educational psychology reflection for action canadian edition educational psychology reflection for...

EDUCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYREFLECTION FOR ACTIONREFLECTION FOR ACTION

Canadian EditionCanadian EditionO’Donnell, D’Amico, Schmid, Reeve, Smith

CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

Chapter 2 Cognitive DevelopmentChapter 2 Cognitive Development

• Themes of the ChapterThemes of the Chapter– Biology and maturation underlie all Biology and maturation underlie all

developmental processesdevelopmental processes– Growth-promoting experience must Growth-promoting experience must

occur in order for cognitive development occur in order for cognitive development to be fully realizedto be fully realized

– There are many school-related There are many school-related experiences that help learners realize experiences that help learners realize their developmental potentialstheir developmental potentials


Guiding QuestionsGuiding Questions

• How does education enrich brain development?How does education enrich brain development?• How does Piaget explain cognitive How does Piaget explain cognitive

development?development?• What are the stages of cognitive development?What are the stages of cognitive development?• How can teachers apply Piaget’s theory in the How can teachers apply Piaget’s theory in the

classroom?classroom?

(continued)(continued)


Guiding Questions Guiding Questions (continued)(continued)

• How does Vygotsky explain sociocognitive How does Vygotsky explain sociocognitive development?development?

• How can teachers apply Vygotsky’s theory How can teachers apply Vygotsky’s theory in the classroom?in the classroom?

• How does language develop?How does language develop?• How can teachers use their knowledge of How can teachers use their knowledge of

cognitive development when working with cognitive development when working with diverse learners and students with special diverse learners and students with special needs?needs?


Brain DevelopmentBrain Development

• Brain structure and functionBrain structure and function

• How does experience (education) affect How does experience (education) affect brain development?brain development?


Brain Structure and FunctionBrain Structure and Function

• Hippocampus – processes a person’s – processes a person’s new experiencesnew experiences

• Amygdala – generate negative – generate negative emotions as the brain’s warning systememotions as the brain’s warning system

• Neurons – make all brain functions – make all brain functions possiblepossible


Figure 2.1 Brain Structures and Figure 2.1 Brain Structures and Their FunctionsTheir Functions



• Exposure to a stimulating environment will Exposure to a stimulating environment will stimulate neuronsstimulate neurons

• When stimulated, neurons reach out to When stimulated, neurons reach out to neighbouring neuronsneighbouring neurons

• With repeated stimulation, the number of With repeated stimulation, the number of connections between neurons increases and connections between neurons increases and the neurons bond together the neurons bond together

• This pattern of connections is known as This pattern of connections is known as memorymemory


How Education Affects Brain How Education Affects Brain DevelopmentDevelopment

• Neural plasticity – brain’s capacity for – brain’s capacity for structural change as the result of structural change as the result of experienceexperience

• Stimulating environments give the brain Stimulating environments give the brain a great deal of information to process, a great deal of information to process, store, remember, and later use to solve store, remember, and later use to solve problemsproblems

• The information may facilitate greater The information may facilitate greater neuronal connectivityneuronal connectivity


Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

• Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s Theory– Adaptations are inborn process of adjusting to the are inborn process of adjusting to the

demands of the environmentdemands of the environment

– Schemas are basic structures for organizing are basic structures for organizing informationinformation• Behavioural schemas are mental representations of Behavioural schemas are mental representations of

physical actionsphysical actions• Symbolic schemas are language-based mental Symbolic schemas are language-based mental

representations of objects and eventsrepresentations of objects and events• Operations are mental actions to solve a problemOperations are mental actions to solve a problem


Assimilation and Assimilation and AccommodationAccommodation

• Assimilation is a process of Assimilation is a process of incorporation in which some outside incorporation in which some outside event is brought into a person’s way of event is brought into a person’s way of thinkingthinking

• Accommodation is a modification Accommodation is a modification process in which an existing schema is process in which an existing schema is changed or modified to make sense of changed or modified to make sense of something that is new and differentsomething that is new and different


DisequilibriumDisequilibrium

• Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive Disequilibrium is a state of cognitive conflict that arises when one’s existing conflict that arises when one’s existing way of thinking is not confirmed by way of thinking is not confirmed by experience experience – Using Using adaptation a person can move a person can move

from disequilibrium to equilibriumfrom disequilibrium to equilibrium


Figure 2.3 Origins and Figure 2.3 Origins and Consequences of DisequilibriumConsequences of Disequilibrium


Piaget’s Stages in Cognitive Piaget’s Stages in Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment


Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage

• Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) Some actions (1-4 months) Some actions are satisfying and repeatedare satisfying and repeated

• Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Some (4-8 months) Some actions are found to have interesting effects on the actions are found to have interesting effects on the environmentenvironment

• Goal-directed behaviour (8-12 months) Intentions (8-12 months) Intentions replace reflexesreplace reflexes

• Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) Curiosity (12-18 months) Curiosity leads to experimenting with objectsleads to experimenting with objects

• Symbolic problem solving (18-24 months) Symbolic (18-24 months) Symbolic images of environmental objects are created images of environmental objects are created


• Object Permanence – understanding – understanding that objects continue to exist even when that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or detected by they cannot be seen or detected by other sensesother senses

Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage


Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage

• Children create symbolic schemas to Children create symbolic schemas to represent the objects and events represent the objects and events around themaround them

• Children take part in pretend playChildren take part in pretend play


Concrete Operations StageConcrete Operations Stage

• Children can develop an internal mental Children can develop an internal mental activity that allows them to revise or activity that allows them to revise or alter a symbol or image to reach a alter a symbol or image to reach a logical conclusionlogical conclusion

• This mental manipulation can only be This mental manipulation can only be with concrete objects and events that lie with concrete objects and events that lie in front of themin front of them


Capacities of Concrete-Capacities of Concrete-Operational ThinkingOperational Thinking

• Animism – Belief that all things are alive and livingBelief that all things are alive and living

– In concrete operations children can tell the In concrete operations children can tell the difference between animate and inanimate objectsdifference between animate and inanimate objects

• Centration– Focusing on an object’s most salient feature while Focusing on an object’s most salient feature while

neglecting equally important but less perceptually neglecting equally important but less perceptually salient featuressalient features

– In concrete operations children can focus on more In concrete operations children can focus on more than one item at a timethan one item at a time



Capacities of Concrete-Operational Capacities of Concrete-Operational Thinking Thinking (continued)(continued)

• Transductive reasoning – Causal understanding in which a child Causal understanding in which a child

thinks that when two events occur thinks that when two events occur simultaneously, one must have caused simultaneously, one must have caused the otherthe other

– In concrete operations children have a In concrete operations children have a better understanding of cause-and-better understanding of cause-and-effect relationships than in the effect relationships than in the preoperational stagepreoperational stage



• Egocentrism – Viewing the world from one’s own Viewing the world from one’s own

perspective while failing to recognize perspective while failing to recognize that other people might have a different that other people might have a different perspective or point of viewperspective or point of view

– In concrete operations children are In concrete operations children are more aware of others’ perspectives more aware of others’ perspectives than they were in the preoperational than they were in the preoperational stagestage




• Reversibility– Capability to reverse an action by mentally Capability to reverse an action by mentally

performing its oppositeperforming its opposite

– In concrete operations children can In concrete operations children can mentally undo an actionmentally undo an action

• Classification – Grouping objects into categoriesGrouping objects into categories

– In concrete operations children advance to In concrete operations children advance to two-dimensional classificationstwo-dimensional classifications




• Seriation– Mentally arranging or ordering a set of Mentally arranging or ordering a set of

objects along a quantifiable dimension, objects along a quantifiable dimension, such as heightsuch as height

– In concrete operations children arrange In concrete operations children arrange objects in serial order from shortest to objects in serial order from shortest to longestlongest



ConservationConservation

• This is the crucial operational schema This is the crucial operational schema that defines the concrete operations that defines the concrete operations stagestage

– It is the understanding that It is the understanding that appearance alterations do not appearance alterations do not change the essential properties of change the essential properties of an objectan object


Figure 2.5 Three Piagetian Tests of a Figure 2.5 Three Piagetian Tests of a Child’s Capacity to ConserveChild’s Capacity to Conserve


• Generate a list of classroom activities Generate a list of classroom activities that will involve the following: that will involve the following: – Transductive reasoningTransductive reasoning– ConservationConservation– AnimismAnimism– ReversibilityReversibility– ClassificationClassification– SeriationSeriation

Capacities of Concrete-Operational Capacities of Concrete-Operational ThinkingThinking


Formal Operations StageFormal Operations Stage

• With formal-operational thinking, With formal-operational thinking, thinking can be independent of concrete thinking can be independent of concrete reality and involve systematic problem reality and involve systematic problem solvingsolving– Inductive reasoning is the abstraction of is the abstraction of

a general principle from a variety of a general principle from a variety of examplesexamples

– Deductive reasoning is drawing is drawing information or hypotheses out of a information or hypotheses out of a general premise or a sample of general premise or a sample of evidenceevidence


Your TurnYour Turn

• Develop a task for each stage of Develop a task for each stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive Piaget’s theory of cognitive developmentdevelopment

• Justify why each task is appropriate for Justify why each task is appropriate for each stageeach stage

(See p. 49 in your textbook for teaching (See p. 49 in your textbook for teaching techniques to enrich formal operations in the techniques to enrich formal operations in the classroom)classroom)


Three Applications of Piaget’s TheoryThree Applications of Piaget’s Theory

• Be sensitive to individual differencesBe sensitive to individual differences

• Motivate by stimulating curiosityMotivate by stimulating curiosity– Guessing and feedbackGuessing and feedback– SuspenseSuspense– ControversyControversy

• Promote discovery-based learningPromote discovery-based learning


Limitations of Piaget’s TheoryLimitations of Piaget’s Theory

• Sometimes underestimates the Sometimes underestimates the intellectual capacity of infants, intellectual capacity of infants, preschoolers, and elementary school preschoolers, and elementary school studentsstudents

• Errs when it says that development is Errs when it says that development is marked by qualitative changesmarked by qualitative changes

• Robbie Case at University of TorontoRobbie Case at University of Toronto– Studied the development of learning strategies Studied the development of learning strategies

in terms of changes in in terms of changes in control structures involved in the solution of specific problemsinvolved in the solution of specific problems


Limitations of Piaget’s TheoryLimitations of Piaget’s Theory

• Discovery learning is not as effective as Discovery learning is not as effective as guided discovery learningguided discovery learning

• Neglects the importance of culture and Neglects the importance of culture and social guidance in cognitive social guidance in cognitive developmentdevelopment


Sociocognitive DevelopmentSociocognitive Development

• Vygotsky argued that cognitive Vygotsky argued that cognitive development emerges mostly out of the development emerges mostly out of the child’s social interactions with parents, child’s social interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and other competent teachers, peers, and other competent members of societymembers of society

• Vygotsky advocated guided Vygotsky advocated guided participation instead of discovery participation instead of discovery learninglearning


Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development

• Predevelopment is a level of competence at is a level of competence at which a student is unable to solve problems in which a student is unable to solve problems in that domainthat domain

• Zone of proximal development is a level of is a level of competence on a task in which the student competence on a task in which the student cannot yet master the task on his or her own but cannot yet master the task on his or her own but can accomplish that same task with appropriate can accomplish that same task with appropriate guidance from a more capable partnerguidance from a more capable partner

• Actual development is a level at which students is a level at which students are capable of solving problems independentlyare capable of solving problems independently


ScaffoldingScaffolding

• The guidance, support, and tutelage provided The guidance, support, and tutelage provided by a teacher during social interaction designed by a teacher during social interaction designed to advance students’ current level of skill and to advance students’ current level of skill and understandingunderstanding

– Provides supportProvides support

– Extends the range of what a learner can doExtends the range of what a learner can do

– Allows the learner to accomplish tasks Allows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossibleotherwise impossible

– Used only when neededUsed only when needed


Instructional Conversations with Instructional Conversations with Groups of LearnersGroups of Learners

• IRE discourse model: conversation during IRE discourse model: conversation during teaching that follows an teaching that follows an initiate, nitiate, respond, espond, evaluate scriptvaluate script

• PQS discourse model: conversation during PQS discourse model: conversation during teaching that follows a teaching that follows a probe, robe, question, uestion, scaffold scriptcaffold script


Socially Shared CognitionSocially Shared Cognition

• A shared understanding of a problem A shared understanding of a problem that emerges during group interaction that emerges during group interaction that would not have been achieved by that would not have been achieved by any individual member of the group any individual member of the group acting aloneacting alone


IntersubjectivityIntersubjectivity

• The unique product that arises from The unique product that arises from social interaction in which the social interaction in which the interaction partners come to a shared interaction partners come to a shared understanding of how to manage the understanding of how to manage the problem-solving situationproblem-solving situation

• What are some examples of What are some examples of intersubjective experiences?intersubjective experiences?


Transfer of ResponsibilityTransfer of Responsibility

• Transfer of responsibility occurs as the Transfer of responsibility occurs as the student accomplished subgoals of the student accomplished subgoals of the activity, gains skill and understanding, activity, gains skill and understanding, and shows less need for assistanceand shows less need for assistance


Role of Language in Cognitive Role of Language in Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

• For Piaget, thought precedes language, and For Piaget, thought precedes language, and language is a by-product of cognitive language is a by-product of cognitive developmentdevelopment

• For Vygotsky, language is a social bridge to For Vygotsky, language is a social bridge to connect a mentor’s advanced development connect a mentor’s advanced development with a novice’s immature development, and with a novice’s immature development, and language creates cognitive developmentlanguage creates cognitive development


Three Types of Private SpeechThree Types of Private Speech

• Self-guidance – remarks about one’s Self-guidance – remarks about one’s own activity that are public but not own activity that are public but not directed to anyone in particulardirected to anyone in particular

• Reading aloud – reading books or other Reading aloud – reading books or other materials aloud, sounding out words, or materials aloud, sounding out words, or silently mouthing wordssilently mouthing words

• Inaudible muttering – quiet remarks that Inaudible muttering – quiet remarks that cannot be heard by an observercannot be heard by an observer


Influence of Cultural ToolsInfluence of Cultural Tools

• First level of sociocognitive development – First level of sociocognitive development – face-to-face, one-on-one interaction between face-to-face, one-on-one interaction between a competent member of the culture and a a competent member of the culture and a less competent memberless competent member

• Second level of sociocognitive development Second level of sociocognitive development – through the culture’s history and – through the culture’s history and technology, effective technology, effective cultural tools for solving for solving problemsproblems


Importance of Peers to Importance of Peers to DevelopmentDevelopment

• Sociocognitive development (Vygotsky) Sociocognitive development (Vygotsky) – more able peers can help as much as – more able peers can help as much as a teacher and are usually closer to the a teacher and are usually closer to the learner’s zone of proximal developmentlearner’s zone of proximal development

• Cognitive development (Piaget) – peers Cognitive development (Piaget) – peers can create cognitive conflict and thus can create cognitive conflict and thus promote developmentpromote development


Applications of Vygotsky’s Applications of Vygotsky’s TheoryTheory

• Teacher as a guide, mentorTeacher as a guide, mentor

• Peers as guides, mentorsPeers as guides, mentors

• Culture as guide, mentorCulture as guide, mentor

• A new view of motivationA new view of motivation


Canadian Research into PracticeCanadian Research into Practice

– Kieran Egan at Simon Fraser Kieran Egan at Simon Fraser University, proposes a “modified University, proposes a “modified Vygotskian approach” that draws upon Vygotskian approach” that draws upon and extends the notion of cognitive and extends the notion of cognitive toolstools• By definition, oral experience has to By definition, oral experience has to

precede literacyprecede literacy

• ““Cognitive Toolkits” enable us to make Cognitive Toolkits” enable us to make sense of the worldsense of the world

• Teachers should draw upon the sense Teachers should draw upon the sense of wonderof wonder


Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

• Innate language acquisition deviceInnate language acquisition device

– Children learn the language of their culture Children learn the language of their culture naturally, mostly by listening (18 months to six naturally, mostly by listening (18 months to six years of age)years of age)

– Syntax: children have a biological preparedness : children have a biological preparedness for structure of languagefor structure of language

– Phonology and semantics: these develop rapidly : these develop rapidly from age 2 through preschool from age 2 through preschool

• Role of a teacher: to provide many Role of a teacher: to provide many opportunities for children to use language to opportunities for children to use language to interact sociallyinteract socially


Language Disabilities and Brain Language Disabilities and Brain FunctioningFunctioning

• Dyslexia – reading disability in which – reading disability in which words are read from right to left and words are read from right to left and letters of the same configuration are letters of the same configuration are reversedreversed

• Aphasia – language disability in which – language disability in which the person has difficulty understanding the person has difficulty understanding or producing speechor producing speech


Technology Support for Young Technology Support for Young Readers & Readers with Special NeedsReaders & Readers with Special Needs

• Talking books for young readers Talking books for young readers – Digital or computerized versions of traditional Digital or computerized versions of traditional

picture storybooks can promote phonological picture storybooks can promote phonological awareness, vocabulary development, and awareness, vocabulary development, and reading comprehensionreading comprehension

• Electronic books for students with special Electronic books for students with special needsneeds– Books with large print or audio and text-to-Books with large print or audio and text-to-

speech capabilities function as assistive speech capabilities function as assistive technologytechnology


Text-Based Scaffolding DevicesText-Based Scaffolding Devices

• Transitional resources – convert text to – convert text to speech or definitionsspeech or definitions

• Illustrative resources – add pictures, charts – add pictures, charts and videos to the textand videos to the text

• Summarizing resources – overview of text – overview of text with concept map or chapter outlinewith concept map or chapter outline

• Notational resources – promote interaction – promote interaction with note taking or outlining with note taking or outlining

• Enrichment resources – informational – informational sidebars, historical background, and links sidebars, historical background, and links to primary resourcesto primary resources


Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Acquisition and BilingualismBilingualism

• Second language acquisitionSecond language acquisition– Relatively easy during childhood Relatively easy during childhood – Noticeably more difficult after pubertyNoticeably more difficult after puberty

• BilingualismBilingualism– The use of two or more languages in The use of two or more languages in

everyday lifeeveryday life– Proficiency in one language is highly Proficiency in one language is highly

related to proficiency in a second languagerelated to proficiency in a second language


CopyrightCopyright

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

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