n t i v e t h e o r i e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p sa m o n g c o n s t r u c t s .

D e f i n i n g C o n s t r u c ts a n d M e a s u r e sB e f o r e w e d i s c u s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s

a n d m e a s u r e s , w e m u s t f i r s t d e f i n e t h e s e t e r m s . W ed e f i n e a m e a s u r e a s a n o b s e r v e d s c o r e g a t h e r e dt h r o u g h s e l f - r e p o r t , i n t e r v i e w , o b s e r v a t i o n , o r s o m eo t h e r m e a n s ( D e V e l l is , 1 9 9 1 ; L o r d & N o v i c k , 1 9 6 8 ;M e s s i c k , 1 9 9 5 ) . P u t s i m p l y , a m e a s u r e i s a q u a n t i f i e dr e c o r d , o r d a t u m , t a k e n a s a n e m p i r i c a l a n a l o g t o ac o n s t r u c t . N o t e t h a t a m e a s u r e r e f e r s n o t t o a n i n s t r u -m e n t u s e d t o g a t h e r d a t a o r t o t h e a c t o f c o l l e c t i n gd a t a , b u t t o th e s c o r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s . Ac o n s t r u c t i s a c o n c e p t u a l t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a p h e -

1 Bla lock (1964), wh o is often credited with distinguish-ing measures as effects versus c auses o f constructs, labeledreflective measures e f f e c t i n d i c a t o r s and format ive mea-sures c a u s e i n d i c a t o r s . We prefer the te rms r e f l e c t i v e and

f o r m a t i v e because these te rms do not imply tha t the re la-tionship between a construct and a measure is necessarilycausal. As we later show, relationship between some con-structs an d measures sh ould be viewe d as definit ional ratherthan causal.


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RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONSTRUCTS AND MEASURES 157n o m e n o n o f t h e o re t i c a l i n t e re s t ( C r o n b a c h & M e e h l ,1955 ; Nun na l l y , 1978 ; S chw ab , 1980) . S eve r a l po i n t sr ega r d i ng t h i s de f i n i t i on shou l d be e l abor a t ed . F i r s t ,a l t h o u g h c o n s t r u c t s a r e t e r m s r e s e a r c h e r s l i t e r a l l ycons t r uc t , o r pu t t oge t he r ( Nunna l l y , 1978) , we i n t endt h a t c o n s t r u c t s r e f e r t o p h e n o m e n a t h a t a r e r e a l a n de x i s t a p a r t f r o m t h e a w a r e n e s s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o ft h e r e s e a r c h e r a n d t h e p e r s o n s u n d e r s t u d y ( C o o k &C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 9 ; L o e v i n g e r , 1 9 5 7 ; M e s s i c k , 1 9 8 1 ) .F o r i n s t a n c e , p s y c h o l o g i s t s d e v e l o p c o g n i t iv e , a t t it u -d i n a l , a n d e m o t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s t o d e s c r i b e r e a l p h e -n o m e n a t h a t a re e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e o p l e . L i k e w i s e , s o -c i o l o g i s t s f o r m u l a t e c o n s t r u c t s s u c h a s s o c i a ls t r a t i f i ca t i on , soc i a l mobi l i t y , and S E S t o r epr esen tr e a l p h e n o m e n a i n s o c i a l c o l l e c t i v e s . S e c o n d , a l -t h o u g h c o n s t r u c t s r e f e r t o r e a l p h e n o m e n a , c o n s t r u c t st h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t r e a l i n a n o b j e c t i v e s e n s e ( N u n -na l l y , 1978) . Ra t he r , t hey a r e e l ement s o f s c i en t i f i cd i s c o u r s e t h a t s e r v e a s v e r b a l s u r r o g a t e s f o r p h e n o m -e n a o f in t e re s t . T h u s , w h e n w e s p e a k o f t h e r e la t i o n -s h i p b e t w e e n a m e a s u r e a n d a c o n s t r u c t, w e r e f e r tot h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a m e a s u r e a n d t h e p h e n o m -e n o n n a m e d b y t h e c o n s t r u c t . T h i r d , t h e p h e n o m e n at h a t c o n s t ru c t s d e s c r i b e c a n b e u n o b s e r v a b l e ( e .g . , a t-t i t udes ) o r obse r vab l e ( e .g . , t a sk pe r f o r mance ) . I n e i -t he r case , t he cons t r uc t i t s e l f i s an abs t r ac t t e r m t ha td e s c r i b e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n . H e n c e , s u b j e c t i v e s t a t e sa r e d e s c r i b e d a s attitudes a n d b e h a v i o r i s d e s c r i b e d a stask performance w h e n r e s e a r c h e r s d e r i v e l a b e l s f o rt h e s e p h e n o m e n a . F i n a l l y , c o n s t r u c t s d i f f e r i n h o ww e l l t h e y d e s c r i b e a n d a s s i g n m e a n i n g t o p h e n o m e n ao f t h e o r e ti c a l i n te r e st . S o m e c o n s t r u c t s m a y d e m o n -s t r a t e o n g o i n g u s e f u l n e s s , w h e r e a s o t h e r s i n i t i a l l yc o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l m a y b e m o d i f i e d o r a b a n d o n e d a sk n o w l e d g e a c c u m u l a t e s . T h e s e a d v a n c e s m a y o c c u re v e n w h e n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f i n te r e st r e m a i n s u n -c h a n g e d . I n s u m , o u r d e f i n i ti o n o f a c o n s t r u c t r e p r e -sen t s a c r i t i ca l r ea l i s t pe r spec t i ve , i n t ha t we v i ewc o n s t r u c t s a s a t te m p t s t o d e s c r i b e r e a l p h e n o m e n a , b u tw e r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e se p h e n o m e n a c a n n o t b e k n o w nd i r e c t l y o r w i t h c o m p l e t e a c c u r a c y b e c a u s e o f m e a -s u r e m e n t e r r o r a n d t h e i m p e r f e c t e p i s te m o l o g i c a l l en st h a t a c o n s t r u c t p r o v i d e s ( C o o k & C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 9 ;De l an t y , 1997; L oev i nge r , 1957 ; M ess i ck , 1981 ; Z u-t i f f , 1998) .

C a u s a l D i r e c t i o n o f th e R e l a t io n s h i p B e t w e e nC o n s t r u c t s a n d M e a s u r e s

D i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t sa n d m e a s u r e s o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a s

c a u s a l . C a u s a l l a n g u a g e p e r v a d e s d i s c u s s i o n s o f re -f l e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . F o r e x a m p l e , L o r d a n d N o v i c k( 1 9 6 8 ) d e s c r i b e d m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r a s th a t p a r t o f a no b s e r v e d v a r i a b l e t h a t i s n o t " d e t e r m i n e d b y " a c o n -s t r uc t ( p . 531) , and Nunna l l y ( 1978) cha r ac t e r i zedm e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r a s th e v a r i a n c e i n a m e a s u r e t h a t isn o t " e x p l a i n e d b y " t h e t r u e s c o r e ( p . 2 0 1 ) . L o n g( 1983) was mor e exp l i c i t , s t a t i ng t ha t t he a r r ow l ead-i n g f r o m a c o n s t r u c t t o i t s m e a s u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e" c a u s a l e f f e c t " o f t h e c o n s t r u c t o n t h e m e a s u r e ( p . 1 1 ).L i kewi se , DeVel l i s ( 1991) a s se r t ed t ha t a l a t en t va r i -able ( i .e . , a const ruct ) i s "a cause o f t h e i t e m s c o r e "( p . 1 3 ). D i s c u s s i o n s o f f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s o f t e n u s ec a u s a l l a n g u a g e a s w e l l . F o r e x a m p l e , B l a l o c k ( 1 9 7 1 )d e s c r i b e d f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s a s i n d i c a ti n g t h a t a l a -t e n t v a r i a b le i s m e a s u r e d u s i n g " o n e o r m o r e o f i tsc a u s e s " ( p . 3 3 6 ) . L i k e w i s e , M a c C a l l u m a n d B r o w n e( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 3 3 ) a n d B e d e i a n , D a y , a n d K e l l o w a y( 1 9 9 7 , p . 7 8 8 ) s t at e d th a t f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s " m a y b ev i e w e d a s c a u s i n g " l a t e n t v a r i a b l e s . B o l l e n a n d L e n -nox ( 1991) wer e mor e cau t i ous , s t a t i ng t ha t t hey "dono t a t t r i bu t e any spec i a l s i gn i f i cance t o t he t e r m causeot he r t han t he f ac t t ha t t he i nd i ca t o r s de t e r mi ne t hel a t en t va r i ab l e" ( p . 306) , a l t hough i t i s unc l ea r how" d e t e r m i n e " d i f f e r s f r o m t h e c o n c e p t o f c a u s e .

A l t h o u g h d i s c u s s i o n s o f f o r m a t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v em e a s u r e s o f t e n u s e c a u s a l l a n g u a g e , t h e y r a r e l y i n -c o r p o r a t e p r i n c i p l e s o f c a u s a li t y f r o m t h e p h i l o s o p h yof s c i ence ( e .g . , Hu me , 1946 ; M i l l , 1886; P op per ,1959 ; S uppes , 1970) . T he se p r i nc i p l e s a r e an ongo i n gsour ce o f deba t e , a l t houg h t he cur r en t l i te r a t u r e sug-g e s t s s o m e c o n s e n s u s o n f o u r c o n d i t i o n s f o r e s t a b -l i sh i ng causa l i t y i n t he soc i a l , behav i o r a l , and man-a g e m e n t s c i e n c e s (A s h e r , 1 9 8 3 ; B a g o z z i , 1 9 8 0 ;B o l l e n , 1 9 8 9 ; C o o k & C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 9 ; H e i s e , 1 9 7 5;Jam es , M ul a i k , & Br e t t , 1982). F i r s t , causa l i t y r e -qu i r e s t ha t t he cause and t he e f f ec t a r e d i s t i nc t en t i -t i e s . W hen t wo va r i ab l e s a r e no t d i s t i nc t , t he i r r e l a -t i onsh i p i s t au t o l og i ca l and t he r e f o r e shou l d no t bev i e w e d a s c a u s a l. S e c o n d , c a u s a l i ty r e q u i r e s a s s o c i a -t i o n , m e a n i n g t h a t t h e c a u s e a n d t h e e f f e c t c o v a r y .A s s o c i a t i o n i s u s u a l l y v i e w e d a s p r o b a b i l i s t i c r a t h e rt h a n d e f i n i t i o n a l , m e a n i n g t h e c a u s e i n c r e a s e s t h el i k e li h o o d o f t h e e f f e c t b u t d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e t h a t th ee f f e c t w i l l o c c u r ( C o o k & C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 9 ; J a m e s e ta l ., 1982 ; S upp es , 1970) . T h i r d , causa l i t y r equ i r e st e m p o r a l p r e c e d e n c e , s u c h t h a t t h e c a u s e o c c u r s b e -f o r e t h e e f f e c t . A l t h o u g h c a u s a l i t y m a y b e n e a r l y i n -s t a n t a n e o u s a t t h e m i c r o m e d i a l l e v e l , t h e c a u s e m u s tp r e c e d e t h e e f f e c t b y s o m e m i n i m a l t i m e i n t e r v a l( Co ok & Cam pbe l l , 1979) . F i na l l y , causa l i t y r equ i r e s


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1 58 E D W A R D S A N D B A G O Z Z It h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f r i v a l e x p l a n a t io n s f o r t h e p r e s u m e dr e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c a u s e a n d t h e e f f e c t ( C o o k &C a m p b e l l , 1 9 7 9) . O f t h e f o u r c o n d i t i o n s f o r c a u s a l i t y ,t h i s l a s t c o n d i t i o n i s o f t e n t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t t o s a t i s f yi n p r a c t i c e, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h .W e n o w a p p l y t h e f o r e g o i n g c o n d i t i o n s fo r c a u s a li t yt o t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c ts a n d m e a s u r e s .D i s t i n c t E n t i t ie s

T h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n f o r c a u s a l i t y s t i p u l a t e s t h a t ac o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e m u s t b e d i s ti n c t. T h i s c o n d i -t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d b y t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f c o n s t r u c t a n dm e a s u r e p r o v i d e d e a r l i e r , i n w h i c h a c o n s t r u c t r e fe r st o a p h e n o m e n o n o f t h e o r e ti c a l in t e r e s t a n d a m e a s u r ei s a n o b s e r v e d s c o re . T h e d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n a c o n -s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e i s e v i d e n t f o r a t t i t u d e s , c o g n i -t i o n s , a n d o t h e r m e n t a l s t a t e s o r e v e n t s , f o r w h i c h t h ec o n s t r u c t r e f e r s t o a p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e m i n d o fa p e r s o n a n d t h e m e a s u r e i s a r e c o r d e d t r a c e t a k e n a se v i d e n c e o f t h e c o n s t ru c t ( e . g. , a n u m b e r c i r c l e d b y ar e s p o n d e n t o n a s u r v e y ) . C o n s t r u c t s t h a t r e f e r t o b e -h a v i o r a r e a l s o d i s ti n c t fr o m m e a s u r e s o f b e h a v i o r ,b e c a u s e e x h i b i t i n g a b e h a v i o r i s n o t t h e s a m e a s t h es c o r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th a t b e h a v i o r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h ea c t o f b e i n g a b s e n t f r o m w o r k i s d is t i n c t f r o m a s c o r eo n t he i te m " H o w m a n y d a y s o f w o r k h a v e y o um i s s e d i n t h e p a s t y e a r ? " ( J o h n s , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e d i s t i n c -t i o n b e t w e e n a c o n s tr u c t a n d a m e a s u r e b r e a k s d o w nu n d e r o p e r a t i o n a l i s m , i n w h i c h a c o n s t r u c t i s d e f i n e di n t e r m s o f i t s m e a s u r e s ; f o r e x a m p l e , i n t e l l i gence w a so n c e d e f i n e d a s t h a t w h i c h t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t m e a -s u r e s ( C a m p b e l l , 1 9 6 0 ) .A s s o c i a t i o n

T h e s e c o n d c o n d i t i o n f o r c a u s a l i t y i s a s s o c i a t i o n ,m e a n i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d t h e m e a s u r e m u s t c o v a r y .I n p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f c a u s a l i t y , a s s o c i a t io nu s u a l l y r e f e r s t o a n e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e nt w o o b j e c t s . F o r a c o n s t ru c t a n d a m e a s u r e , h o w e v e r ,t h e r e s e a r c h e r h a s d i r e c t a c c es s t o t h e m e a s u r e b u t n o tt h e c o n s t r u c t ( N u n n a l l y , 1 9 7 8 ) . H e n c e , a s s o c i a t i o nb e t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e m u s t b e i n f e r r e db y u s i n g m e t h o d s t h a t d o n o t r e l y o n d i r e c t o b s e r v a -t i o n .

O n e s u c h m e t h o d i n v o l v e s t h e u se o f c o v a r i a n c e sa m o n g m u l t i p l e m e a s u r e s o f a c o n s t r u c t to i n f e r th er e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e f o c a l c o n s t r u c t a n d i ts m e a -s u r e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a c o n s t r u c t h a s t h r e e o r m o r er e f l e c t iv e m e a s u r e s , t h e c o v a r i a n c e s a m o n g t h e m e a -s u r e s m a y b e u s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e a s s o c i a t i o n ( i . e . ,f a c t o r l o a d i n g ) b e t w e e n e a c h m e a s u r e a n d t h e c o n -

s t r u c t ( B o l l e n , 1 9 8 9 ) . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , if a c o n s t r u c t h a so n e o r m o r e f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s , t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p s b e -t w e e n t h e m e a s u r e s a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t c a n b e e s t i m a t e dp r o v i d e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i s s p e c i f i e d a s a d i r e c t o r a ni n d i r e c t c a u s e o f a t l e a s t t w o r e f e c t i v e m e a s u r e s( B o l l e n & D a v i s , 1 9 94 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s e p r o c e d u r e sp r o v i d e e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e o f a s s o c i a t i o n , t h i s e v i -d e n c e m a y b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r m o d e l s w i t h d i f -f e r e n t c a u s a l o r d e r i n g s t h a t y i e l d d i f f e r e n t e s t i m a t e so f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s( D u n c a n , 1 9 7 5; L e e & H e r s h b e r g e r , 1 9 90 ; M a c C a l -l u m e t a l. , 1 9 9 3 ). T h e r e f o r e , e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e o fa s s o c i a t i o n p r o v i d e s n e c e s s a r y b u t n o t s u f f ic i e n t s u p -p o r t f o r a h y p o t h e s i z e d c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n ac o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e . 2

A s e c o n d m e t h o d f o r e v a l u a t in g t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e -t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e e n t a i l s t h e u s e o f" m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s " ( B o l l e n , 1 9 8 9 ) , in w h i c h a r e -s e a r c h e r i m a g i n e s a c h a n g e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d t h enc o n s i d e r s w h e t h e r a c h a n g e i n t h e m e a s u r e i s l i k e l y .F o r e x a m p l e , a r e s e a r c h e r m i g h t c o n s i d e r w h e t h e rv a r i a t i o n in a j o b i n v o l v e m e n t c o n s t r u c t w o u l d r e l a tet o d i f f e r e n t s c o r e s f o r i t e m s s u c h a s " T h e m o s t i m -p o r t a n t t h i n g s t h a t h a p p e n i n l i f e i n v o l v e w o r k "( K a n u n g o , 1 9 8 2) . M e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s e n t a i l th e u s eo f d i s c i p l i n e d i m a g i n a t i o n ( W e i c k , 1 9 8 9) t o d e d u c ew h e t h e r a n a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a c o n s t ru c t a n d am e a s u r e i s p la u s i b l e . U l t i m a t e l y , m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t sr e l y o n s p e c u l a t i o n a n d " a p p e a l s t o r e a s o n " t h a t ac o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e c o v a r y ( c f . N u n n a l l y , 1 9 7 8 ,p . 9 3 ). T h e r e f o r e , m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s s h o u l d b e u s e di n c o n j u n c t io n w i t h e m p i r i c a l p r o c ed u r e s , a c k n o w l -e d g i n g t h a t n e i th e r a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s d e f i n i t iv e e v i -d e n c e o f a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a -s u r e .

I d e a l l y , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d i t sm e a s u r e s s h o u l d r e m a i n s t a b le r e g a r d l e s s o f th e l a r g e rc a u s a l m o d e l i n w h i c h t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d m e a s u r e s a r ee m b e d d e d . I f t he a s s o c i a t i o n v a r ie s , t h e n n o u n i q u em e a n i n g c a n b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e c o n s t r u c t ( B u r t , 1 9 7 6 ) ,a n d c l a i m s o f a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t a n dm e a s u r e s a r e t e n u o u s. T h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a c o n -s t r u c t a n d i t s m e a s u r e s i s g e n e r a l l y s t a b l e f o r r e f l e c -

z W e re fe r to assoc ia t ion net of other influences as anecessa ry cond i t ion fo r causa l i ty (Bol len , 1989 , p . 57) . Abivar ia te a ssoc ia t ion be tween a cons t ruc t and a measu re i sno t a necessa ry cond i t ion fo r causa l i ty because the i r a sso-c ia t ion may en ta i l two e f fec t s o f oppos i te s ign tha t y ie ld anu l l to ta l e f fec t .


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R E L A T I O N S H I P S B E T W E E N C O N S T R U C T S A N D M E A S U R E S 1 5 9t i ve me a s u r e s t ha t s e r ve a s a l t e r na t i ve ( i . e . , s ubs t i t u t e )i n d i c a to r s o f a c o n s tr u c t , p r o v i d e d t h e s e m e a s u r e sc o r r e la t e m o r e h i g h l y w i t h o n e a n o t h e r t h a n w i th m e a -s u r e s o f o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s . I n c o n t r a s t, a s s o c i a t i o n s o ff o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s w i t h t h e i r c o n s t r u c t a r e d e t e r -m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e s em e a s u r e s a n d m e a s u r e s o f c o n s t ru c t s t h a t a re d e p e n -d e n t o n t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n te r e s t. T h i s p o i n t w a s m a d eb y H e i s e ( 1 9 7 2 ), w h o n o t e d t h a t a c o n s t ru c t m e a s u r e df o r m a t i v e l y i s n o t j u s t a c o m p o s i t e o f i ts m e a s u r e s ;r a t h e r , " i t i s t h e c o m p o s i t e t h a t b e s t p r e d i c t s t h e d e -p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e i n t h e a n a l y si s . . . . T h u s , t h e m e a n -i n g o f t h e l a t e n t c o n s t r u c t i s a s m u c h a f u n c t i o n o f th ed e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e a s i t i s a f u n c t i o n o f i t s i n d i c a t o r s "( p . 1 6 0 ) . U n s t a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n s b e t w e e n f o r m a t i v em e a s u r e s a n d c o n s t r u c t s n o t o n l y c r e a t e d i f f i c u l t i e sf o r e s ta b l i s h in g c a u s a l i ty b u t a l s o o b s c u r e t h e m e a n -i n g o f t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s b e c a u s e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t io nd e p e n d s o n t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n ag i v e n m o d e l .Temporal Precedence

T h e t h i r d c o n d i t i o n f o r c a u s a l i t y i s t e m p o r a l p r e c e -d e n c e , o r w h e t h e r c h a n g e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t p r e c e d e s ,a c c o m p a n i e s , o r f o l l o w s c h a n g e i n t h e m e a s u re . B e -c a u s e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e d i r e c t a c c e s s t o m e a s u r e s b u tn o t c o n s t r u c t s , t e m p o r a l p r e c e d e n c e c a n n o t b e a s -s e s s e d d i r e c t ly . H o w e v e r , i t m a y b e e s t a b l i s h e d b yu s i n g e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t c o n t r o l t h e t i m i n g a n d s e -q u e n c e o f a c o n s t r u c t a n d i ts m e a s u r e s . T o c r e a te as e q u e n c e i n w h i c h t h e c o n s t r u c t p r e c e d e s t h e m e a -s u r e , r e s e a r c h e r s m a y a p p l y e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a -t i o n s k n o w n t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d c o l l e c ts c o r e s a f t e r t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , s t u d i e s o fp e r c e i v e d c o n t r o l h a v e s h o w n t h a t g i v i n g p a r ti c ip a n t sa s w i t c h t h a t t e r m i n a t e s e l e c t r i c s h o c k i n c r e a s e s p e r -c e i v e d c o n t r o l ( A v e r i l l , 1 9 7 3 ) . I f t h i s m a n i p u l a t i o n i sf o l l o w e d b y a s e lf - r e p o rt m e a s u r e o f c o n t r o l, o n e m a yc o n c l u d e t h a t v a r i a n c e i n t h e p e r c e i v e d - c o n t r o l c o n -s t r u c t p r e c e d e d v a r i a n c e i n s c o r e s o n t h e m e a s u r e o fc o n t r o l . T o c r e a t e a s e q u e n c e i n w h i c h t h e m e a s u r ep r e c e d e s t h e c o n s t ru c t , s c o r e s m a y b e m a n i p u l a t e d b yp r o v i d i n g b o g u s f e e d b a c k t o s u b j e c t s , u n d e r t h e a s -s u m p t i o n t h a t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s e s c o r e s w i l l c r e a t ev a r i a t i o n i n a l a t e n t a t t i t u d e o r b e l i e f c o n s t r u c t ( B i n -n i n g , Z a b a , & W h a t t a m , 1 9 8 6 ; P h i l l i p s & L o r d ,1 9 8 2 ) . H o w e v e r , t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t h a s i n -d e e d c h a n g e d , a v a l i d r e f le c t i v e m e a s u r e o f t h e c o n -s t ru c t m u s t f o l l o w . B o t h o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e -d u r e s e n t a il a s t i m u l u s ~ o r g a n i s m - -~ r e s p o n s e

s e q u e n c e i n w h i c h o n e l i n k i n t h e s e q u e n c e m u s t b et a k e n a s g i v e n ( i. e ., th e s t im u l u s ~ o r g a n i s m l i n km u s t b e a s s u m e d t o t e s t t he e f f e c t o f a c o n s tr u c t o n am e a s u r e , w h e r e a s th e o r g a n i s m ~ r e s p o n s e li n k m u s tb e a s s u m e d t o t e s t t h e e f f e c t o f a m e a s u r e o n a c o n -s t ruc t ) .

I f c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e , re -s e a r c h e r s m a y u s e m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s ( B o l l e n , 1 9 8 9 )t o e v a lu a t e v a r i o u s t e m p o r a l o r d e r i n g s b e t w e e n a c o n -s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , c o n s t r u c t s r e p r e -s e n t i n g w e l l - f o r m e d a t t i t u d e s p r e s u m a b l y e x i s t b e f o r eb e i n g m e a s u r e d b y a r e s e a r c h e r . S u c h c o n s t r u c t ss h o u l d t h e r e f o r e p r e c e d e t h e i r m e a s u r e s , i n d i c a t i n g at e m p o r a l s e q u e n c e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e f l e c ti v e m e a s u r e -m e n t . S o m e a t t i t u d e s m a y b e f o r m e d o r c h a n g e d i nr e s p o n s e t o th e a c t o f m e a s u r e m e n t ( F e l d m a n &L y n c h , 1 9 8 8 ), w h i c h m a y i n v i te t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t am e a s u r e p r e c e d e s i t s c o n s t r u c t . H o w e v e r , s t u d i e s o ft h e s e e f f e c t s e n t a i l a t e m p o r a l s e q u e n c e i n w h i c h p r e -s e n t a t i o n o f a n i t e m i s f o l l o w e d b y a n a t t i tu d e , w h i c hi n t u rn i s f o l l o w e d b y a n e m i t t e d s c o r e . A l t h o u g h t h ep r e s e n ta t i o n o f t he i t e m p r e c e d e s t h e f o r m a t i o n o rc h a n g e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t , t h e c o n s t r u c t p r e c e d e s i t sa s s o c i a te d s c o r e . T h i s r e a s o n i n g d r a w s f r o m o u r d e f i-n i t i o n o f a m e a s u r e a s t h e s c o r e i t se l f , n o t th e d e v i c eu s e d t o g a t h e r t h e s c o r e .

S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e u s e d m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s t oa r g u e t h a t f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s p r e c e d e t h e i r c o n -s t ru c t s . F o r e x a m p l e , H e i s e ( 1 9 7 2 ) a r g u e d t h a t t h ec o n s t r u c t S E S i s c a u s e d b y m e a s u r e s o f e d u c a t io n ,i n c o m e , a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e p r e m i s e t h a t c h a n g e s i n t h e se s o c i o e c o n o m i c v a r i-a b l e s l e a d t o c h a n g e s i n S E S , b u t n o t t h e r e v e r s e .A l t h o u g h t h i s l o g i c i s a p p e a l i n g , i t r e l i e s o n as u b tl e f o r m o f o p e r a t i o n a li s m i n w h i c h m e a s u r e s o fe d u c a t i o n , i n c o m e , a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e a r ee q u a t e d w i t h th e s o c i o e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a t h e y a rei n t e n d e d t o r e p r e s e n t . T h u s , a s c o r e d e n o t i n g y e a r so f s c h o o l i n g i s t r e a t e d a s e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f , n o t a s a ni n d i c a to r o f e d u c a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g e r r o rs d u e t o i m -p e r f e c t r e c a ll , c o d i n g m i s t a k e s , a n d s o f o r t h . I f w ea s s u m e t h a t s c o r e s o n e d u c a t i o n , i n c o m e , a n d o c c u -p a t i o n a l p r e st i g e c o n t a i n m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r a n do c c u r a f t e r t h e p h e n o m e n a t h e y r e p r e s e n t ( e . g . , r e -p o r t in g o n e ' s y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g l o g i c a l ly o c c u r sa f t e r th e l a s t y e a r o f s c h o o l i n g h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d ) ,t h e n t h e s e s c o r e s m a y b e v i e w e d a s r e f l e c t i v e m e a -s u r es o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c c o n s t r u c ts t h a t in t u r n c a u s eS E S . F o l l o w i n g t h i s l o g i c , i t i s t h e s e s o c i o e c o n o m i cc o n s t r u c t s , n o t t h e i r m e a s u r e s , t h a t c a u s e S E S( B l a l o c k , 1 9 7 1 ) .


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160 EDWARDS AND BAGOZZIEliminating Rival Causal Explanations

The fourth condition for causality is the eliminationof rival explanations for the presumed causal relation-ship between a construct and a measure. This condi-tion is perhaps the most difficult to satisfy because ofthe myriad third variables that may induce a relation-ship between a presumed cause and effect (Cook &Campbell, 1979). Moreover, rival causal explanationsmust be examined with regard to specific constructsand measures (Hauser, 1972). Hence, ruling out rivalcausal explanations is a daunting task that cannot bereduced to universal prescriptions. Thus, our objectivehere is to suggest general procedures for identifyingrival explanations for a presumed causal relationshipbetween a construct and a measure and to identifybroad categories of rival explanations that may applyin a variety of contexts.

One approach to identifying rival causal explana-tions for constructs and measures is to consider threatsto validity relevant to quasi-experimental research(Cook & Campbell, 1979). One threat to internal va-lidity is history, in which the relationship between thepresumed cause and effect is due to some interveningevent that is not part of the experimental treatment.Applied to constructs and measures, history entailssome event that occurs between the construct and themeasure that may explain their relationship. Thisthreat to validity was illustrated by Brief, Butcher, andRoberson (1995), who examined job satisfaction inhospital employees. In general, one might assume thatvariation in the job satisfaction construct would gen-erate variation in job satisfaction scores, indicatingreflective measurement. However, Brief et al. showedthat positive mood-inducing events at the time ofmeasurement (i.e., giving respondents small gifts,such as cookies) influenced job satisfaction scores.These events are a historical threat to validity becausethey occurred between the construct and the measure(assuming employees had some notion of their jobsatisfaction before the study) and influenced the mea-sure irrespective of the job satisfaction construct. 3Another threat to validity that is relevant to con-structs and measures is instrumentation, in which therelationship between a presumed cause and effect isdue in part to variation in the instrument or methodused to collect data (Cook & Campbell, 1979). Forexample, job performance scores from a set of ratersmay vary not only because job performance variesacross ratees but also because raters use different rat-ing procedures (Coovert, Craiger, & Teachout, 1997).Thus, rater variance provides a rival explanation for

the presumed effect of job performance on ratings.This effect is a special case of method variance as anuisance factor in observed scores (Bagozzi & Yi,1990; Williams & Brown, 1994). Additional threats tovalidity (Cook & Campbell, 1979) may be consideredto assess other rival explanations for relationships be-tween constructs and measures.

A related approach to identifying rival causal ex-planations for constructs and measures is to applymental experiments, as discussed earlier. For ex-ample, overall job satisfaction is often measured usingitems that describe satisfaction with specific job facets(e.g., Warr, Cook, & Wall, 1979; Weiss, Dawis, En-gland, & Lofquist, 1967). Scores on these items arethen taken as direct reflective measures of overall jobsatisfaction, as implied by the use of statistical pro-cedures (e.g., reliability estimation) consistent withreflective measurement (Bollen & Lennox, 1991;Nunnally, 1978). However, the presumed effect of theoverall job satisfaction construct on facet satisfactionmeasures may be spurious, attributable to facet satis-faction constructs. This rival explanation is based ontwo plausible assertions: (a) Facet satisfaction mea-sures are directly influenced by facet satisfaction con-structs, not overall job satisfaction (Ironson, Smith,Brannick, Gibson, & Paul, 1989), and (b) facet satis-faction constructs affect the overall job satisfactionconstruct, meaning that one's overall attitude toward ajob arises from attitudes toward specific aspects of thejob (Aldag & Brief, 1978; Ferratt, 1981). This logiccan be applied to other general constructs operation-alized using measures o f specific aspects of those con-structs.Models o f the Relationship Between Constructs

and MeasuresThe preceding discussion outlined general prin-

ciples for determining the causal direction between aconstruct and a measure. In this section, we build onthose principles by developing formal models of thecausal structure relating constructs to measures. His-

3 A subtle difference between Brief et al.'s (1995) studyand history as described by Cook and Campbell (1979) isthat the positive mood-inducing events were not con-founded with some other treatment intended to influence jobsatisfaction. Nonetheless, these events aptly demonstratehow conditions unrelated to the construct of interest canintercede the construct and its measure and lead to errone-ous inferences regarding their relationship.


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R E L A T I O N S H I P S B E T W E E N C O N S T R U C T S A N D M E A S U R E S 1 61t o r i c a l l y , m o d e l s r e l a t i n g c o n s t r u c t s t o m e a s u r e s h a v ef o c u s e d o n d i r e c t e f f e c t s ( B l a l o c k , 1 9 6 4 ; B o l l e n &L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ; C o s t n e r , 1 9 6 9 ; M a c C a l l u m & B r o w n e ,1 9 9 3 ). W e e x t e n d t h e s e m o d e l s b y a p p l y i n g r u l e s f o rd e c o m p o s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s i n p a t h a n a l y s i s a n d s t r u c -t u ra l e q u a t io n m o d e l i n g ( A l w i n & H a u s e r , 1 9 7 5 ; F o x ,1 9 8 0 ) . T h e s e r u l e s s t i p u l a t e t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e -t w e e n t w o v a r i a b l e s c a n b e d e c o m p o s e d i n t o f o u rc o m p o n e n t s : ( a ) a d i r e c t e f f e c t , i n w h i c h o n e v a r i ab l ed i r e c t l y a f f e c t s a n o t h e r ; ( b ) a n i n d i r e c t e f f e c t , inw h i c h t h e e f f e c t o f o n e v a r i a b l e o n a n o t h e r i s m e d i -a t e d b y ( i .e ., t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h ) o n e o r m o r e o t h e rva r i a b l e s ; ( c ) a s p u r i o u s c o m p o n e n t t ha t i s due t oc o m m o n o r c o r r e l a t e d c a u s e s ; a n d ( d ) a n u n a n a l y z e dc o m p o n e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a s s o c i a t i o n s a m o n g p r e d e -t e r m i n e d ( i . e . , e x o g e n o u s ) v a r i a b l e s . D i r e c t a n d i n d i -r e c t e f f e c t s c a n o p e r a t e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , d e p e n d i n go n w h i c h v a r i a b le i s s p e ci f ie d a s t h e c a u s e o f th eo t h e r . A p p l y i n g t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i pb e t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d a m e a s u r e y i e l d s s i x b a s i cc a t e g o r i e s o f m o d e l s , s h o w n l a te r i n F i g u r e s 1 - 6 .

T o s i m p l i f y o u r p r e se n t a t io n o f t h e se m o d e l s , w em a d e t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d r e s t r i c -t i o n s : ( a ) R e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e m o d e l s a r e l i n e a r , ( b )c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s d e v i a t i o n sf r o m t h e ir m e a n s , ( c ) m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s a n d d i s t u r-b a n c e t e r m s a r e r a n d o m a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e u n c o r r e -l a t e d w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a n d w i t h p r e d i c t o r s i n t h e e q u a -t i o n th a t c o n t a i n s t h e m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r ord i s t u r b a n c e t e r m , ( d ) e a c h c o n s t r u c t h a s t h r e e m e a -s u r e s , ( e ) m o d e l s w i t h i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s c o n t a i n a s i n g l es t a g e o f m e d i a t io n , ( f) c a u s a l f lo w b e t w e e n t h e c o n -s t r u c t a n d t h e m e a s u r e i s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l ( i . e . , r e c u r -s i v e ) , a n d ( g ) m e a s u r e s c a n n o t d i r e c t l y c a u s e o t h e rm e a s u r e s ( i . e . , s c o r e s a r e i n e r t q u a n t i t a t i v e s y m b o l sa n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e o n e o t h e r ) . 4W e l a t e r s u g g e s t h o w t h e s i m p l i f i e d m o d e l s c o n s i d -e r e d h e re c a n b e c o m b i n e d t o r e p r es e n t m o r e c o m p l e xc a u s a l m e c h a n i s m s l i n k in g c o n s t r u c t s t o m e a s u r e s .T h e n o t a t io n f o r a ll m o d e l s f o l l o w s c o n v e n t i o n s f r o mt h e s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n m o d e l i n g l i t e r a t u r e ( e . g . ,J t r e s k o g & S t r b o m , 1 9 9 6) .

O u r d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s e m o d e l s d o e s n o t a d d r e s si s s u es o f id e n t if i ca t i on , a n d s o m e o f th e m o d e l s w ed i s c u s s a r e n o t i d e n t i f i e d a s p r e s e n t e d . H o w e v e r , o u rg o a l h e r e i s t o d e r i v e m o d e l s t h a t a r e l o g i c a l l y p o s -s i b le , i n d e p e n d e n t o f w h e t h e r t h e y a r e i d e n t i fi e d . T h i sg o a l r e f l e c t s t h e p r e m i s e t h a t c o r r e c t m o d e l s p e c i f i -c a t i o n s h o u l d t a k e p r i o r i t y o v e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . U n -i d e n ti f ie d m o d e l s c a n b e c o m e i d e n t i fi e d b y c o n s t r a i n -i n g p a r a m e t e r s o r b y a d d i n g r e f l ec t i v e m e a s u r e s o f t h e

Figure 1 .

5 28 3

Direct ref lec t ive m odel .

f o c a l c o n s t r u c t o r i t s e f f e c t s ( B o l l e n & D a v i s , 1 9 9 4 ;M a c C a l l u m & B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3 ). H o w e v e r , t h e s e m o d i -f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t a l t e r t h e s p e c i f i e d c a u s a l f l o wb e t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d i t s m e a s u r e s . I f t h i s c a u s a lf l o w i s a l t e r e d , t h e r e s u l t is a m o d e l t h a t i s e m p i r i c a l l yt e s t a b l e b u t i n c o r r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n -s h i p s o f i n te r e s t. T h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t e s t i n g s u c h am o d e l i s d u b i o u s a t b e s t .D i r e c t R e f l e c t i v e M o d e l

T h e d i r e c t r e f l e c t i v e m o d e l s p e c i f i e s d i r e c t e f f e c t sf r o m a c o n s t r u c t t o i t s m e a s u r e s . T h i s m o d e l i s d e -p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 1 , i n w h i c h e a c h o f t h e x i m e a s u r e s i si n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c o n s t r u c t ~ a n d t h e r a n d o m m e a -s u r e m e n t e r r o r ~ i . H e n c e , v a r i a n c e i n e a c h m e a s u r e i se x p l a i n e d b y a c o n s t ru c t c o m m o n t o a l l m e a s u r e s a n de r r o r u n iq u e t o e a c h m e a s u r e , a n d c o v a r i a t i o n a m o n gt h e m e a s u r e s i s a tt r i b u t e d t o t h e i r c o m m o n c a u s e , ~ .T h e d i r e c t r e f l e c t i v e m o d e l i s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e f o l -l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

x i = X i~ + ~ i . (1 )I n E q u a t i o n 1 , t h e h i a r e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s d e p i c t i n g t h em a g n i t u d e o f t h e e f fe c t o f ~ o n t h e x i, a nd 8 i r e p r e s e n t sr a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r (i r a n g e s f r o m 1 t o 3 f o rt h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 1 ). E q u a t i o n 1 h a s i t s r o o t s i nc l a s si c a l t es t t h e o r y ( L o r d & N o v i c k , 1 9 6 8 ; N u n n a l l y ,

4 Conc eivably , models could be speci fied in which m ea-sures were the causes of other measures. F or example, in amo del speci fy ing an indirect e f fec t of a cons t ruc t on a mea-sure, the mediating variable could, in principle, be either aconst ruc t or a measure. How ever , the re lat ionship of onemeasure with another is generally l imited to deterministicfunctional relationships, as when one score is ma them ati-cally transform ed into anothe r score (e.g., logarithm, squareroot ) or mul t ip le scores are summ ed to crea te sca les o r i temparcels. These relationships are not causal; rather, they sim-ply entail mathematical operations on inert data.


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162 E DW ARDS AND BAG OZ Z I1 9 7 8 ) a n d u n d e r l i e s r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n , c o m m o nf a c t o r a n a l y s i s , a n d c o n f i r m a t o r y f a c t o r a n a l y s i s( Bol l en , 1989 ; Har ma n , 1976 ; K i m & M ue l l e r , 1978 ;L ong , 1983 ; Nunna l l y , 1978) .D i r e c t F o r m a t i v e M o d e l

T h e d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l s p e c i f i e s m e a s u r e s a sc o r r e l a te d c a u s e s o f a c o n s t r u c t. T h i s m o d e l i s d e -p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 2 , w h i c h s h o w s e f f e c t s f r o m t h e x imeasur es t o t he cons t r uc t "q . T he d i s t u r bance t e r mr epr esen t s t ha t pa r t o f t he cons t r uc t "q t ha t i s no t ex -p l a i n e d b y t h e x i m e a s u r e s a n d t h u s m a y b e i n t e r -p r e t e d a s m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e x i arec o n c e i v e d a s e r r o r - f r e e c a u s e s o f " q ( M a c C a l l u m &B r o w n e , 1 9 93 ). B e c a u s e c a u s a l i t y ru n s f r o m t h e m e a -sur es t o t he cons t r uc t , t he co ns t r uc t - q i s no t p r e sum edt o e x p l a i n th e v a r i a n c e s o f t h e x o r t h e c o v a r i a n c e sa m o n g t h e x i. T h e d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l i s r e p r e -sen t ed by t he f o l l owi ng equa t i on :

" I1 ~ - ~ i y i X i d - 4 , (2 )wh er e t he Y i a r e s t r uc t u r a l pa r ame t e r s dep i c t i ng t hemagni t udes o f t he e f f ec t s o f t he x i on "q , and ~ r ep-r e s e n t s th e s u m m a t i o n o f th e y i x i pr oduc t s ( i r angesf r om 1 t o 3 f o r t he mod e l i n F i gur e 2 ) .

B e c a u s e t h e d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l m a y b e u n f a -m i l i a r to t h e r e a d e r , w e d e s c r i b e s e v e r a l o f i ts c o m -m o n u s e s . O n e u s e o f t h e m o d e l i s t o c r e a t e a n " i n -d u c e d " l a t e n t v a r i a b l e t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a n a g g r e g a t i o nof obse r v ed va r i ab l e s ( He i se , 1972) . An o f t - c i t ed ex-a m p l e i s S E S , w h i c h i s t y p i c a l l y v i e w e d a s a f u n c ti o no f b a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s su c h a s i n c o m e , e d u c a t i o n ,a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e ( B o l l e n & L e n n o x , 1 9 9 1 ;He i se , 1972) . O t he r i nduced l a t en t va r i ab l e s i nc l udes t r e s s a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f m a j o r l i f ee v e n t s ( C o h e n , C o h e n , T e r e s i , M a r c h i , & V e l e z ,1 9 9 0 ); s o c i a l s u p p o r t a s m e a s u r e d b y n u m b e r o f s u p -p o r t i v e i n c id e n t s ( M a c C a l l u m & B r o w n e , 1 9 9 3 ); a n d

F i g u r e 2 . Direct form ative m odel (fo r simplicity, qb.. la-bels on covariances among exogenous variables are omit-ted).

e x p o s u r e t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s m e a s u r e d b y r a c e , a g e ,s ex , and d i sab i l i t i e s ( Bol l en & L ennox , 1991) .

I n s o m e c a s e s , t h e e q u a t i o n r e l a t i n g a n i n d u c e dl a t en t va r i ab l e t o i t s measur es exc l udes t he d i s t u r -b a n c e t e r m 4 , s u c h t h a t t h e l a t e n t v a r i a b l e i s aw e i g h t e d l i n e a r fu n c t i o n o f i ts m e a s u r e s . T h i s u s e o ft h e d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l u n d e r l i e s p r i n c i p a l -c o m p o n e n t s a n a l y s is ( K i m & M u e l l e r, 1 9 78 ), c a n o n i -c a l c o r r e la t i o n a n a l y s i s ( T h o m p s o n , 1 9 8 4 ), a n d p a r t ia ll eas t squa r es ( Gar t hw a i t e , 1994 ; W ol d , 1982) , each o fw h i c h u s e s o b s e r v e d m e a s u r e s t o c r e a t e w e i g h t e d l in -e a r c o m p o s i t e s t h a t s e r v e a s c o n c e p t u a l v a r i a b l e s i ns u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s e s . B y o m i t t i n g t h e d i s t u r b a n c et e r m , m e a s u r e m e n t e r ro r i n th e s e c o m p o s i t e s i s e f f e c -t i ve l y i gnor ed .

A s e c o n d u s e o f th e d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l i s t oc r e a t e b l o c k v a r i a b l e s t h a t s u m m a r i z e t h e e f f e c t s o fseve r a l va r i ab l e s ( Col em an , 1976 ; He i se , 1972 ; I g r a ,1 9 7 9 ; M a r s d e n , 1 9 8 2 ) . A b l o c k v a r i a b l e y i e l d s as i n g l e s u m m a r y e s t i m a t e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f v a r i a b le s i nt h e b l o c k o n s o m e o u t c o m e . V a r i a b l e s i n t h e b l o c ko f t e n r e p r e s e n t c o n c e p t u a l l y d i s ti n c t c a u s e s o f t h e o u t -c o m e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a m o d e l p r e d i c t i n g p o l i t i c a ll i be r a l i sm, He i se ( 1972) i n t r oduced a b l ock va r i ab l el abe l ed f a m i l y s o c i a l i z a t i o n , w h i c h i t s e l f w a s a f u n c -t i o n o f m o t h e r ' s l i b e r a l i s m , f a t h e r ' s l i b e r a l i s m , a n do t h e r u n s p e c i f i e d v a r i a b l e s c a p t u r e d b y t h e d i s t u r -b a n c e t e r m 4 . T h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f f a m i l y s o c i a l i z a -t i o n o n p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m w a s s u m m a r i z e d w i t h a" s h e a f c o e f f i c i e n t ," w h i c h w a s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m c o e f -f i c i en t s ob t a i ned by r egr es s i ng po l i t i ca l l i be r a l i sm onm o t h e r ' s a n d f a t h e r ' s l i b e r a l i s m .

T h i r d , t h e d i re c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l h a s b e e n u s e d t od e p i c t t h e e f fe c t s o f a n e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o na l a t en t va r i ab l e ( A l wi n & T ess l e r , 1974 ; Bagozz i ,1977; B l a l ock , 1971 ; Cos t ne r , 1971) . F or exam pl e ,C o s t n e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) d e s c r i b e d a n e x p e r i m e n t in w h i c h ac o n s t r u c t s i g n i fy i n g f a t i g u e w a s m a n i p u l a t e d b y w i th -h o l d i n g s l e e p f r o m p a r t i c ip a n t s . H e r e , d e g r e e o f s l e e pd e p r i v a t i o n w a s t a k e n a s a m e a s u r e o f f a t i g u e . I f a ne x p e r i m e n t i n c l u d e s m e a s u r e s d e s i g n a t e d a s m a n i p u -l a t i o n c h e c k s , t h e s e m e a s u r e s m a y b e v i e w e d a s r e -f l e c t i v e in d i c a t o r s o f th e m a n i p u l a t e d c o n s t r u c t( Bagozz i , 1977 ; Cos t ne r , 1971) .I n d i r e c t R e f le c t i v e M o d e l

T h e p r e c e d i n g m o d e l s s p e c i f i e d r e la t i o n s h ip s b e -t w e e n a c o n s t r u c t a n d i ts m e a s u r e s a s d ir e c t. W e n o wc o n s i d e r t w o m o d e l s t h a t c a p t u r e i n d i re c t e f fe c t s . O n ei s t he i nd i r ec t r e f l ec t i ve mode l ( s ee F i gur e 3 ) . T h i sm o d e l s h o w s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t ~ o n i ts


9/20

R E L A T I O N S H I P S B E T W E E N C O N S T R U C T S A N D M E A S U R E S 1 6 3

A

1:31-

~ 2

~ 3

B

~ 2 2 ~ " ~ 2 ~ 2

~ 33 '1 ~ 3 ~ ~ 3F i g u r e 3 . Indirect reflective model. A: Single mediatingconstruct. B: Multiple mediating constructs.

Y i m e a s u r e s a r e m e d i a t e d b y o n e o r m o r e l a t e n t v a r i -a b l e s , " q * . W e u s e a n a s t e r i s k t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e - q*a r e n o t t h e c o n s t r u c t i n t e n d e d t o b e m e a s u r e d b y t h eY i , w h i c h i n s t e a d i s l a b e l e d 6 . T h e i n d i r e c t r e f l e c t i v em o d e l a p p l i e s w h e n m e a s u r e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n d i -c a t o r s o f a c o n s t r u c t b u t a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t o n e o rm o r e o f i ts e f f e c ts . F o r e x a m p l e , j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n h a sb e e n m e a s u r e d w i t h i t e m s d e s c r i b i n g t u r n o v e r i n t e n t( e .g ., " I f r e q u e n t l y t h i n k o f q u i tt i n g m y j o b " ; H a c k -m a n & O l d h a m , 1 9 8 0) . H o w e v e r , t h e o ri e s o f j o b s a t -i s f a c t i o n a n d t u r n o v e r i n d i c a t e t h a t t u r n o v e r i n t e n t i sa c o n s e q u e n c e o f j o b d i s s a t i s fa c t i o n , n o t t h e a f f e c t i v ee x p e r i e n c e o f d i s s a t is f a c t i o n i t s e l f ( L o c k e , 1 9 7 6 ; M o -b l e y , 1 9 8 2 ) .

F i g u r e 3 s h o w s t w o v e r s i o n s o f th i s m o d e l . T h ef i r s t i n c o r p o r a t e s a s i n g l e m e d i a t i n g c o n s t r u c t , s u c ht h a t ~ i n f l u e n c e s a s i n g l e " q * , w h i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t sm u l t i p l e y i . 5 The s e c o n d v e r s i o n c o n t a i n s m u l t i p l em e d i a t i n g c o n s t r u c t s ( i. e. , -q * ), e a c h o f w h i c h a f f e c t sa s i ng l e Y i. N o t e t h at , f o r b o t h v e r s i o n s o f t h e m o d e l ,t h e " q* o r " q* a r e a l s o a f f e c t e d b y d i s t u r b a n c e t e r m ~ *o r ~ * , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d t h e Y i a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y m e a -s u r e m e n t e r r o r s d e s i g n a t e d a s e i. A g e n e r a l s e t o f

e q u a t i o n s t h a t c a p t u r e b o t h v e r s i o n s o f t h e i n d i r e c tr e f l e c t i v e m o d e l c a n b e w r i t t e n a s f o l l o w s :

a n d= + (3 )

Y i = X i j ' q * + e l . (4 )I n E q u a t i o n 3 , ~ j i n d i c a t e s t h e e f f e c t o f ~ o n t h e " q T ,a n d i n E q u a t i o n 4 , h i j c a p t u r e s t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e " q* o nt h e Y i . F o r b o t h m o d e l s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 , i r a n g e sf r o m 1 t o 3 ; f o r th e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 3 A , j = 1 ( a n di s t h e r e f o r e d i s r e g a r d e d ; s e e f o o t n o t e 5 ) , w h e r e a s f o rt h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 3 B , j r a n g e s f r o m 1 t o 3 . N o t e t h a tE q u a t i o n 4 a c c o m m o d a t e s c r o s s - l o a d i n g s , m e a n i n gt h a t e a c h Y i m a y l o a d o n e a c h " q* . H o w e v e r , t h e m o d e li n F i g u r e 3 B d e p i c t s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f E q u a t i o n 4 i nw h i c h e a c h Y i l o a d s o n a s i n g l e - q * , m e a n i n g t h a t e a c hY i r e p r e s e n t s i t s o w n m e d i a t i n g c o n s t r u c t s . E q u a t i o n s3 a n d 4 c o r r e s p o n d t o a s e c o n d - o r d e r f a c t o r m o d e l i nw h i c h t h e Y i l o a d o n t h e f i r s t - o r d e r f a c t o r s X l* , w h i c hi n t u rn l o a d o n t h e s e c o n d - o r d e r f a c t o r ~ ( R i n d s k o p f &R o s e , 1 9 8 8 ). H o w e v e r , u n l i k e m o s t a p p l i c a ti o n s o fs e c o n d - o r d e r f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , o u r e m p h a s i s h e r e i s o nc a s e s i n w h i c h Y i a r e m i s t a k e n a s i n d i c a t o r s o f t h ec o n s t r u c t 6 .

A n i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -t w e e n ~ a n d t h e y i c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y s u b s t i t u t in g t h ee x p r e s s i o n f o r " q* f r o m E q u a t i o n 3 in t o E q u a t i o n 4 :

Y i = ) k ij ( '~ j '~ + ~ t ) a t- e i= ) k i j ' ~ j 6 - Jr ) k i j ~ + ~ i " (5 )

E q u a t i o n 5 s h o w s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e Y ia n d t h e c o n s t r u c t t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d t o m e a s u r e ( i. e. , 6 )a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e p r o d u c t s Xi j 'Y . T h e r e f o r e , a n ye s t i m a t e o f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p s b e t w e e n ~ a n d t h e Y i n e c -

5 Fo r simplicity, wh en a mod el contains a single variableof a particular type, w e om it the subscript for that variable.For example , because the model in Figure 3A conta ins as ingle -q* , we om it the j subscr ip t in our d iscuss ion of 'q* forthis model, and we do not include a subscript for this vari-able in Figure 3A (the implied subscript of 1 is superfluous,given that there is no need to index this variable). By thesame token, parameters l inked to a single variable o f aparticular type do no t include a subscript in referenc e to thatvariable. Th us, the k parameters in Figure 3A contain sub-scripts for the Yi but n ot for the single -q*. W hen a parameterlinks two variables that do not require subscripts, the pa-rameter l ikewise has no subscripts (as exemplified by the ~/linking ~ and xl* in Figure 3A).


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1 6 4 E D W A R D S A N D B A G O Z Z Ie s s a r i l y c o n f o u n d s t h e r e l a t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n ~ a n d t h e"q* wi t h t he r e l a t i ons h i p s be t we e n t he - q* a nd t he Y i .E q u a t i o n 5 a l s o s h o w s t h a t v a r i a n c e i n t h e y~ i s a t tr i b -u t a b le n o t o n l y t o t h e c o n s t r u c t ~ a n d t h e m e a s u r e m e n te r r o r s e ~ b u t a l s o t o t h e d i s t u r b a n c e t e r m s ~ * . T h ee f f e c t s o f t h e ~ * o n t h e Y i r e p r e s e n t a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e so f m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n t h e Y i , g i v e n t h a t t h e ~ * r e p -r e s e n t t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n t h e " q* n o t e x -p l a i n e d b y ~ a n d h e n c e s i g n i f y e r r o r . 6I n d i r e c t F o r m a t i v e M o d e l

A s e c o n d m o d e l t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s i n d i r e c t e f f e c t sb e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t s a n d m e a s u r e s i s t h e i n d i r e c t f o r -m a t i v e m o d e l , s h o w n i n F i g u r e 4 . H e r e , t h e x i h a v e ad i r e c t i m p a c t o n o n e o r m o r e " q * , w h i c h i n t u r n i n f l u -e n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t o f in t e r e st , " q. T h i s m o d e l a p p l i e sw h e n f o r m a t i v e m e a s u r e s a s s i g n e d t o a c o n s t r u c t a c -t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t o n e o f it s c a u s e s . F o r e x a m p l e , M a c -C a l l u m a n d B r o w n e ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 3 8 ) s h o w e d t h a t am o d e l u s i n g s u p p o r t i v e i n c i d e n t s a s d i r e c t f o r m a t i v e

A

B

F i g u r e 4 . Indirec t formativ e mo del (fo r simplicity, qb.. la-be ls on covar iances among exogenous var iables are omi t -ted). A: Single mediating construct. B: Multiple mediatingconstructs.

m e a s u r e s o f d e p r e s s io n c o u l d b e r e c a s t a s a n i n d i re c tf o r m a t i v e m o d e l i n w h i c h s u p p o r t i v e i n c i d e n t s c r e -a t e d a n i n d u c e d s o c i a l s u p p o r t v a r i a b l e , w h i c h i n t u r ni n f l u e n c e d d e p r e s s i o n . W e c o n s i d e r t w o v e r s i o n s o ft h e i n d ir e c t f o r m a t i v e m o d e l : o n e i n w h i c h t h e x i in -f l ue nc e a s i ng l e - q* , wh i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t s "q , a nd a n -o t he r i n w h i c h t he x i i n f l ue n c e mu l t i p l e - q* ( i n t h ise x a m p l e , t h r e e ) , e a c h o f w h i c h a f f e c t s t h e "q . N o t e t h a tt h e l q *, - q* , a n d -q a r e a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y c o r r e s p o n d -i n g d i s t u r b a n c e t e r m s ~ * , ~ *, a n d ~ . B o t h v e r s i o n s o ft h i s m o d e l c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g t w oe q u a t i o n s :

"1 ]7 = E ~ f j i X i + ~ (6 )i

~1 = E 13 j 'q * + ~" (7)J

I n E q u a t i o n 6 , t h e ~ /j i d e p i c t t h e m a g n i t u d e s o f t h ee f f e c t s o f t h e x i o n t h e - q * , a n d E i s t h e s u m m a t i o n o ft h e " Y j i x i p r o d u c t s o v e r i ( i = 1 t o 3 f o r b o t h e x a m p l e ss h o w n i n F i g u r e 4 ) . I n E q u a t i o n 7 , t h e 1 3i i n d i c a t e t h em a g n i t u d e s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e "q * o n "q , a n d ~ i s t h es u m m a t i o n o f t he 1 3 fq * p r o d u c t s o v e r j ( j = 1 f o r t h em o d e l i n F i g u r e 4 A a n d is t h e r e f o r e o m i t t e d ; j = 1 t o3 f o r t h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 4 B ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n t e r e st , " q, a n d i ts m e a s u r e s x im a y b e f u r t h e r c l a r if i e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o nf o r "q * i n E q u a t i o n 6 i n t o E q u a t i o n 7 :

= E E 1 3 j j , x i .j i j (8 )E q u a t i o n 8 r e v e a l s t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e x ia n d t h e i n t e n d e d c o n s t r u c t , 0 , i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h es um m a t i o n o f t he 13fYji a c r o s s a l l ~1" . Th us , a n e s t i -m a t e o f t h e e f f e c t o f x i o n ~1 c o n f o u n d s t h e e f f e c t s o fx i on t he ~1" w i t h t he e f f e c t s o f t he 11" on O . I n a dd i -t i on , va r i a n c e i n ~1 i s a t t r i bu t a b l e no t o n l y t o i t s me a -s u r e s x~ a n d t h e d i s t u r b a n c e ~ b u t a l s o t o t h e d i s t u r -b a n c e s ~ * . T h u s , m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n ~1 i sr e p r e s e n t e d b y ~ a s w e l l a s t h e p r o d u c t s 1 3j~ * a s s o c i -a t e d w i t h e a c h o f t h e ~ 1" .

6 The interpretation of the 4" as error is based o n theassum ption that the Yl are intended to measure ~ rather thanthe "q*. If yl were intended to measure "q*, me asurem enter ror would be represented sole ly by the e i and the 4" wouldbe interpreted simp ly as that part of the true score varianc ein the -q* not explained by ~.


11/20

R E L A T I O N S H I P S B E T W E E N C O N S T R U C T S A N D M E A S U R E S 1 6 5S p u r i o u s M o d e l

T h e p r e c e d i n g m o d e l s w e r e b a s e d o n t h e p r e m i s et h a t , e i th e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , t h e c o n s t r u c t c a u s e di ts m e a s u r e s o r t h e m e a s u r e s c a u s e d t h e c o n s t r u c t. A na l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l d e p i c t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e nt h e c o n s t r u c t a n d m e a s u r e s a s s p u r i o u s , d u e t o t h ei n f l u e n c e o f o n e o r m o r e c o m m o n c a u s e s ( B l a lo c k ,1 9 7 1 ; C o s t n e r , 1 9 6 9 ) . F i g u r e 5 d i s p l a y s t w o v e r s i o n so f t h i s m o d e l . I n t h e f i r s t v e r s i o n , c o v a r i a n c e s b e -t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n te r e s t, "q , a n d i t s i n t e n d e dm e a s u r e s , x i a r e d u e t o a s i n g l e c o m m o n c a u s e , ~ * .T h e d i s t u r b a n c e g i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e -t w e e n 6 " a n d " q i s im p e r f e c t , s u c h t h a t s o m e p o r t i o n o ft h e v a r i a n c e i n " q i s d u e t o f o r c e s o t h e r t h a n 6 * . I n th es e c o n d v e r s i o n , c o v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n " q a n d e a c h x i isd u e t o a se p a r a te c o m m o n c a u s e , 6 " ( J r a n g e s f r o m 1t o 3 ) . E q u a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o b o t h v e r s i o n s o f t h ism o d e l c a n b e w r i t t e n a s f o l l o w s :

X i = ) k i j 6 ~ " 4" ~ i ( 9 )"q = ~ / j ~ * + 4 . ( 1 0 )I

JI n E q u a t i o n 9 , h q d e s i g n a t e s t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e ~ * o nt h e x i, a n d i n E q u a t i o n 1 0 , "yj i n d i c a t e s t h e e f f e c t o f ~ *

A

1

8 25 3

B

1

5 25 3

F i g u r e 5 . Spu rious m odel (for simplicity, ~b. . labels oncovar iances am ong exoge nous var iables are omi tted) . A:Single comm on cause . B: Mul tip le com mo n causes.

o n " q. A s s u m i n g t h e 8 ; a n d ~ a r e in d e p e n d e n t , a g e n -e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e c o v a r i a n c e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t -qw i t h i ts i t h m e a s u r e x i c a n b e w r i t t e n a s

O r ( X i , " I ] ) = E E h i j f ~ j k ~ t k . ( 1 1 )j kI n E q u a t i o n 1 1 , i i n d i c a t e s t h e m e a s u r e u n d e r c o n s i d -e r a t i o n , j i n d e x e s t h e l in k a g e b e t w e e n t h e m e a s u r ea n d a p a r t i c u l a r ~ * , k i n d e x e s t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n apa r t i c u l a r ~* a nd "q, a nd ~bjk r e f e r s t o t he va r i a nc e s a ndc o v a r i a n c e s o f ~ * a n d 6 ~ ' ( s e p a r a t e s u b s c r i p t s f o r ~ *a r e r e q u ir e d b e c a u s e s o m e e l e m e n t s o f t h e c o v a r i a n c eb e t w e e n x i a n d " q i n v o l v e d i f f e r e n t 6 * ) . E q u a t i o n 1 1a l l o w s f o r c r o s s -l o a d i n g s , m e a n i n g t h a t e a c h o f t h eX i m e a s u r e s c a n b e a s s i g n e d t o e a c h o f th e ~ * c o n -s t r u ct s . I f e a c h i t e m i s a s s i g n e d t o a s i n g l e ~ * c o n -s t r u c t , a s i n t h e m o d e l s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 B , E q u a t i o n11 s i mp l i f i e s t o

o ) = ( 1 2 )kI n E q u a t i o n 1 2 , i a g a i n i n d i c a t e s t h e m e a s u r e i n q u e s -t i o n , j r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o n s t r u c t t o w h i c h t h e m e a s u r e i sa s s i g n e d , a n d k in d e x e s e a c h o f t h e 6 " c o n s t r u c t s . F o ri l l u s t r a t i o n , w e a p p l y t h i s e q u a t i o n t o t h e c o v a r i a n c eb e t w e e n x ~ a n d "q i n F i g u r e 5 B , w h i c h y i e l d s t h e f o l -l o w i n g :O ' ( X l , 3 ] ) = ~ k l l ( l ) l l ~ l + ~ k l l~ b 1 2 ~ 2 + ) k l l ~ b 1 3 ~ 3 . ( 1 3 )T h e f i r s t t e r m i n E q u a t i o n 1 3 r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p a r t o ft h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n x ~ a n d "q t h a t i s d u e t o t h e i rc o m m o n c a u s e , ~ * , w h e r e a s t h e l a t te r t w o t e r m s r e p -r e s e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n x l a n d - q t h a t i sdue t o c o r r e l a t e d c a us e s ( i . e . , ~* a nd ~ ' , ~* a nd 6~ ' ,r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n s h o w s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n -s h i p b e t w e e n x ~ a n d "q c o n f o u n d s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o fx 1 w i t h ~ * , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e a c h ~ ' w i t h "q , a n d t h ec o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g t h e ~ ' .

I f a si n g le c o m m o n c a u s e 6 " i s i n v o l v e d ( a s inF i g u r e 5 A ) , E q u a t i o n 1 1 f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i e s t o

O . ( X i , o q ) : k i f J ) ~ t . ( 1 4 )H e n c e , t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n x I a n d - q i n F i g u r e 5 Ai s s i m p l y h l d ~ . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n s h o w s t h a t t h e r e l a -t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n x ~ a n d ~q c o n f o u n d s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i po f x I w i t h 6 " w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n 6 " a n d r I.

A n o t e w o r t h y s p e c i a l c a s e o f t h e s p u r io u s m o d e lw i t h m u l t ip l e c o m m o n c a u s e s ( F i g u r e 5 B ) t r e at s t h e x ia s e r r o r - f r e e m e a s u r e s o f t h e 6 " , s u c h t h a t t h e h 0 a reu n i t y a n d t h e v a r i a n c e s o f t h e 8 i ar e z e r o . I n t h is c a s e ,t h e x ; a n d 6 " a r e e q u i v a l e n t , a n d E q u a t i o n 9 r e d u c e s t o


12/20

166

A

EDWARDS AND BAGOZZI

B

C D

F i g u r e 6 . Unanalyzed model (for simplic ity, ~b.. labels on covariances among exogenous variables are omitted). A: Constructsand measures exogenous. B: Exogenous measures with correlated construct. C: Exogenous measures with correlated measures.D: Exogenous construct with correlated construct.

x i = ~*. Subst itut ing x i for ~j* in Equation 10 (andmodifying the subscript on ~j to correspond to the X i )yields

" q = E ~ l i X i d - ~ . ( 1 5 )iEquation 15 is identical to the direct formative modelas specified in Equation 2. Hence, the direct formativemodel may be considered a special case of the spuri-ous indicator model in which the x i are viewed asperfect (i.e., error-free) indicators of the ~*.U n a n a l y z e d M o d e l

Finally, the relationships between a construct andits measures can be unanalyzed. This model applieswhen (a) the construct and measures are exogenous,

(b) the measures are exogenous and correlated with aconstruct that causes the focal construct, (c) the mea-sures are exogenous and correlated with other mea-sures that cause the construct, or (d) the focal con-struct is exogenous and correlated with anotherconstruct that causes the measures. 7 These disti nc-tions yield four versions of the unanalyzed model,shown in Figure 6. For each model, we presume theresearcher does not realize that the unan alyz ed mea-sures are indicators of the focal construct.

7 For reasons stated earlier, we excluded models in whichmeasures cause measures (for the unanalyzed case, thiswould entail a model in which a construct is correlated witha set of measures, which in turn cause other measures).


13/20

R E L A T I O N S H I P S B E T W E E N C O N S T R U C T S A N D M E A S U R E S 1 6 7T h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 6 A s p e c i fi e s t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t

a n d i t s m e a s u r e s a r e e x o g e n o u s , m e a n i n g t h e i r r e l a -t i o n s h i p s a r e e x p l a i n e d b y f o r c e s o u t s i d e t h e m o d e l .T h i s m o d e l a p p l i e s w h e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s u n w i l l i n go r u n a b l e t o s p e c i f y t h e r e la t io n s h i p b e t w e e n a c o n -s t r u c t a n d i t s m e a s u r e s . H e n c e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d i t s m e a s u r e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e db y t h e c o v a r i a n c e s ~ bi~ ( h e r e , t h e s u b s c r i p t s i a n di d e n t i fy t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n e a c h x i a n d ~ , t h e r e b yd i s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o v a r i a n c e s a m o n g t h e x i ) . B e c a u s ea l l v a r i a b l e s a r e e x o g e n o u s , t h e m o d e l d o e s n o t a t -t e m p t t o e x p l a i n v a r i a n c e i n t h e x i or ~ . Thus , t hem o d e l c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h t r u e s c o r e v a r i a n c e f r o mm e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r i n t h e x i, n o r c a n t h e m o d e l i d e n -t i f y r e s i d u a l v a r i a n c e i n ~ .

T h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 6 B i n d i ca t e s t h a t th e u n a n a -l y z e d x i m e a s u r e s a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a c o n s t r u c t , ~ * ,t h a t c a u s e s t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n t e r e s t, "q . H e r e , t h e x i a r em i s t a k e n l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s c o r r e l a t io n a l m e a s u r e s o f "q ,w h e n i n f a c t t h e y r e p r e s e n t c o r r e l a t i o n a l m e a s u r e s o f~ * , w h i c h i n t u r n c a u s e s " q. T h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e ne a c h m e a s u r e a n d t h e i n t e n d e d c o n s t r u c t c a n b e e x -p r e s s e d a s

cr ( x , "q ) = " , td~ i ., ( 1 6 )wh e r e ~ / s i g n i f i e s t he e f f e c t o f ~* on "q, a nd ~bi~ . r e p -r e s e n t s t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e i t h m e a s u r e a n dt h e c o n s t r u c t ~ * . H e n c e , t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e x ia n d "q c o n f o u n d s t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e x i a n d ~ *w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f ~ * o n " q .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 6 C , t h e x i a r ev i e w e d a s c o r r e l a t i o n a l m e a s u r e s o f "q b u t i n f a c t a r ec o r r e l a t e d w i t h a s e c o n d s e t o f m e a s u r e s , x * ( w h e r e hr a n g e s f r o m 1 t o 3 ), w h i c h i n t u rn a r e f o r m a t i v e m e a -s u r e s o f "q . T h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n e a c h x i m e a s u r ea n d t h e i n t e n d e d c o n s t r u c t i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s f o l l o w s :

( r ( x i , " 1 1 ) : ~ d ( b i h ' Y h . ( 1 7 )hI n E q u a t i o n 1 7 , x i r e p r e s e n t s t h e m e a s u r e o f i n t e r e st ,a n d h i n d e x e s t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n x i a n d e a c h x ~a n d t h e e f f e c t o f e a c h x ~ ' o n " q . T h i s e q u a t i o n s h o w st h a t t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e x i a n d " q c o n f o u n d st h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e x i a n d e a c h x ~ ' a n d t h ee f f e c t o f e a c h x~ ' on "q .

F i n a l l y , t h e m o d e l i n F i g u r e 6 D i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h eu n a n a l y z e d x i a r e c o n s i d e r e d c o r r e l a t i o n a l m e a s u r e so f ~ b u t a r e a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f ~ *, w h i c hs i g n i f i e s a c o n s t r u c t c o r r e l a t e d w i t h ~ . T h i s m o d e la p p l i e s w h e n a m e a s u r e r e f l e c t s a c o n s t r u c t t h a t i sc o r r e l a t e d w i t h , b u t c o n c e p t u a l l y d i s t i n c t f r o m , t h ec o n s t r u c t o f i nt er e st . T h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n e a c hm e a s u r e a n d t h e i n t e n d e d c o n s t r u c t c a n b e w r i t t e n a sf o l l o w s :

O ' ( X i , ~ ) = ~.~ki , (18)w h e r e ~ b ~ . i s th e c o v a r i a n c e o f ~ a n d ~ * , a n d h i i s thel o a d i n g o f x i o n ~ *. T h u s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f ~ w i t h ag i v e n x i c o n f o u n d s t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n ~ a n d ~ *a n d t h e l o a d i n g f r o m ~ * t o x i.S u m m a r y a n d E x t e n s i o n s

T h e p r e c e d i n g m o d e l s a re s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 ,w h i c h c l a ss i fi e s t h e m o d e l s a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r ( a )t h e m e a s u r e r e f e r s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i t s e l f o r t o a c a u s eo r a n e f f e c t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t a n d ( b ) th e m e a s u r e i sr e f l e c t i v e o r f o r m a t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n s t r u c t t ow h i c h t h e m e a s u r e i s d i r e c t l y l i n k e d ( i . e . , a c a u s a lc o n s t r u c t , t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n t e r es t , o r a n e f f e c t c o n -s t r uc t , m o v i n g l e f t to r i g h t a c r o s s T a b l e 1 ). A s a g e n -e r a l r u le , i f a m e a s u r e d e s c r i b e s t h e i n h e r e n t a t t r i b u t e so f a c o n s t r u c t , t h e re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c ta n d t h e m e a s u r e s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d d i r e c t , w h e r e a s

Table 1C l a s s if i c a ti o n o f M o d e l s R e l a t i n g C o n s t r u c t s t o M e a s u r e s

Re f e r e nt o f m e a s u reInherent attr ibutes

Typ e of measure Cause of cons t ruc t of cons t ruc t Effec t of cons t ruc tReflec tive Spurious mo del Direc t reflective Indirec t reflective

mode l mode lFormat ive Indi rec t format ive Direc t format ive Unan alyzed mode l

mode l mode lNote. T h e c o l u m n s i n d i c a t e t h e r e f e r e n t o f t h e m e a s u r e , m e a n i n g w h e t h e r t h e p r o x i

edwards - relationship between constructs and measures.pdf

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