P.G. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

UNIVERSITY OF JAMMU

Baba Saheb Amedkar Road, Jammu -180 006 (J&K) - India

No.: JU/ Botany/ Dated:……………………..

CERTIFICATE

It is certified that:

1. The thesis entitled Ecological studies and conservation of medicinal plants of Neeru

watershed (J&K) embodies the work of Mr. Harish Chander, himself.

2. The candidate has worked under my supervision for the period required under statutes.

3. The candidate has put in attendance in the department during the period required under

rules.

4. The thesis being submitted for the degree of Ph.D. by Mr. Harish Chander is worth

consideration for the award of Ph.D. degree of the University of Jammu, Jammu. The thesis

incorporates research work of the candidate and has not been earlier submitted in this or any

other University in the present or any other form.

5. The conduct of research scholar remained satisfactory during the period of research.

Prof. V.K. Anand Prof. Shashi Kant

H.O.D. Supervisor

Department of Botany

University of Jammu

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Introduction

HE TREE IS A PECULIAR ORGANISM OF UNLIMITED

KINDNESS AND BENEVOLENCE AND MAKES NO

DEMAND FOR ITS SUSTENANCE AND EXTENDS GENEROUSLY THE

PRODUCTS OF ITS LIFE ACTIVITY. IT AFFORDS PROTECTION TO ALL

BEINGS OFFERING SHADE EVEN TO THE AXE-MEN WHO DESTROY IT.

Gautam Buddha

487 B.C.

Plants occur over the surface of the Earth in well-defined patterns

that are closely correlated with both climate and history of the planet. Forests are

the most important of all the natural communities from the stand point of area,

carbon content, annual carbon fixation, the cycling of nutrient elements, and

influence on energy and water budgets. They are also responsible for the rich and

varied biotic diversity on land.

The most extensive forests are the boreal coniferous forests of

North America, Scandinavia, Northern Europe and Northern Asia. The moist

forests of the tropics are the most diverse, often containing as many as 100

T

species of trees per hectare and occasionally many more. The mountain lands, in

this context, provide a scattered but diverse array of habitats in which a large

range of plants and animals can be found. The harsh environmental conditions

generally prevail at higher altitudes and the alpine vegetation, upon which the

present account is focused, is supported therein. Mountain forests commonly

cover lower slopes. At even lower levels mountain lands grade into other types of

landforms and vegetation.

Himalayan region is considered as a rich emporium of medicinal

and aromatic plants. India, rich in traditions, is only one such land on the Earth.

India has been rich in traditional pharmaceutical formulations used to cure

different ailments since historical past. Ayurveda is one such tradition which was

practiced in earlier times and is still being practiced in India and has been well

documented from the times of Rigvedic Period.

Rigveda, the oldest literature describes some medicinally important

plants. Vedic literature followed by the writings of Charaka, Sushruta,

Dhanwantri, Nagarjuna, Prashara, Balmiki and others bear testimony to the

Himalayan medicinal wealth. Plants still constitute one of the major raw

materials for drugs in the treatment of various ailments of human beings,

although there has been a significant development in the field of synthetic drug

chemistry and antibiotics. The isolation of active principles from medicinal

plants and characterization can be traced back to the beginning of 19th

century.

From crude Ma-Huang (Ephedra sp.) of China, Ephedrine was isolated in 1887

and later introduced as drug in 1925. Likewise, from Opium (Papaver

somniferum), Morphine was isolated in 1804 and introduced as drug in 1818. At

present it is estimated that the plant sources of nearly 80 percent of Ayurvedic,

46 percent of Unani and 33 percent of Allopathic medicines exist in the Western

Himalayan region.

1.1. Himalayas and its vegetation:

Himalayas, constitutes the youngest mountain ranges of the world

(Wadia, 1953). Its central ridge which forms the southern limit of Tibet for 2,500

miles from Assam in the east to the Jammu and Kashmir in the west, especially,

possess series of more or less parallel or converging ranges intercepted by

numerous valleys and extensive plateaus. Due to variation in topography, it

enjoys a variety of climate, and thus has been divided into three ecological zones

i.e., sub-mountainous or outer zone, temperate zone and alpine zone. These

climatic variations make it very interesting and rich repository of biodiversity.

The average total annual rainfall of the area varies from 1000-2000 mm. The

inner dry valleys and Trans-Himalayan tracts, that lie north of the main

Himalayan mountain wall, receive very low monsoon rainfall but relatively

heavy snowfall. Based on altitude, the vegetation of this botanical region can be

sub-divided into following sub regions as per Saraswat and Thakur (1998):

1.1.1. Tropical vegetation: It is found in the extreme southern tract of

the Western Himalaya i.e. parts of Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and Terai tracts of

Kumoan. The main tree species found growing here are Acacia catechu, Bombax

ceiba, Butea monosperma, Ficus glomerata, Shorea robusta, Terminalia arjuna,

Toona ciliata and Zizyphus mauritiana.

1.1.2. Subtropical vegetation: This type of vegetation extends up to

an elevation of about 1,500 msl. The main tree species of the zone are Acacia

catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus benghalensis, Grewia optiva, Hardwickia

pinnata, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Pinus roxburghii, Shorea

robusta, Terminalia arjuna, Toona ciliata and Zizyphus mauritiana.

1.1.3. Temperate vegetation: This zone extends from an elevation of

1,500msl to 3,500msl. The main tree species found here are Abies pindrow,

Aesculus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Cedrus deodara, Juglans

regia, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus

himalayana, Quercus leucotrichophora and Rhododendron arboreum.

1.1.4. Sub-alpine vegetation: This vegetation extends from 3,500 msl

till the tree line. The main tree species of the region are Abies pindrow, Acer

acuminatum, Acer caesium, Alnus nitida, Betula utilis, Juniperus wallichiana,

Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana and Rhododendron sp.

1.1.5. Alpine vegetation: Alpine vegetation lies just below the

snowline, usually above an altitude of 4,200 m. The tree growth is slow and

stunted and most of the vegetation is alpine scrub.

1.2. Himalayas and its vicinity:

Owing to enormous size and elevation, the Himalayas are grouped

into four belts on the basis of geomorphology, hydrography and vegetation.

These belts are:

1. Trans- Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya.

2. Great or Inner or higher Himalaya or Himadri.

3. Lower Himalaya or lesser Himalaya or Himachal.

4. Sub-Himalaya or outer Himalaya or Shivalik.

From west to east, the great chain is recognizable into western,

central and eastern Himalayas. The north-western Himalayas embrace the states

of Jammu and Kashmir (Kashmir Himalaya), Himachal Pradesh (Bashar

Himalaya) and Uttranchal (Kumaon Himalaya).

Jammu and Kashmir state covering an area of 2,22,235 square km.

with a population of 10,069,917 (as per 2001 census) is stretched between

latitude 32017

/- 37

003

/ North and longitude 72

003

/-80

020

/ East. The average

annual rainfall in the state is between 600-800 mm and annual average

temperature lies between 150C - 17

0C. On the basis of geographic features and

location the state of Jammu and Kashmir is divided into five divisions. These

divisions are:

1. Southwest alluvial plains of Chenab and Ravi.

2. Pir-Panjal Range and Shiwalik Range.

3. Valley of Kashmir.

4. Great Himalayas.

5. Trans Himalayas.

1.3. Neeru watershed – A profile:

Neeru watershed in Bhadarwah tehsil of district Doda, lies at

latitude 32008

/24

//-32

052

/26

//North and longitude 75

048

/38

//-75

032

/41

//East

(Calculated from topo-sheet No. 43-P and 43-O on 1:250,000 scale). Bhadarwah

is a bowl shaped valley having Neeru drainage from south to north-west (Plate-

1). Neeru nallah is doubly fed by Kaplash Kund (4341msl) and Ashapatti Glacier

at an altitude of 3300 msl. It comprises a vast catchment area spread in 64,024

hectares. The area is richly endowed with thick vegetation of coniferous forests.

1.3.1. Topography of the area: The study area i.e. Neeru watershed

(Bhadarwah) is flanked by lofty mountains on all the sides. The alpine meadows

of the area add to the beauty of the area (Plate-2 Figs.-1-3). Neeru catchment is

surrounded by Kishtwar and Doda tehsils of district Doda in north-west, by

Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh in the east and Kathua and Udhampur

districts of J&K in the south and south-west respectively. The land of Bhadarwah

town is suitable for cultivation of Paddy. The paddy fields are in the form of

terraces due to mountainous terrain (Plate-3, Fig.-2).

The area primarily lies in the Pir Panjal range very near to where

Dhauladhar range bifurcates into smaller ranges. In its south-west of the area

there is a famous Kaplash range (Kaplash Kund: 4341 msl) and in south-east a

famous Ashapatti Glacier (3300 msl) along the area bordering Kathua. The

Neeru nallah which originates from Kaplash Kund and Ashapatti Glacier is a

tributary of river Chenab in district Doda of Jammu and Kashmir. The Neeru

valley is located in high mountain ranges, more than 1000 msl in altitude, on

both the banks over most of its stretch. Hence Neeru nallah, a perennial torrential

snow fed nallah has a dual origin; one tributary originating from Kaplash Kund, a

holy lake shrine and the other originating from Ashapatti glacier. The lake which

is almost circular in outline and about 2.4 km in circumference is surrounded on

all sides by barren mountains (Plate-3, Fig.-1). On its way Neeru nallah receives

a large number of snow and spring fed tributaries from Chattergali, Sharthal, and

passes to Basti area, where it is named as Basti nallah. At Monda village it

receives tributaries originating from Ashapatti Glacier, Thanala and Sartingal

villages and at this point the main stream is named as Neeru nallah. After this, it

traverse through the Bhadarwah town, Gatha, Dradoo, Dranga, Bhalla, Parnoo,

and ultimately flows into river Chenab at Pul-Doda (821 msl). All the tributaries

of the catchment join the main stream at different positions.

1.3.2. Geology of the area: The area is represented by high mountains,

deep valleys and steep slopes. The rock formations exposed to the area are

garnetiferous mica schists, gneisses, garnetiferous phyllites, slates, limestones,

granite, volcanic rocks, terrace, scree and glacial deposits (Fig.-1). These rocks

range from Precambrian to recent. The lithology of the area is as comprise of:

1.3.2.1. Salkhala formation: The rocks of the Salkhala

formation are composed of low to high grade metamorphosed highly puckered

and granulated garnetiferous mica schists with quartzite bands at places. These

are easily susceptible to weathering and are well exposed in Thathri and Gandoh

area. Salkhalas are divided into three members, which in ascending order are (i)

central gneisses and schists (ii) garnetiferous quartz mica schists and (iii) mica

schists with bands of calciferous rock.

1.3.2.2. Bhadarwah formation: Bhadarwah formation has been

divided into three members which are (i) garnet phyllite (ii) Bhadarwah slates

and (iii) quartzite. The garnet phyllites have been thrown in deep puckers,

corrugations and crenulations which show shearing and slipping along the axial

planes. These are well exposed along the Jai area in south and extend towards

Dranga in the west and towards Ludenal, (south of Kansaroo) in the east. The

Bhadarwah slates are well exposed in and around Bhadarwah town and extend

through Kalotran – Tipri and Siru to Bhja Topi beyond which they merge into

Chamba slates of Tissa area. These are dark grey to grey and carbonaceous. The

Sunbain quartizite is a coarse grained greyish white to greenish hard quartzite. At

some places slate bands which are gritty and pebbly are also noticed. These rocks

form the Sunbain (Ashapatti) ridge in the south east of Bhadarwah.

1.3.2.3. Kaplash granite: An extensive body of granite forms

the most prominent physiographic feature of the area. It occurs in the form of an

elongate dome, which rises to an elevation of 4500 msl in central part. It is

massive, highly jointed course grained porphyritic granite. It shows spheroid

weathering. It intends in a north-east to south-east direction and is situated on the

south of Bhadarwah town.

1.3.2.4. Langera conglomerate: It is composed of ortho-

quartzite and lithic greywacke. The rock is hard, massive and can withstand

weathering effect. It can be traced from south-east of Bhadarwah to Langer-

Sangned area through Padri pass.

1.3.2.5. Katarigali formation: It is composed of dark ash grey

and bleached carbonaceous, ferruginous and calcareous slates, quartzite and

lenticular bands, and bodies of limestone. These are very well exposed in

Pasrigali, Katarigali, Sceppa–chola and Bandhar area and also along Bisrana

nallah of the Chaund ridge.

1.3.2.6. Panjal formation: These rocks are also divided into two

members i.e. agglomerated slates and Punjab trap. Agglomerated slates are

composed of shale, slates, sandstone, limestone and conglomerates with

interstratified and infolded bands of massive trap. These are followed by Panjal

trap, which is fairly wide in distribution in the area. The main trap band occupies

the highest topographic ridges i.e. the Batile pattern ridge and extends upto

Chalipurgali in the south-east on a strike length of 15 kms. It is a very hard

compact rock and is generally of greenish grey colour.

1.3.2.7. Tramwala formation: It is composed of Talai pebbly

sandstone bed. Talai pebbly band varies in thickness from 1m to 8m. It is well

exposed in Chimlo-di-Gali Talai section and is composed of olive green to rusty

brown dirty white sandstone and sandy shales.

1.3.2.8. Gamgul formation: It is composed of carbonaceous

shales, yellowish calcareous sandstone, shale and impure limestone. These rocks

are well exposed along Ban - Ka- Got, Gulu - Ki - Maddi and Gamgul - Talai

foot path.

1.3.2.9. Dalmon formation: It is composed of shale-slate

interstratified with thinly bedded fine grained grey limestone. Its typical

development is seen around the Dalmon peak, and also the Dalmon-Bishot and

Kiara-maund Tibba area.

1.3.2.10. Metamorphism: The lithological descriptions of the

rocks of Thathri- Gandoh and Bhadarwah area reveal that these rocks show

progressive increase in the grade of metamorphism from shale-slate stage in the

youngest rocks of Gamgul and Dalmon formation to high grade Kyanite,

sillimanite stage in the oldest rocks of the Salkhala group.

1.3.3. Climate of the area: Neeru watershed passes great distinction

interns of relief and physiography. Climate varies from hot and dry at lower

elevations (821-1000 msl), to moderate between 1000-2000 msl and intensely

cold above 2000 msl. Annual rainfall, snowfall, temperature, relative humidity

and winds are the important factors which influence the commencement,

development and maturity of the vegetation.

1.3.3.1. Temperature: The monthly mean maximum

temperature (34.3oC) for the year 2002 was recorded in the month of July and the

monthly minimum temperature (0.5oC) for the year 2002 was recorded in the

month of January. Likewise the monthly mean maximum temperature (32.6oC)

for the year 2003 was recorded in the month of June, whereas the monthly mean

minimum temperature (0.6oC) was recorded in the month of February (Plate 4,

Figs. 1-2).

1.3.3.2. Relative humidity at 0830 hrs: Maximum relative

humidity for the year 2002 was recorded as 83% in the month of September

while the minimum relative humidity was recorded as 57% in the month of

November. Likewise, the maximum relative humidity for the year 2003 was

recorded as 84% in the month of August whereas the minimum relative humidity

for the year 2003 was recorded as 57% in the month of May (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2).

1.3.3.3. Relative humidity at 1730hrs: Maximum relative

humidity for the year 2002 was recorded as 66% in the months of February and

August, while the minimum relative humidity was recorded as 39% in the month

of May. Likewise the maximum relative humidity for the year 2003 was recorded

as 73% in the month of August, while the minimum relative humidity was

recorded as 41% in the month of January (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2).

1.3.3.4. Total rainfall and number of rainy days: The

heaviest rainfall for the year 2002 was recorded as 175.6 mm in the month of

February with 9 rainy days, and the least rainfall was recorded as 1.0 mm in the

month of November with only 1 rainy day. Likewise the heaviest rain fall for the

year 2003 was recorded as 249.6 mm in the month of February with 12 rainy

days and, the least rainfall was recorded as 8.7 mm in the month of October with

only 2 rainy days (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2).

1.3.3.5. Rainiest day with rain fall amount: The rainiest day

for the year 2002 was observed as 14th

September with 84.8 mm rainfall.

Likewise the rainiest day for the year 2003 was observed as 19th

February with

118.2 mm rainfall (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2).

Table 1.1: Meteorological data of the study area for the year 2002-2003

Temperature (0C) Relative Humidity (%) YEAR

2002 Mean maximum

Mean minimum

0830hrs 1730hrs

Rainfall (mm)

No. of rainy days

Rainiest day with rain fall amount (mm)

Jan. 13.9 00.5 77 55 65.0 09 18th / 17.0

Feb. 12.4 00.9 79 66 175.6 09 8th /51.0

Mar. 20.0 05.2 71 47 118.4 11 10th /39.4

April 23.9 09.1 71 51 133.9 09 25th /47.5

May 30.9 12.5 59 39 6.4 04 7th /2.2

June 33.1 15.4 67 52 83.0 10 17th /37.4

July 34.3 17.1 71 51 91.4 07 22nd

/23.0

Aug. 30.6 18.3 81 66 153.6 11 12th /65.4

Sept. 26.3 11.8 83 62 133.2 08 14th

/84.8

Oct. 24.3 07.7 73 53 17.2 03 11th /13.4

Nov. 22.5 04.6 57 41 1.0 01 8th /1.0

Dec. 16.5 01.8 63 46 13.4 04 25th /5.6

Temperature (

oC) Relative Humidity (%) YEAR

2003 Mean maximum

Mean minimum

0830hrs

1730hrs

Rainfall (mm)

No. of rainy days

Rainiest day with rain fall amount (mm)

Jan. 16.0 0.7 58 41 37.2 03 28th /22.6

Feb. 12.0 0.6 81 70 249.6 12 19th /118.2

Mar. 16.9 3.7 73 58 176.0 13 3rd

/59.6

April 24.5 9.3 70 47 78.1 10 20th /20.6

May 26.4 9.9 57 45 96.6 07 3rd

/39.8

June 32.6 16.0 63 48 43.2 09 28th /8.2

July 31.3 18.7 79 62 112.4 13 11th /18.0

Aug. 28.5 18.1 84 73 151.3 15 4th /44.1

Sept. 27.9 14.8 81 65 77.2 07 26th /31.0

Oct. 25.2 7.6 67 53 8.7 02 10th /7.7

Nov. 19.5 3.5 68 52 51.5 03 18th /23.5

Dec. 14.0 1.9 77 66 78.0 08 16th /35.2

Source: Govt. of India, India Meteorological Department, Meteorological Centre Rajbagh, Srinagar

1.4. Biodiversity and study area:

India harbours 17,500 species of angiosperms which represent

about 7% of the worlds’ known plants. Some 6200 of these species are endemic

to Indian sub-continent (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). Neeru catchment has an

area of 64,024 hectares. The plant species flourish very well in the study area due

to a very favourable climate and topography. About 488 plants have been

collected from the Bhadarwah forests (Raina and Kant, 1993). Among macro

fungi about 80 species have been reported from Bhadarwah forest (Rampal,

1988), while Kumar (1987) recorded 129 economically important plant species

from the area. 164 medicinal plants have been classified in five classes on the

basis of altitudinal distribution in Neeru catchment (Kant and Dutt, 2003).The

study area falls under subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine, alpine and high alpine

zone and is dominated by annual and perennial flora.

1.4.1. Threats to biodiversity: It has been estimated that we are

loosing around 86,400 hectares of forests per day throughout the globe, on

account of extension in farming and increased urbanization. As a result, 10% of

world’s vascular plant species are driven to extinction every day. At this rate

25% of all the species existing today will become extinct during the next 30

years, unless preventive measures are taken now. In the loss of so many species

we loose edible, medicinal, aromatic and other useful plants.

India, with 12 floristic regions is considered as a store-house of

plant species Rao (1994) reported 1,566 taxa of flowering plants as rare and

endangered in India. The biggest threat, by far, to biodiversity is habitat

destruction. Loss of habitat or fragmentation of original habitat into pieces

eventually leads to the irreversible loss of species.

At present ten of the Indian medicinal plants are included in the

appendices of CITES. Saussurea lappa (=S. costus) is the only plant included in

Appendix I while Appendix II includes nine Indian medicinal plants. These

plants are Aquilaria malaccenis, Dioscorea deltoidea, Rauvolfia serpentina,

Cibotium barometz, Podophyllum hexandrum, Pterocarpus santalinus,

Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza kurroo and Taxus wallichiana.

Wanton exploitation of plants for medicinal purposes, for perfume

extractions and for timber, constitutes one of the major factors for the loss of the

biodiversity. To save the biodiversity from the habitat destruction, exploitation

and climatic changes, it is necessary to explore more plants with new habitats

and to explore pure lines for better establishments of species. The recent

developmental activities, the pressure of human population, unscientific and over

exploitation of resources, over grazing, fuel extraction and changing ecology are

now threatening this most important Himalayan ecosystem in the world.

As per the reports of given by International Union for Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) about 20,000-30,000 species of

vascular plants are rare or under threat in the world. The preparation of Red Data

Books, lists of threatened and endemic taxa and symposia organized by various

countries in Europe, Africa, North and South America etc. on rarity, endemism

and threatened plants have recently stimulated the Asian countries including

India, to look into the fate of their depleting resources. A brief review of work

done so far in India on the threatened plants and habitats has been published by

Jain and Sastry (1982). The projects like Man and Biosphere (MAB) and

Projects on Study, Survey and Conservation of Endangered species of Flora

(POSSCEF) have been recently started in India to achieve the goal.

It is true that there are many factors, both natural and man-made

which are responsible for extinction of species but anthropogenic factors have

accelerated rarity and extinction of plant species to a level where the very

existence of ecosystems is threatened. The consumption of medicinal plants in

unscientific manner is yet another major factor for extinction of species. In

remote area of Ladakh, some wild plants like Polygonum, Chenopodium,

Taraxacum, Rheum, Astragalus, Cardamine, Plantago, Pedicularis etc., growing

in the oastic conditions or at the snowline are consumed in juvenile stages, which

leads to their depletion and extinction (Kachroo et al 1977).

1.4.2. Medicinal flora: The medicinal plants play very important role in

the day to day social and spiritual life of human beings and Ayurvedic system of

medicine. Some of the widely used medicinal plants are Aconitum species,

Podophyllum hexandrum, Picrorhiza kurroa, Viola species, Jurinea

macrocephala, Saussurea costus, Colchicum luteum, Berberis lycium etc. Kaul

(1997) has tabulated 23 medicinal herbs of Western Himalaya as core group of

medicinal herbs (Table 1.2). 50% of the medicinal herbs of this group are

endangered and other 50% fall under vulnerable category.

Table 1.2: Status of core group of medicinal herbs of the western

Himalayas.

Botanical name Trade name Part (s)

used

Present

status

Aconitum heterophyllum Atis Roots V

Arnebia benthamii Gaozaban Herb E

Artemisia absinthium Tethwan Herb V

A. maritima Seski Herb E

Atropa acuminata Brand Herb/Root E

Berberis lycium Daruharidra Root V

Bergenia ligulata Pashan Bed Root V

Datura stramonium Datur Herb V

Dioscorea deltoidea Shingli Mingli Root E

Ephedra gerardiana Ephedra Herb V

Equisetum arvense Sehat Band Herb V

Fritillaria roylei Sheethkar Bulb E

Heracleum candicans Krendel Root E

Inula racemosa Pushkar Root E

Lavatera cashmeriana Sazmul Root E

Physochlaina praelata Lang Tang Herb V

Picrorhiza kurroa Kutki Root V/E

Podophyllum emodi Bankakri Root E

Rheum emodi Rhubarb Root E

Saussurea lappa Kuth Root E

Taxus baccata Himalayan Yew Bark/Shoots E

Tribulus terrestris Meticher Kund Fruit V

Valeriana wallichii Mushkibala Root V

E = Endangered Source : M.K. Kaul (1997) Medicinal Plants of Kashmir & Ladakh.

V = Vulnerable

Out of these twenty three plant species 90% plants have been

collected from the study area i.e. Neeru watershed. These are considered as

botanical gems in wild habitat. However, collection of these gems in wild is

unscientific.

Scientists all over the world are encouraging cultivation of

medicinal plants. In the state of J&K, RRL Jammu is a pioneer institution to start

cultivation of important indigenous medicinal plants.

Medicinal plants and their conservation have attained a greater

importance in the present day scenario. The Western Himalayas is known for its

unique flora with a bulk of endemic medicinal and aromatic germplasm. The

herbs mostly consist of rhizomes and roots, which remain dormant for more than

six months through out the year under heavy snow. An urgent need thus arise to

cultivate them on mass scale in temperate regions of north-west Himalayas.

***********

Review of Litrature

Ethno-medicines have gained considerable importance, during the

past few decades, because of their being safe and with no side effects, since they

are all derived from the plant materials. Even the so called ‘Wonder Drugs’ of

the recent past like reserpine, colchicines, podophyllotoxin, vincoblastine,

strophanthine, steroids, and cortisones etc. owe their origin to the plants, which

are a part of our ancient cultural heritage. Despite remarkable progress in

laboratory drug development at present, the plants of the planet earth are still the

most important source for potential drugs.

India is a very rich repository of floral elements with more than

53,000 plant species, of which 17,500 species belong to angiosperm plants

(Sharma et al, 1997).

The traditional system of medicine like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani

etc. have a long history. About 2000 plant species find use in Ayurvedic System

of Medicines.

A well documented record of the flora and vegetation of western

Himalaya have been presented by the workers like Royle (1833-40); Duthie

(1893-94); Bamber (1916); Stewart (1916-17, 1972); Collett (1921); Coventry

(1923-30); Blatter (1927-29); Singh and Wafai (1973); Dhar and Kachroo

(1983); Sharma and Kachroo (1983); Polunin and Stainton (1984); Kaul

(1986); Singh and Kachroo (1987 & 1994); Kapur and Sarin (1989); Sharma

and Kant (1992); Swami and Gupta (1998).

Hamal (1982), Hamal and Karihaloo (1982), Hamal and Koul

(1983), Kirn (1983), Kirn and Kapahi (1998), Kirn and Kapahi (2001a), Kant

and Chander (2003), Dutt and Kant (in press), to name a few, have made new

additions to the flora and vegetation of western Himalaya.

Similarly, there are notable contributions on peridophytic flora of

western Himalaya (Clarke, 1880; Hope, 1899-1904; Stewart, 1945, 51, 57, and

72; Bir, 1964; Javeid, 1965; Bir and Trikha, 1976; Bir et al, 1979-80; Kapoor,

1985; Khullar, 1984, 88 & 1994; Khullar et al, 1988; Kirn, 2000).

All living organisms and their environment are mutually reactive,

affecting each other in various ways. Animal population, flora and vegetation are

interdependent through the environment and are mutually reactive.

Phytosociology is the study of the characteristics, classification, relationships,

and distribution of plant communities. It is useful to collect such data to describe

the population dynamics of each species studied and how they relate to the other

species in the same community. Detailed studies on phyto-sociology and ecology

have been brought forward in recent years.

Mahabale and Kharadi (1946) studied “Some ecological features

of the vegetation at Mt. Abu” and presented, on a small scale, an account of the

principal plant formations found at various levels and of the factors controlling

them. According to the study, the vegetation of the region is of the monsoon

deciduous type but abounds in many xerophytic species governed largely by the

edaphic and climatic factors. The vegetation at the foot of the mountain has a

woodland savannah on the eastern side and a scrub on the western side. The

vegetation in the valleys conforms to the usual monsoon deciduous type found in

the valleys in Peninsular India, and Western Himalaya. In particular, it shows a

greater resemblance with the vegetation found in the forests on the borders of

Western Himalaya up to about 1,500 feet elevation.

Curtis and McIntosh (1950) worked on “The Inter-relations of

certain analytic and synthetic phyto-sociological characters” and presented

the mathematical interrelations of frequency, density, mean area, abundance,

constancy and presence on the log-normal basis. It was concluded that a

practicable size for the quadrat study is one which will give frequencies of less

than 86% for all random or contagious species. Ordinarily, this will be a quadrate

which is twice as large as the mean area of the most numerous species. Such a

quadrat will give maximum information about all the important species of the

community.

Kaul and Zutshi (1966) described the “Vegetation of Kashmir

University campus, Srinagar” along with the phytosociology of various

species, with in an area of 125 acres. They also studied the vegetation in relation

to local ecological factors and a number of physiographic habitats, viz. level

grounds, slopes, mounds and low-lying areas and concluded that biotic

interference seems to be the most important factor in controlling the course of

vegetation, while soil characters do not seem to play any important role in

controlling the vegetation.

Yadav and Shah (1982) while working on “Phytosociological

studies on the vegetation of Dangs forest in South Gujarat” concluded that

the maturity index of the vegetation indicated the moderate nature of the

vegetation. Community coefficients were categorized into five classes. On the

basis of index of similarity, the ordination methods supported the observations

that most of the stands have similar vegetation pattern accompanied by similar

environment. Saputara has been described as quite distinct in vegetation from

rest of the stands.

Sharma et al (1983) standardized the quadrat size for the

classification and mapping of the forest communities during their studies on the

“Forest vegetation survey and classification with special reference to South

India”. The data was collected from South Indian dry deciduous, moist

deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen type of forests. The minimal quadrate

size of 400 m2 to 900 m

2 was taken for trees and 9 m

2 for shrubs.

Curtis and Bignal (1985) while working on “Quantitative

description of the vegetation physiognomy using vertical quadrates”

described a simple, rapid, vertical quadrate method for the quantitative

description of vegetation physiognomy. Examples have been given of its use

with data analysis by principal components ordination, TWINSPAN

classification, and the trend surface analysis, as well as relationship to

microclimate. The method provides quantitative data, suitable for numerical

analysis, examples of which have been considered in terms of ordination and

classification.

Deva and Rajwar (1985) while working on “Forest types of

Rispana valley, Jharipani, Mussorie” recorded three types of forest cover in

the area. The first type of the forest, Olea-Machilus community on right bank of

Rispana river was followed by Bauhinia retusa dominating forest on left bank,

while third type dominated by Ilex odorata was restricted to a narrow strip along

the river where water-logged perpendicular cliffs contain many herbs. The rocks

and boulders possess Bergenia ciliata, other herbs and shrubs, and the river

contains aquatic species. It has been concluded that the right bank receives the

sunlight for a short period whereas the left bank slopes get the light throughout

the day. Consequently, the plants such as Berberis species and Wendlandia

puberula on these slopes are adapted to drier conditions as compared to the

plants on the right bank.

Rigveda is considered as the oldest record about the use of some

medicinal plants. This was followed by Charaka-Samhita by Charak. Van

Rheed’s (1678-1703) monumental work in 12 volumes on the study of Indian

plants resulted in the form of a book, Hortus Malabaricus. Drury (1873)

published Useful Plants of India, while Dymock (1891) published

Pharmacographica India – A History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin

in British India. An outstanding work containing wealth of information on

economic plants in six volumes was produced by Watt (1889-93) in the form of

Dictionary of Economic Plants of India.

Kirtikar and Basu (1935) published a voluminous work on Indian

Medicinal Plants. Chopra (1933) produced a treatise on Indigenous Drugs of

India. This was followed by Indian Materia Medica by Nadkarni (1955).

Chopra et al (1956) wrote Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. Later CSIR

came out with a consolidated account and updated information on economic

plants in Wealth of India series. Many regional flora and accounts on medicinal

plants appeared in India during the last few decades.

A good deal of work has been done on the ethno-botany and

medicinal plants in India and abroad. Several reports on the Amchi system of

medicine in Ladakh enumerating the herbs used by the local medicine

practitioners (Amchis) have appeared in the recent past (Ragunathan, 1976;

Satyavati et al, 1976; Kurup, 1977; Dhar, 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982;

Visvanath and Mankad, 1984; Nawchoo and Buth, 1989; Chatterjee and

Pakrashi, 1991; Kaul et al, 1995). An in-depth ethno-botanical survey of

Western Himalaya has been carried out by Kaul (1996). However, the Neeru-

watershed of the Western Himalaya has remained neglected from this point of

view except for some stray records.

The loss of biological diversity and the degradation of habitats and

ecosystems will profoundly effect the present and future generations as the

species lost today may have food, medicinal and industrial value. Now it is well

understood and realized that, as a result of various natural and unnatural (mainly

man-made) causes, the earth’s biological resources are under severe pressure and

are dwindling very fast. This loss of biodiversity also has serious impact on the

world’s economy and environment. During last 2-3 decades there has been

significant consciousness with regard to the loss of biodiversity and its

conservation. An outstanding work on cultivation and utilization of medicinal

and aromatic plants was produced by Atal and Kapur (1977).

Borthakur (1976) presented an account of the “Less known

medicinal uses of plants among the tribes of Karbi-Anglong (Mikir Hills),

Assam”. He also described 43 species of plants and their uses which were

gathered from among the tribes inhabiting Karbi-Anglong district of Assam State

in eastern India, which hitherto were not recorded earlier from that area.

Singh and Singh (1981) while working with “Edible wild plants

of eastern Rajasthan” reported 97 species of wild plants belonging to 75 genera

and 49 families, which provide edible fruits, seeds, grains, tubers, tender stem

and leaves from eastern Rajasthan. Attempts have also been made to cite the

main chemical contents of edible parts based on available literature. About 14

species have been recommended for cultivation.

Kaul and Atal (1983) in their short communication “Studies on

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. - Botany, medico-ethno-botany and

distribution” discussed the traditional medicinal properties and ethno-botanical

uses of the species in traditional medicines and its distribution in India.

Sarin and Kapur (1984) studied the “Plant resources

exploitation and their utilization in Trikuta hills of Jammu province (J&K

state)” and concluded that 123 plant species having economic utility are growing

in the Trikuta hills. Of these, about 64 are of medicinal value, 11 of aromatic

value, 9 yield resins or gums, 19 are the source of vegetable tannins, 7 produce

fatty oil rich seeds and 5 produce laticifers. About 16 plant species, constituting

the raw materials for the industry, can be collected in large quantities. The rest of

the plants are used as crude drugs in the indigenous system of medicine and have

a good scope for exploitation.

Kaul et al (1985) worked on “Ethno-botanic studies in north-

west and trans Himalaya – contribution to the wild food plants of Ladakh”

and evaluated eleven species for nutritional use and concluded that these species

are good as a part of food by the people living in the remote areas of Ladakh due

to the presence of crude proteins, crude fiber, crude fat, soluble sugars,

carbohydrates and minerals like sodium, calcium, iron and phosphorus.

Singh’s (1985) article on the “Threatened taxa and scope for

conservation in Rajasthan” deals with endemic, endangered, threatened and

rare taxa of three main physiographgic regions, Mt. Abu., Thar Desert and

Aravalli with Eastern Plateau in Rajasthan. The probable factors for threat and

rarity, and the scope for conservation of such taxa in Rajasthan have also been

discussed.

Kaul et al (1986), in their paper on “Ethno-botanic Studies in

north-west and trans-Himalaya IV. Some traditionally used tea substitutes

from Jammu and Kashmir”, collected seven plants which have been

traditionally used as tea substitutes by the ethnic groups of Jammu and Kashmir

State. The tea is prepared from the decoction of roots of Bergenia ligulata

(Wall.) Engl., Fragaria vesca L., Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sw. and

Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don. Leaves of Potentilla fruticosa L., bark of

Taxus baccata L., and aerial portions of Thymus serpyllum L. are also used for

the preparation of tea.

Gaur et al (1987) published “Notes on the distribution of rare

and little known Carex rostrata stocks from north- west Himalaya”. This

species has been collected for the first time in India from Khatling Glacier

(Bhumka, 3200 m, Tehri district, Garhwal) in the north- west Himalaya. The

plant has fodder, religious and local medicinal value.

Sharma and Gaur (1987) during their studies on “Palyno-

taxonomy of Himalayan Blue Poppy (Meconopsis aculeata Royle.)”

commented that the two common wild poppies, Meconopsis aculeata Royle.

(Blue poppy) and Meconopsis robusta Hook. (Yellow poppy) are distributed

from 3700 m to 4600 m in Western Alpine Himalaya, of which Meconopsis

aculeata (varn. Kalyari) is widely used by the tribes and natives for medicinal

purposes. The plant paste is applied externally in rheumatic pains as anodyne by

the inhabitants.

Gurung (1988) while studying “Useful pteridophytes of Nepal

Himalaya” concluded that the area is represented by about 500 species of

pteridophytes, of which about 125 species have been found economically useful.

Out of these 125 species about 30 species have been considered as medicinally

important, 8 species are used as edible, 82 species as ornamental, one species as

poisonous and 4 species as soil conserving species in the study area.

Kapur (1989) worked on the “Economically useful fodder plants

of Ram Nagar - Dudu valley (Jammu Province)” and enumerated 87 fodder

species with their local names, altitudinal range, lopping period and present

content of dry matter. Out of 87 species listed 43 are tree species.

Kaul et al (1989) presented a paper on “Ethno-botanical studies

in north-west and trans-Hmalaya VI. Contribution to the ethno-botany of

Basohli –Bani region, J&K” and reported 38 economically important plant

species from the region. The medicinal use of Rosulaire alpestris and Viburnum

grandiflorum has been reported for the first time.

Sharma and Singh (1989) worked on “Ethno-botanical studies in

north - west and trans- Himalaya -V. Ethno-veterinary medicinal plants

used in Jammu and Kashmir, India.” In this study, explorations carried out

during the three years have brought to light 18 plant species which have been

used to alleviate the common sufferings of livestock of this region.

Sharma et al (1989) gave an account of the “Ethno-medicinal

plant lore from Mukundara Ranges, Jhalawar district, Rajasthan” and

enumerated twenty species with common name, family, specific location,

distribution and habitat. The plant part collected, storage, preparation of drugs

and therapy of each plant has also been discussed in the communication.

According to the study the major causes of deaths in tribals are due to diseases

caused by unhygienic conditions, poor sanitation, and due to some epidemic

diseases. The religious heads and Ojhas possess medical background and treat

the tribals.

Brahmam and Sexena (1990) while studying the “Ethno-botany

of Gandhamardan Hills - Some noteworthy folk medicinal uses” concluded

that there are about 200 species which find use in the folk- medicine. They

enumerated 77 species in alphabetical order with notes on their local names,

uses, methods of administration, dosage, etc.

Caceres et al (1990) gave an account of the “Plants used in

Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders 1. Screening of 84

plants against Enterobacteria” and stated that 385 plants from 95 families are

used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. The activity of

84 most commonly used plants was screened in vitro against five enterobacteria

pathogenic to man. The results indicate that 34 (40.48%) plants inhibit one or

more of the enterobacteria tested. On the basis of their studies they concluded

that Salmonella typhi was the most inhibited bacterium (33.73%) and E. coli the

most resistant bacterium (7.35%). The plants of American origin which exhibited

the best antibacterial activity have been enumerated`as: Byrsonima erassifolia,

Diphysa robinioides, Gnaphalium stramineum, Guazuma ulmifolia, Psidium

guajava, Sambucus mexicana, Simarouba glauca, Smilax lundelii, Spondias

purpurea and Tagetes lucida.

Joshi et al (1990) made “A preliminary synecological approach

for the study of herbal wealth of high altitude Garhwal Himalaya and their

conservation”. The authors reported that the frequency, density and abundance

values of medicinal herbs are lowest among all species occurring in the area

because of over-exploitation. The authors emphasized the standardization and

evolution of agro-techniques for their cultivation and consequent conservation.

Kaul et al (1990) presented their findings on the “Ethno-botanical

studies in north-west and trans-Himalaya VII. Home remedies for arthritis

in Kashmir Himalaya” and reported five herbs used in the treatment of arthritis

in Kashmir Himalayas. In this paper the ethno-medical properties of three species

namely Delphinium roylei, Polygonum alpinum and Senecio chenopodifolius, the

root parts of which are only being used against arthritis, have been reported for

the first time. The other two species used for the purpose have been reported as

Rheum australe and Saussurea costus.

Mukherjee and Namhata (1990) while studying “Medicinal

plant lore of the tribals of Sundergarh district, Orrisa” concluded medico-

ethno-botanical information concerning 22 plants. The information of these 22

plants has been collected from tribals, namely; Oraon, Munda, Bhuiyan, Gond,

Dhanuar and Routia. The study also includes mode of drug preparation, plant

names etc.

Negi and Pant (1990) worked on “Ethno-botany of the Gangwal

- A tribe of Garhwal Himalaya” and highlighted the Ethno-botany of the

Gangwal tribe of Garhwal Hills in northern India.

Panwar (1990) provided “Some suggestions for conservation of

biodiversity in India” and stressed that India is richly endowed with a unique

biodiversity. This bio-resource has rich economic potential, but needs to be

protected from degradation. The study focuses on the main priority areas in this

field which are effective conservation of biodiversity, both natural and domestic

and rapid enhancement of information base and know-how towards harnessing

the potential by ourselves.

Caceres et al (1991) while continuing their work on “Plants used

in Guatemala” presented the list of plants for the treatment of respiratory

diseases and screened 68 plants against Gram- Positive Bacteria. They conducted

ethno-botanical surveys and after reviewing the extent literature during 1986-88

listed 234 plants from 75 families, most of them of American origin. Three

Gram-positive bacteria causing respiratory infections (Staphyllococcus aureus,

Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes) were used to screen 68

of the most commonly used plants for the activity. 28 of these (41.2%) species

inhibited the growth of one or more of the bacteria tested. Staphylococcus aureus

was inhibited by 18 of the plant extracts, while 7 extracts were effective against

Streptococcus pyogenes. The plants of American origin which exhibited

antibacterial activity were: Gnaphalium viscosum, Lippia dulcis, Physalis

philadelphica, Satureja brownie, Solanum nigrescens and Tagetes lucida.

Gauniyal et al (1991) worked on “Major medicinal plants as

foreign exchange earner” and suggested coordinated efforts of concerned

agencies for promoting cultivation of identified medicinal plants to ensure their

regular supply and stabilization of raw material prices.

Gogoi and Borthakur (1991) presented a case study on “Plants in

religio - cultural beliefs of the Tai Khamtis of Assam (India)”.They grouped

the plants related to the religious and cultural traditions into four main categories:

fruit plants cultivated in the Buddhist temple-yards, cultivated ornamental plants,

plants used as offerings and adornments and plants used in Buddhistic and

traditional faiths and rituals. In addition, plants used in religio-cultural activities

have also been dealt with.

Hembrom (1991) attempted to record “Tribal medicine in

Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas of Bihar, India”. A brief account of some

general aspects of tribal medicine, like the kind of medicine-men and diagnosis

of diseases has been presented along with few prescriptions for polio, asthma,

tuberculosis, epilepsy, cancer and leprosy as example of the vast ethno-medicinal

heritage of the region.

Loewenthal and Peer (1991) conducted a survey of the

“Traditional methods used in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases among

the Turkana tribe in north-west Kenya”. They collected the data from people

who suffered from chronic eye diseases. It has been concluded that local practice

of treatment includes about nine plant species of nine families.

Meena et al (1991) studied “Status of tribal medicinal plants of

Hazaribagh” and discussed the ethno-botanical field studies in different parts of

the Hazaribagh district, where a large number of people have been using wild

plants for food, medicine and insecticides. The data has been collected from

tribal medicine men and very experienced old tribals. The study has been

restricted to medicinal uses of 22 plants.

Pandey et al (1991) studied the “Conservation inventory of high

altitude medicinal plants of western Himalayas” used in Indian system of

medicine. The authors identified 36 such herbs in the region and described their

economic importance and utility.

Gupta et al (1992) while studying “Conservation and cultivation

of medicinal plants of Hyderabad forest division, A.P.” concluded that the

wealth of medicinal plants in Andhra Pradesh is depleting on account of

deforestation and biotic interference because of which many species are in

danger of becoming extinct. The authors stressed upon a measure of conservation

in which most of the medicinal plants are being transplanted in the mini-herbal

gardens of Central Research Institute for Unani Medicines at Hyderabad.

Pandit (1992) concentrated on one region and worked on

“Conservation of over-exploited medicinal plants of Gujarat”. He concluded

that there has been a depletion of natural resources of medicinal plants like

Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera and Glycyrrhiza glabra in the region.

Raina and Jamwal (1992) worked on “Environmental stress and

conservation strategies for Bunium persicum (Kala Zira)”and concluded that

the species is under various biotic and abiotic pressures. In the communication

some points have been highlighted to divert the pressure and relieve the plant

from environmental stresses.

Srivastava and Kapahi (1992) during their studies on the

“Medicinal and aromatic plant resources of Sikkim Himalaya” explored 280

plant species belonging to 207 genera and 92 families growing wild/ cultivated.

Local names, families/ abundance and active constituents of each species have

also been given by them.

Goel (1993) while working on “Conservation of medicinal plant

resources in Himalayas” enumerated important medicinal plants of the

Himalayas, with particular reference to the North-western and Central

Himalayas. The list also included certain threatened species. The author

emphasized development of a strategy for conservation of medicinal plants.

Gupta et al (1993) worked on the “Medicinal plant inventory of

Kuna Indians” and reported 90 plants used by the Kuna Indians of San Blas

Island. This study also includes medicinal uses, known constituents and

pharmacological effects. Of the 90 species reported in this study 49 (54.4%) have

been used topically, 24 (26.7%) internally and 17(18.9%) externally and

internally. Generally the plants are being used for the common diseases of the

area like muscle and joint aches, fever, wound healing, snakebite, childbirth,

acne, colds, tonics etc. Three plants belonging to the genera Hyptis and Ocimum

are used as aromatic. Five plants, Anthurium sp., Cyclanthus hipartitus, Hibiscus

rosa-sinensis, Genipa americana and Spathiphyllum friedrichsthalii are used by

pregnant women to prevent the enlargement of the uterus.

Aswal’s (1994) work on “Conservation of ethno-medicinal plant

diversity of Garhwal Himalayas and ethno-biology in human welfare” is

both interesting and valuable. He laid stress on the fact that important ethno-

medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalayan region (an important source of variety of

medicinal plants since Vedic periods) face threats to their survival and therefore

need proper utilization and conservation.

Hutchings and Staden (1994) gave an account of the “Plants used

for stress - related ailments in traditional Zullu, Xhose and Sotho medicine:

Plants used for headaches”. They reviewed the usage and indications of

possible therapeutic and harmful effects of 96 plants reported to be used for

headaches in traditional Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho medicine and observed that 89%

of plants used for headaches may possess one or more useful therapeutic

properties, while 58% of the plants may contain potentially toxic compounds. 62

species (67%) had possible analgesic effects. 25 species are also used to treat

pain in other ailments. 45 species (48%) were with possible decongestant effects.

Possible antispasmodic effects were indicated in 27 species (30%). Two of these

species, Datura stramonium and Datura metel have been used pharmaceutically

for asthma. Possible anti-inflammatory effects were indicated in 20 species

(22%) while 20 species (22%) were with possible sedative effects. Possible

hypertensive effects were noted in three species, while possible antidepressant

effects in two species. Potential toxicity was observed in 56 species (58%).

Seventeen of these species are reported to have been suspected for causing

human or animal deaths. Further more, ten other species are reported to have

caused some form of morbid poisoning. Plants suspected of causing fatal human

poisoning include Acokanthera oppositifolia, Asclepias fruticosa, Bersma lucens,

Boophane disticha, Capparis tomentosa, Bowiea volubilis, Clutia pulchella,

Spirostachys Africana, Synadenium cupulare, Datura metel, D. stramonium,

Erythrophleum lasianthum, Senecio retrorsus and Plumbago auriculata.

Rai (1994) discussed the “Role of emerging technologies for

conservation of biodiversity” and emphasized that a prime reason for erosion of

global biodiversity is unwise and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources,

both animate and inanimate. Another reason is ecological changes on a

significant scale due to indiscriminate industrialization using technologies

hazardous to environment. He suggested that frontier areas of technology, viz.

IT, GIS, Remote Sensing, Biotechnology etc. are some of the disciplines that

have important roles to play for conservation of biodiversity. Biotechnology even

has the potential to reverse the trend of erosion of biodiversity.

Raveendranathan (1994) discussed the “Prospects of herbal

drugs”. He argued that in respect of the wide use of plant drugs in different

indigenous systems of medicine in India the need to conserve and multiply these

natural resources is essential. He further emphasized that the clinical efficiency

of Ayurvedic treatment of certain diseases as compared to that of Allopathy is

much more and attempts regarding the quality control and standardization of

plant drugs, that had been a major lacuna, are succeeding.

Sivadas (1994) while working on the “Monitoring and

assessment of the environment for harmonizing its preservation and

development” laid stress on understanding the environment systematically as the

essential step towards sustainable use of the natural resources. He also pointed

out that investigation methodologies depend on the instruments made available

from time to time and electronic instruments have to play better roles in this area.

Manandhar (1995) conducted “A survey of medicinal plants of

Jajar Kot District, Nepal” and reported 60 plant species for 25 types of diseases

which have been identified in this area through the field data.

Saha (1995) worked on the “Conservation, regeneration and a

species selection in (India) Sunderbans” and concluded that Sunderbans is

floristically poorer, due to higher salinity and human interference. It is imperative

to conserve the ecosystem for maintaining ecological balance, for protecting

inland areas and for commercial exploitation. He further proposed that artificial

regeneration in foreshore lands has been done by hand and aerial seeding.

Species are selected on the basis of greater utilizable biomass but should actually

be done with respect to conditions prevailing at the particular area.

Siddique et al (1995) determined the “Status of important

medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalayas”. During their three-year survey, the

well known medicinal and aromatic plants used in the area have been listed along

with the plant part(s) used and the mode of administration. The authors also

formulated a list of rare and endangered plants of the area.

Smit et al (1995) published their work on “Ayurvedic herbal

drugs with possible cytostatic activity” and presented an ayurvedic model for

the pathogenesis of cancer. Based on this model, selection criteria were formed,

that were used to select plants from a list of ayurvedic herbal drugs. The dried

material of 14 plant species were submitted to ethanol (70% v/v) extraction and

the extracts were tested for cytotoxicity on COLO 320 tumor cells, using the

micro-culture tetrazolium (MTT) assay. The Lc50 value, the concentration

causing 50% growth inhibition of the tumour cells, was used as a parameter for

cyto-toxicity. The extracts of the flowers of Calotropis procera and nuts of

Semecarpus anacardium displayed the strongest cyto-toxic effect with Lc50

values of 1.4 µg/ml and 1.6 µg/ml, respectively.

Amatya (1996) gave an account of the “Ethno-medicinal use of

plants of Bara district, Nepal”. The inhabitants of this sub-tropical region

including Tharu, Ahir, Muslim, Mushar, Majhi, Chamar, Brahman and Tamang

utilize same plants for medicinal, as well as tanning purpose. The important tanin

bearing medicinal plants are Acacia catechu, Acacia concina, Albizia procera,

Aegle marmelos, Cassia fistula, Dillenia pentagyna, Emblica officinalis,

Mallotus philippensis, Schleichera bleesa, Shorea robusta, Terminalia bellerica

and T. chebula. The vernacular name, local name, tanin source, tanin percentage

and ethno-medicinal uses have also been given.

Bhadula et al (1996) while studying the “Genetic resources of

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. - an endangered medicinal species from

Garhwal Himalayas, India” pointed out that the frequency of this species in

nature has declined considerably because of over-exploitation to meet the ever

increasing demand of pharmaceutical companies. The characteristics of various

populations of P. hexandrum and future conservation strategies of the species

have also been described.

Brahma and Boissya (1996) presented “Ethno-botanical notes on

certain medicinal plants used by the Bodos of Assam with particular

reference to Kokrajhar District”. They made an inventory of 109 medicinal

plants used by the Bodo tribal of Assam either singly or in combination,

spreading over four families. The families, Bodo names and the local names have

also been given in the communication. The detailed uses of the plants, as

suggested by the local Bodo people, have also been mentioned.

Darshan (1996) while working with “Conserving the medicinal

plants of India: the need for a bicultural perspective” discussed the

importance of conservation of medicinal plants and recognized two streams of

traditional medicines in India (i) Folk medicine existing in all rural communities

throughout the country and (ii) codified traditional medicine (Ayurveda, Unani,

Siddha and Tibetan Systems of medicine) which is documented in a number of

medical manuscripts.

Mahato et al (1996) while working on the “Ethno-botanical

wealth of Chhota Nagpur plateau India: Some medicinal plants used against

diarrhoea by the people of Singhbhum district, Bihar” concluded that the

people of Chhota Nagpur depend upon plants for their daily needs including

medicine. During the survey of medicinal plants, 27 plant species which are

being used to cure diarrhoea by the people of Singhbhum district of Chhota

Nagpur, Bihar have been recorded. Among them 12 plant species are known to

control dysentery also.

Pandit et al (1996) collected “Ethno-medicinal plant lores from

Gir Forest, Gujarat” and published some interesting information on 45 plant

species (belonging to 32 families) used by Maldharis tribe of Gir forest to relieve

various ailments. The plant species so collected have been enumerated along

with their botanical name, vernacular name and ethno-botanical uses.

Joshi and Rawat (1997) stressed on “Need for conservation and

propagation of alpine and sub-alpine medicinal plants of north-west

Himalayas” and suggested some conservation measures and recommendations

including systematic rotational collection in different areas, the development of a

Germplasm Centre and ex-situ and in-situ conservation.

Kumar et al (1997) carried out “Studies on weeds used as ethno-

medicinal plants by some tribal people” and observed that weeds play a key

role in maintenance of successive vegetation for environment. The ethno-

medicinal value of some weeds used as plant medicine, among different tribal

communities like Santhal, Patharia, Oraon, Nunda, Kol and Kharwar, etc., has

been given along with the botanical name, family, tribal name, parts used and

the ailments for which they are used.

Mondal et al (1997) while undertaking “Ethno-botanical studies

on some aquatic plants of the Lateritic belt of West Bengal” observed that in

India, the work on ethno-botany has paved a new way for folk-medicine. This

study is focused on a preliminary contribution to the use of aquatic medicinal

plants by the local inhabitants of the lateritic belt of West Bengal.

Raina (1997) studied the “Botany, conservation strategies and

cultivation of Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch” and concluded that the

species in nature is under constant threat of biotic and abiotic factors viz.

trampling, grazing, browsing and indiscriminate collection by humans. The

species can be exploited as cash crop when conserved and cultivated. During the

study some standardized agro-technological and tissue culture techniques for the

large scale regeneration and conservation of species have been suggested.

Chaudhary and Rao (1998) while working on the “Notes on the

genus Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae) in north-west Himalayas (India)”

indicated the current status of the species as being critically endangered in its

type localities owing to its high medicinal value. The authors suggested in-situ

and ex-situ methods for the conservation of genetic diversity in these species.

Kumar and Pande (1998) studied “The tribals and the utility of

the medicinal plants in their day-to-day lives in Santal Pargava, Bihar,

India” and came to the conclusion that most of the tribals are well acquainted

with the know-how of the age-old treatment by medicinal plants. They developed

the tribal medicines from different local medicinal plants which have become a

part of their culture. The medico-ethno-botanical data obtained from the survey

of five districts of Santal Pargava, revealed the medicinal usage of different parts

of plant species.

Khasim and Mohana Rao (1999) studied “Medicinal importance

of orchids” and observed that many medicinal orchids have useful alkaloids.

They also concluded that some of the orchids fall in endangered category due to

over-exploitation and habitat destruction. Paper suggests different strategies for

conservation of orchids.

Kirn et al (1999) reported “Ethno-botanical observations on the

gymnosperms of Poonch district (J&K state), India” and enumerated nine

species of gymnosperms such as Abies pindrow, A. spectabilis, Cedrus deodara,

Juniperus communis, J. recurva, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, P.

wallichiana and Taxus wallichiana, which are being used by the Gujjars and

Bakkarwals of the area, during their trans-humane migration in the upper hill

regions for meeting their all kinds of daily needs including the medicinal uses.

The paper deals with their botanical description, distribution and uses. All the

nine species are found wild in the district.

Mamgain et al (1998) studied the “Conservation assessment of

some important threatened medicinal plants of India”. In the study the

emphasis has been laid on 10 threatened medicinal plants for their distribution,

medicinal properties, uses and conservation. Over exploitation was cited as the

main cause of depletion of natural populations of these taxa.

Rana et al (1998) worked on “Diversity and conservation

strategies of medicinal plants in the north-western Himalayas” and

enumerated the major medicinal herbs present in the north – west Himalayas

from Kashmir to Kumaon which have been lost due to continuous loss of forest

land, uncontrolled grazing and unscientific collection. On the basis of this

observation they emphasized upon the importance of conservation of medicinal

plant diversity and demanded a national concern for it.

Karuppusamy et al (2000) while studying the “Needs for

diversity conservation of traditional medicinal plant resources of Dindigul

District, Tamil Nadu” stressed upon the role of ethnic and rural communities

for in-situ conservation. Authors expressed concern for the lack of

documentation of indigenous knowledge on the rich native diversity of useful

medicinal plants of this region and to promote and implement the conservation

strategies for sustainability of the natural ecosystem.

Srivastava et al (2000) while working on the “Threatened plants

of medicinal and aromatic value of north-west Himalayas” reported twenty

taxa of medicinal and aromatic value in the north - west Himalayan region under

the category of threatened plants due to large scale and indiscriminate collection

in the past. At least one of these, i.e., Ferula narthex has already been wiped out

from geographical boundaries of the country while the survival of three others,

i.e., Aconitum chasmanthum, A. deinorrhizum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea is

unlikely if present casual factors continue to operate. There are dozen or so taxa

which are highly vulnerable. These include some which have been over-exploited

for commercial purposes, while others have been exposed to the danger of

deforestation, habitat destruction etc. The paper also suggests cultivation of some

of the threatened plants on lines with Saussurea lappa, Inula racemosa and

Bunium persicum. Successful cultivation has brought these medicinal plants out

of the endangered list.

Kant and Sharma (2001) presented their studies on the

“Medicinal plants of Patnitop and adjoining hills (J&K) and their

conservation”. They reported 56 medicinally important plant species, parts of

the plants used and their utility, from the study area. According to the study the

area is under the stress of a lot many biotic activities like tourism, development,

nomadism, encroachments and over exploitation of resources. Thus there is as

urgent need of application of sound conservation strategies and proper

management practice to save this useful bio-resource of the area.

Kirn and Kapahi (2001b) while presenting “Ethno-botanical

notes on some ferns and fern-allies of Jammu and Kashmir state, India”

enumerated 19 taxa belonging to 12 genera and 11 families of pteridophytes of

Jammu & Kashmir. Local names, family and ethno-botanical details of all the

taxa have been discussed. The data presented has been obtained through

interviews conducted with ethnic groups of the region.

Kumar et al (2001) studied “In-vitro conservation of germplasm

of medicinal plants” and suggested long term conservation by cryopreservation

technology for some medicinal plants to harness potential benefits of the

technique. Cell cultures of Atropa, Datura, Dioscorea, Catharanthus, etc. have

been successfully cryopreserved.

Badola and Pal (2002) in their communication “Endangered

medicinal plant species in Himachal Pradesh” enumerated 14 medicinal plant

species as endangered and recommended these species for ex-situ cultivation in

Himachal Pradesh. Four agro-climatic zones have been identified for cultivation

of these 14 plant species.

Roy and Agrawal (2002) carried out a survey of the

“Phytoconstituents and worldwide uses of ethno-medicinal plants for

hypoglycemic activity” and concluded that some plants are common to many

regions, where as some uses are unique to a particular country. In this study the

authors reported a worldwide account of 36 plants, which possess hypoglycemic

activity.

Adhikari et al (2003) presented their paper on “Medicinal trees of

Uttaranchal state: distribution, use pattern and prospects for conservation”.

They reported 170 medicinal trees from sub-tropical, 64 from warm temperate,

22 from cool-temperate, 10 from sub-alpine and 4 from alpine region. The

prospects of in-situ and ex-situ conservation of medicinal trees in Uttaranchal

state have been elaborately discussed.

Igoli et al (2003) made an ethno-botanical survey of the Igede-

speaking areas of Nigeria. In an article “Traditional medicinal practices

among the Igede people of Nigeria” authors enumerated 39 plant species

belonging to 23 families used in the traditional medicinal system of the Igede.

From these plants, 31 prescriptions or recommendations were recorded for

treatment of approximately 21 ailments or therapeutic indications, including

hypertension, lack of energy, and fish and arrow poisons. The family Rubiaceae

had the largest number of plants used, and, the largest numbers of prescriptions

were for fever.

Rajendran et al (2003) studied “Lesser known ethno-medicinal

plants of the Ayyakarkoil Forest of Southwestern Ghats, Tamil - Nadu” and

concluded that in the forested area, only the Palian Tribes made settlements,

usually camping near foothills or on pavements of lower hill range during

nomadic times. With the help of local people and tribal practitioners, 43

medicinally important plant species belonging to 42 genera and 24 families have

been recorded from the Ayyakarkoil forest.

Sarin (2003) presented an appraisal of resources of the “Medicinal

plant raw materials for Indian drug and pharmaceutical industry” and

concluded that about 340 plant species are used as raw material for Indian drug

and pharmaceutical Industry. Among these 145 occur wild in forests, 54 grow as

weed, 70 grow as cash crop, 30 cultivated as medicinal crop and around 40

species are imported from other countries. Due to tremendous increase in the

demand of the plant species in the market of drug industry, the natural population

of many medicinal plants has declined to a great extent, while a few are at the

verge of extinction.

Augustine and Sivadasan (2004) while presenting “Ethno-

botanical plants of Periyar tiger reserve, Kerala, India” enumerated 180

species of plants as ethno-botanically important. Among these species 66 are

used as ethno-medicinal species by the tribal groups, namely Mannan, Paliyan,

Urali, Malayarayan and Malapandaram.

Beigh et al (2004) while working on “Ethno-botany of Kashmir –

studies on traditional veterinary medicine in Kashmir Himalayas, J&K

State” documented 25 plants and their use as veterinary medicines. Each plant

species is discussed with family, local name and part used for the treatments. The

information on the utilization of plants for curing common ailments of animals

was obtained from knowledgeable persons and ethnic persons by filling a

questionnaire.

Bondya and Sharma (2004) while working on “Ethnobotanical

studies on plants used in diabetes (Madhumeha) under the Baharagora

block of Jharkhand”, enumerated 11 ethno-medicinal plant species used in

Baharagora block of Jharkhand State for the treatment of diabetes.

Borthakur et al (2004) while exploring “Folklore hepato-

protective herbal recipes from Assam in north-east India” reported 39

hepato-protective herbal prescriptions prevalent among different ethnic groups of

Assam. These 39 empirically accepted prescriptions include some 46 plant

species

Brussell (2004a) while enumerating “Medicinal plants of Mt.

Pelion, Greece” reported a total of 225 taxa representing 77 families along with

habitat data and ethno-botanical information. He (2004b) also presented “A

medicinal plant collection from Montscrrat, West Indies” and reported 272

taxa representing 78 families along with habitat information and ethno-botanical

notes.

De Feo (2004) reported “The ritual use of Brugmansia species in

traditional Andean medicine in Northern Peru”. The curranderos on Northern

Peru use Brugmansia species for therapeutic-divinatory, phyto-therapeutics,

illness and black magic.

Gupta et al (2004) while working on “Anticancer activities of

Oldenlandia diffusa” tested in-vitro anti-proliferating activities of water extract

of the raw herb Oldenlandia diffusa, against eight cancer cell lines and one

normal cell line. The extract exhibited a strong anti-proliferating activity against

all cancer cell lines and induces significant increase of apoptosis. The extract

exhibited minimum toxic effect on normal pancreatic cells. Hence the herb

extract could be a potential anticancer agent.

Haui and Pei (2004) while working on “Plants used medicinally

by folk healers of the Lahu people from the autonomous county of Jinping

Niao, Yoa, and Dai in Southern China” reported 118 species of medicinal

plants belonging to 57 families and 98 genera used by Lahu healers. According

to field investigations skin disease and broken bones are the main medicinal

problems for the Lahu people. Among the 118 species of medicinal plants used

by Lahu healers, 54 species are used to treat skin disease and fractured bones,

accounting for 45.76% of the total species.

Hermans et al (2004) while working on “Medicinal plants used

to treat malaria in Southern Benin” reported 85 species and 30 mixtures for

curing malaria in a restricted area. A mixture consisting of 4-28 species are in use

in Southern Benin. Modern plant based anti-malaria medicines assure much

faster healing, provided the parasites have not developed resistance against them.

Jadhav and Yadav (2004) while working on “Phyto-sociological

studies on the vegetation of Trimbakeshwar, Vani and Saptashringi forests

of Nasik district, Maharashtra- Maturity Index” recorded very small maturity

index at Saptashringi forest. The highest maturity index was observed at Vani

forest followed by Trimbakeshwar forest.

Janni and Bastien (2004) worked out “Exotic botanicals in the

Kallawaya Pharmacopoeia”. The Kallawaya are the most renowned herbalists

of South America and travel extensively throughout the Andes to collect

medicinal plants. Approximately 30% of the Kallawaya pharmacopoeia is

composed of exotic plant species.

Ji et al (2004) while working on “Ethno-botanical study of

medicinal plants used by the Lisu people in Nujiang, north-west Yunnan,

China” enumerated 52 medicinal plants, belonging to 32 families, used locally

for the treatment of human ailments. Among the 52 species, 11 species (21.2%)

were reported as rare and 16 were widely commercialized in the region. Over

exploitation and deforestation in the region are the main causes for the depletion

of medicinal plants in this region.

Kant and Dutt (2004) while enumerating “Plant species causing

dermatitis from Bhadarwah, J&K”, discussed eleven dermatitis producing

plant species with local names, families and taxonomic characters. Species like

Aconitum heterophyllum¸ Arisaema jacquemontii, Euphorbia helioscopia and

Rhus succedanea are reported as fetal species. But professionals like herbs-men

and Vaidyas use the plant parts in Ayurvedic preparations after destroying the

poisonous nature of the plant species.

Maliya (2004) while discussing “Some new or less known folk

medicines of District Bahraich (U.P)” reported 16 medicinal plants

traditionally used by the Thoru tribals and other rural inhabitants. The plant

species are used either singly or in combination with others as poly herbal

medicines by them for the treatment of various ailments.

Nawchoo et al (2004) while discussing “Studies on the

conservation biology of Jurinea dolomiacea and Gentiana kurroa, two

important medicinal plants of North West Himalaya” proposed a protocol for

conservation of Himalayan species. Study also concluded that 60 days chilling,

30 days chilling, 90 days chilling and GA3 treatment to the seeds of J.

dolomiacea help in early germination and survival in vivo conditions. Further, G.

kurroa show best results after treatments of 120 days chilling, 90 days chilling,

GA3 and 60 days chilling in-vivo. In-vitro cultivation may not be as successful.

Punjani (2004) conducted field survey in north Gujarat and

described “Ethno-medicinal uses of vitaceae among the tribals of north

Gujarat”. A total of 3 genera and 6 species of vitaceae have been reported. It is

also concluded that the traditional and locally available plant species are valuable

and important contributors to the treatment of fractured bones and other

disorders.

Sarangi and Sahu (2004) while discussing “Ethno-medicinal

plants used in venereal and gynecological disorders in Kalahandi, Orissa”

stated that tribal and scheduled castes of Kalahandi district use 32 plant species

in gynecological and venereal disorders. It has been observed that medicinal uses

and mode of applications vary from those in other neighboring districts.

Siddiqui (2004) while documenting “Anti-cancer drugs from

traditional plants of Sitapur district (Uttar Pradesh)” reported 10 such plant

species which are used by the locals for anti-cancer activities.

Sikarwar et al (2004) while working on “Uses of some important

medicinal plants of Chitrakoot region of Satna M.P.” reported 28 plants

utilized by tribal communities to alleviate their local ailments and diseases.

Srinivasan et al (2004) contributed to “The antimicrobial

spectrum of Hop constituents”. During the study it was observed that there is a

remarkable activity of hop compounds against protozoa especially ciliates and

flagellates. The activity of hop against protozoa is enhanced by CO2. There was

no co-action between hop acids and CO2 with E. coli or fungi. Fungi have low

sensitivity to hops.

Srivastava and Sekar (2004) while studying the “Ethno-medicine

of the Pin valley national park, Himachal Pradesh: Plants used in treating

dysentery” enumerated 10 plant species used by the tribals for treating

dysentery.

Strong (2004) while working on “African Plum and benign

prostatic hypertrophy” reported that the bark of Pygeum africanum (African

Plum) has been used in Europe since the mid 1960’s and is currently the most

popular medicine in France for benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). In 1998 the

demand for Pygeum africanum extract was so high that it caused the African

plum tree to become a threatened species.

Tirkey (2004) while documenting “Some ethno-medicinal plants

of Chattisgarh State” enumerated 50 plant species used as ethno-medicine by

the tribal group Vaidayas.

Upadhye and Kulkarni (2004) discussed “Traditional phyto-

therapy for insect bites among the tribals in western Maharashtra” and

enumerated 12 plant species as remedies used by the local tribal communities to

cure the insect bites.

Chandra et al (2005) while working on “Medicinal plants

conservation with reference to Ho and Munda tribals of Bihar and Orissa”

enumerated 217 plant species which are in use by these tribals. Tribals use all

these species in a judicial way because they have a deep-rooted feeling for the

native vegetation and assume the herbs as one of the prime component of the

nature which provide and maintain the basic elements for livelihood.

Sharma (2005) while working on “Conservation of medicinal

and aromatic plant diversity in western Himalayas” discussed the causes of

loss of biodiversity and stressed on peoples participation and role of R&D

institutes for restoration and conservation of biodiversity.

***********

Material and Methods

Plants growing together have mutual relationships among

themselves and with the environment. Community is a part of an ecological

system in which transformation, accumulation, and flow of energy are

involved. The functioning of this system is intimately related with the

components of community. The components vary in quality as well as in

quantity and impart a structure to the community.

Number of characters grouped under two heads viz. analytical

and synthetic form the structure of a community. Analytical characters like

frequency, density, abundance and dominance can be expressed as

quantitative characters while sociability, periodicity and stratification as

qualitative characters. Synthetic characters include presence, constancy and

fidelity components.

The analytical characters of a community are determined by

means of three sampling units – area, line and point, as employed in

quadrate, transect and point methods, respectively. In the present study

quadrate method has been employed in the study area. The analytic

(Quantitative) characters viz. frequency, density, and basal area were

calculated by laying quadrates in each stand of each site. The quadrates

were randomly laid to include maximum diversity, with regard to

topography, geology, soil and vegetation. Since the coniferous forests are

spread in most of the area and alpine region as well as high altitudinal oak

forest were not approachable for detailed study, the coniferous forest area

was chosen for phytosociological study. The sites were selected in the field by

visual inspection of each stand for internal uniformity with respect to species

composition and structure.

Twelve different sites were selected for phytosociological data

collection, which were later on clubbed to six sites for secondary data analysis.

3.1. Climatological data:

Data regarding climate of the two years i.e. January 2002 to

December 2003 was procured from the meteorological department.

3.2. Collection of Plant species:

Plant species were collected in flowering stage for three

consecutive years i.e. April 2002- April 2005 by visiting the study area monthly.

All species collected were dried using herbarium preservation techniques and

mounted on herbarium sheets. All herbarium sheets have been deposited in the

Herbarium of the Department of Botany, University of Jammu. The identification

of the species was done by using different floras and taking help of the experts in

taxonomy. Herbaria of RRL, Jammu and University of Jammu were also

consulted.

Sampling for phyto-sociological analysis was carried by visiting

the selected sites monthly. Soil samples were also collected from all the

twelve sites for physico-chemical analysis.

3.3. Photography:

Photography of the plant species has been done in the natural

habitat. More emphasis was given to the flowering stage of plants. Pentax camera

with micro, normal and tele-lenses was used for the purpose.

3.4. Phytosociological studies:

3.4.1. Quantitative characters: The quantitative characters recorded

in the field were:

3.4.1.1. Frequency: Frequency represents the number of

sampling units in which a given species occurs. It expresses the distribution or

dispersion of various species in a community. Therefore, percentage frequency

was calculated as under:

Total number of quadrates in which the species occurred % Frequency = X 100

Total number of quadrates studied

The density and frequency taken together are of prime importance

in determining community structure and have a variety of uses far beyond those

of other quantitative values. Abundance, if considered along with frequency,

gives an idea of the distribution pattern of the species while density represents

the number of individuals per unit area.

3.4.1.2. Density: Density represents the number of individuals of

a species per sampling unit.

Total number of individuals of the species

Density =

Total number of quadrates studied

3.4.1.3. Basal cover: Basal area refers to the ground actually

penetrated by the stem. The basal cover for herbs was calculated by using

formula:

(cgh)2

Basal cover = [where cgh is circumference at ground height]

4π

These parameters were taken in the field. This field data was

analysed for computation of Importance Value Index (IVI), which is the sum of

relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance. IVI provides total

picture of the sociological structure of species in a community (Mishra, 1969). It

thus incorporates three important parameters:

Frequency of a species

3.4.1.4. Relative frequency = X 100

Sum of frequencies of all the species

Density of a species

3.4.1.5. Relative density = X 100

Sum of densities of all the species

Total basal cover of a species

3.4.1.6. Relative dominance = X 100

Total basal cover of all the species

3.4.2. Species richness (Diversity indices):

Species richness can be described as the number of the species in a

sample or habitat per unit area. Various indices have been formulated, based on

the total number of species and total number of individuals in the sample. Higher

the value of the index, greater is the species richness. The indices used for

calculation of Species Richness in the present study include:

1) Shannon - Wiener’s Index (1949): This species index is the

simplest and represents average degree of uncertainty in predicting to

which particular species, an individual chosen at random from a

sample, will belong.

ni ni

H/ = ∑ log n

N N

{Where H/ = index value

ni = number of individuals of ith

species

N = total number of individuals of all species}

2) Menhinick’s index (1964):

s

Db = {Where s= number of species

√ n n= number of individuals}

3) Margalef’s index (1968):

s-1

Da = {Where s = number of species

Log n (n) n = number of individuals}

3.5. Life forms and Biological Spectrum:

The determination of life forms was preceded by detailed floristic

studies. Raunkiaer’s (1918) system as modified by Braun-Blanquet (1932) and

Cain (1950) has been used in the present study for the classification of the

vegetation on physiognomic basis. The percentage of various life form classes

put together constitutes the biological spectrum. The biological spectrum of the

present study has been prepared and compared with Raunkiaer’s normal

spectrum as well as biological spectrum of the adjoining areas.

3.6. Biomass:

Methods for biomass determination depend on the type of

vegetation to be studied. Complete harvesting was done for estimating the

biomass of the medicinal herbs. For the estimation of below ground biomass, the

under ground parts of the plants were separated and taken from the soil after

washing them continuously under the tap. The plant material was separated into

above ground and under ground parts.

All plant parts were oven dried for 24 hours at 800C or till whole

moisture was removed. The final dry weight for each herb was recorded using

digital balance for the determination of biomass.

3.7. Soil analysis:

Soil samples were collected from twelve different sites at random,

to cover almost whole of the area, in which the vegetational studies were made.

All the soil samples were taken 9-12 inches below the surface of the soil. Soil

analysis was done for all twelve sites. Out of these twelve sites six study sites i.e.

A,B,E,F,G and L were selected on the left bank of Neeru nallah, while study

sites C,D,H,I,J and K were distributed on the right bank of Neeru nallah. Sites A

(1740 msl-1850 msl), E (1280 msl-1380 msl) and L (2060-2200 msl) were

located in the moist coniferous forests, while sites B (1180 msl-1300 msl), F

(1500 msl-1600 msl) and G (1700 msl–1860 msl) were located in the open land

in between coniferous forests. On the right bank of Neeru nallah sites C (1200

msl- 1300 msl) and D (1600 msl –1720 msl) were located in the sub-tropical Dry

Evergreen forests, while sites H (2400 msl – 2480 msl) and J (2020-2240 msl)

were located near the agricultural land in between coniferous forests and sites I

(2260 msl – 2380 msl) and K (1680 msl – 1780 msl) were located in pure deodar

forests.

3.7.1. Physical parameters:

Physical parameters like moisture, temperature and pH were studied

in the field, while the soil samples stored in polythene bags were brought to the

laboratory for the analysis of organic carbon, bicarbonates, carbonates, calcium,

magnesium, chloride, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphates, and nitrates.

3.7.1.1. Moisture: Soil moisture was determined directly by

using moisture meter “Model DM – 33”.

3.7.1.2. Texture: Soil texture was determined by textural triangle

method of “U.S. Department of Agriculture” after asserting the percentage of

various soil components viz. coarse, sand, silt and clay by sieving the samples

through an electrically operated sieve set.

3.7.1.3. pH: Portable pH meter “Hanna” make was used for

recording the pH of the soil solution (10 g. of soil + 50 ml. of distilled water).

3.7.1.4. Temperature: The temperature was recorded in the field

by placing soil Thermometer horizontally about 15 cm below the soil surface.

3.7.1.5. Electric conductivity: Electric conductivity of the soil

samples was determined after making a solution of soil by dissolving 20 g. of soil

sample in 40 ml of distilled water (1:2). Digital Direct Reading conductivity

meter (Systronics 304) was used to determine the electric conductivity of the

solution.

3.7.2. Chemical parameters:

For chemical analysis of soil, the samples were separated in

three different groups:

1) Soil water extract (1:2) for CO//

3, HCO/3, Cl

/, Ca, Mg, Na and K.

2) Ground dry soil samples for available phosphorus, available sulphur,

available organic carbon and available nitrate.

3) Ground dry soil samples, 10 gm each, for microelements.

3.7.2.1. Macroelements:

3.7.2.1.1. Determination of Carbonates and

Bicarbonates: Carbonates and Bicarbonates from the soil extract were determined by titrimetric method by titrating

the solution (extract) against standard acid using phenolpthalein and methyl orange, respectively, as indicators (Gupta, 1999).

3.7.2.1.2. Determination of Chloride: Chloride in the

soil water extract was estimated by titrating the extract against standard AgNO3

solution using K2CrO4 as indicator (Gupta, 1999).

3.7.2.1.3. Determination of Calcium: Calcium was

determined by Versenate (EDTA) titration method. This method developed by

Schwarzentach and Biederman, is very useful on account of its accuracy,

simplicity and speed (Gupta 1999).

3.7.2.1.4. Determination of Magnesium:

Magnesium was determined by Versenate (EDTA) titration method (Gupta

1999).

3.7.2.1.5. Determination of Sodium: Sodium was

determined from soil water extract using flame photometer (EEL model)

(Gupta 1999).

3.7.2.1.6. Determination of Potassium:

Potassium was determined from soil water extract using flame photometer with

Potassium filter (EEL model) (Gupta, 1999).

3.7.2.1.7. Determination of Phosphorus: The soil of the

area being acidic in nature Bray and Kurtz no.1 method as suggested by Bray

and Kurtz (1945) was followed for the estimation of available phosphorus.

Intensity of blue colour was recorded using 730 nm wavelength on

spectrophotometer, (Systronics 106) (Gupta 1999).

3.7.2.1.8. Determination of Sulphur: Available sulphur

was determined as suggested by Cottenie et al (1979) by using

spectrophotmeter (Systronics 106) (Gupta, 1999).

3.7.2.1.9. Determination of Organic Carbon:

Colorimetric method as suggested by Datta et al (1962) was followed for the

determination of organic carbon.

3.7.2.1.10. Determination of Nitrate: Available nitrate

was determined by colorimetric determination method (Jackson, 1973).

3.7.2.2. Microelements: Microelements were determined from

the soil samples by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The sample

solutions were introduced into an air – acetylene flame instead of nitrous oxide-

acetylene flame because of its toxicity and laughing gas nature. The soil samples

were digested using EDTA (ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid) extracting

solution.

EDTA extracting solution = 0.05 M disodium EDTA + 0.01 M CaCl2 + 0.1TEA

[Where EDTA= ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid; CaCl2 = Calcium Chloride; TEA = Tri-ethanol-

amine]

Procedure given by Lindsay & Norwell (1969) was followed for the

determination of microelements.

****************

Observations

4.1 Forest cover of the study area:

For most of the recorded history, forests have been recognized not

only as a source of personal succour, even wealth, but also as a communal

resource, a source of water, game, land, fuel, timber, food, fodder, medicine and

much more for all. India is one of the richest countries in the world in both

inorganic and organic natural resources. Indian landmass is connected with the

Chinese and the Asiatic regions of the world which exercise a powerful influence

on the natural characteristics of the physical landscape, climate, plants, animals

and human populations. Both geologically and geographically these influences

have contributed a great deal in determining what may be called the Indian and

the non-Indian or the exotic elements in Indian floristic.

The study area i.e. Neeru watershed, bound on all sides by

Himalayan ranges, is dominated by coniferous trees viz. Abies pindrow Royle,

Cedrus deodara Roxb., Picea smithiana (Wall) Boiss. , Pinus roxburghii Sargent

and Pinus wallichiana Jackson.

In some areas below 1200 msl, tree species like Olea ferruginea

Royle, Trema politoria Planch., Zizyphus mauritiana Lam., Quercus species,

Punica granatum Linn., Ficus palmata Forssk. dominate the flora. These species

are very common on hillocks on the right bank of Neeru drainage, while Pinus

roxburghii is found in addition to the above species on the slopes of the left

bank. Between 1200 msl to 2000 msl, Alnus nitida Endl., a broad leaved tree,

dominate the vegetation along both the banks of the Neeru nallah. Pinus

wallichiana and Cedrus deodara extend between elevations of 1,500 msl to

3,000 msl in the forest area. At higher elevations (above 2,500 msl) the stands of

Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana are found on the mountain peaks, while

Taxus wallichiana Zucc. occurs well above 2,000 msl elevation and is very

poorly represented in the area.

Quercus incana Roxb., Q. dilatata Lindl., Q. semecarpifolia

Smith, Alnus nitida Endl., Prunus cornuta Wall., Fraxinus excelsior Linn.,

Aesculus indica Coleb., Rhus succedanea Linn., Juglans regia Linn., Ficus

palmata, Populus ciliata Wall. and Acer species are important broad leaved

species of the area.

In shrub vegetation, Berberis lycium Royle., Daphne oleoides

Schreib., Elaeagnus umbellata Thund., Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall., Prinsepia

utilis Royle., Ficus palmata, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana Dcne., Rabdosia

rugosa Wall., Rubus ellipticus Smith., Spiraea canescens D. Don., Rosa

macrophylla Lindl., Indigofera gerardiana Wall., and Lonicera quinquelocularis

Hardw. are dominating species in the area. At low elevation (below 1200msl)

Punica granatum is one more addition to the flora.

The forests of Neeru watershed have been divided into six types

and further in seven sub-types of five groups as per the classification of

Champion and Seth (1964). These types and sub-types are: -

4.1.1. Group 10: Subtropical dry evergreen forests

4.1.1.1. Type 10/C1: Subtropical dry evergreen forest

4.1.1.1.1. Sub-type 10/C1a: Olea cuspidata scrub

forest: This type of forest extends from Pul Doda (821 msl) to Paranoo (1180

msl) on the slopes of right bank of Neeru Nallah. The scrub forest is

characterized by Olea ferruginea (syn. Olea cuspidata) followed by few stands

of Quercus baloot Griff. on the right bank of Neeru Nallah, while towards higher

slopes, Trema politoria is well represented. The slopes of left bank of Neeru

Nallah between Pul Doda and Paranoo are represented by Olea ferruginea

followed by Q. baloot, Zizyphus mauritiana and Punica granatum. Besides these

species, patches of Pinus roxburghii and Trema politoria are found on these

slopes.

It is also observed that Olea ferruginea scrub forest, on left

bank doesn’t extend above Nali Dangri, Bigotha, Grondi, Bhubba, Bata and

Masiri villages. On the slopes, towards the mouth of Neeru Nallah, patches of

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb., Nerium indicum Mill., Calotropis procera Br. and

Opuntia vulgaris are commonly seen, while Zizyphus mauritiana and Punica

granatum Linn. are distributed towards Paranoo. Alnus nitida a broad leaved tree

species shows a transition towards temperate region. The area covering sub-type

10/C1a is directly exposed to sun. Thus, low moisture content in soil is

characteristic of the slopes of this zone. The soils of these slopes are loose, grey

in color with neutral to alkaline pH (Plate-5, Fig.1).

4.1.2. Group 12: Himalayan moist temperate forests:

4.1.2.1. Type 12/C1: Lower Western Himalayan temperate

forests

4.1.2.1.1. Sub-type 12/C1a: Ban Oak forest: Sub-type

12/C1a i.e. Ban Oak forest is restricted to pockets at high altitudes in Neeru

valley. The dominant tree species of this zone are Quercus dilatata, and Quercus

leucotrichophora Camus. (syn. Q. incana) while Rhododendron arboreum

Smith, Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don., Juniperus recurva Ham. are

represented as associated species. This forest sub-type extends from Gul-Danda

Dhar (2770 msl) to Ramtund (3500 msl) including some parts of Chatter-Dhar

(3236 msl) and Chuncholu slope (3430 msl). Seoj-Dhar slope (3570 msl- 3690

msl) facing Ramtund peak doesn’t possess this sub-type but stands of Q.

leucotrichophora are distributed towards the top of this slope. Generally moist

soil is the characteristic feature of this zone while some places are devoid of

shrub vegetation due to rocky surface of the area. Towards Sundrikot and Kirmiri

Gali, sub-type 12/C1a forest is stretched on the lower belt of Sunderikot (3870

msl) and Kirmiri Gali (3570 msl). It is observed that Ban Oak Forest i.e. sub-type

12/C1a with Quercus species in lower stratification and Rhododendron species in

upper stratification are represented in the area ( Plate-6, Figs.1-3).

4.1.2.1.2. Sub-type 12/C1b: Moru Oak forest:

Moru Oak forest i.e. 12/C1b is represented by the stands of Quercus dilatata,

Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana in some grooved pockets in between the

hills of left bank of Neeru nallah. However, this sub-type is totally absent on the

right bank of Neeru nallah. Between Dhar Lachran (2700 msl) to Mushdeo-ro-

Nal (2800 msl) the stands of Quercus dilatata, Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana

represent sub-type 12/C1b in deep grooved valleys, while Abies pindrow

flourish well towards the periphery of those grooves where sunlight reach easily.

Due to heavy precipitation in the form of snowfall in winters and rainfall in

summers the soil remains moist throughout the year. Moderate acidic pH range

from 5.0-6.5 is the characteristic feature of the soil of this forest type (Plate-7,

Figs. 1-2).

4.1.2.1.3. Sub-type 12/C1c: Moist deodar forest:

Sub-type 12/C1c of the area is represented by pure Cedrus deodara stands with

few countable trees of Aesculus indica. On hills and peaks of right bank of

Neeru nallah, sub-type 12/C1c stretches between Subar Dhar and Thanala. This

area includes Lanchan Dhar in east and south facing slope of Thubba in west,

with width getting narrowed between Kansaroo and Duggi slopes. This forest

sub-type extends up to Thanala and forms a pure continuous belt of Cedrus

deodara. Beside some grooves, 12/C1c forest sub-type is also distributed in

mountains and sub-valleys of left bank of Neeru nallah. Forest sub-type 12/C1c

extends from slopes of Nalthi to Dhar Lachran as continuous stand while sub-

type 12/C1b is suspended in the grooved pockets in this (12/C1c) forest sub-type.

It has also been observed that sub-type 12/C1c also extends in the form of narrow

stretch between Dhar-Lachran and Bigotha in Kellar range. This narrow stretch

includes Dranga, Gutasa, Darodoo, Galian, Niota, Panj Gram, Chanti, upper

Bhalla, Traown and Bigotha.

Although the area of this forest sub-type remain moist throughout

the year due to frequent rains but evidences of forest fires are common in this

forest sub-type due to the availability of abundant resin. Acidic soils are a

characteristic feature of this region (Plate-8, Figs.1-3).

4.1.2.1.4. Sub-type 12/C1d: Western mixed

coniferous forest: The sub-type 12/C1d in the area is represented by Abies

pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana and Pinus wallichiana. Just above

Sub-type 12/C1c, at higher elevations of left bank of Neeru nallah, sub-type

12/C1d stretches from upper portion of Dharaphar to Ramtund (2600 msl) in the

form of narrow continuous stand. On right bank of Neeru nallah, this forest type

is restricted to the upper peaks of Nagni Mandir and peaks above Duggi-Nal.

Some patches have been located in between Padari Gali (2800 msl) and Katari-

di-Gali. Mixed forest stands of Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, and Picea

smithiana are also present between Ashapatti tributary and Kaplash tributary of

Neeru watershed. Few plants of Betula utilis, on rocky surface, and Taxus

wallichiana, in the grooves are also located in between these two tributaries.

Zamana-ri-Dhar is known for Himalayan Yew i.e. Taxus wallichiana. The soils

of the forest type remain wet due to frequent rainfall in summer while winters are

characterized by heavy snowfall (Plate-9, Figs. 1-5).

4.1.2.1.5. Sub-type 12/C1f: Low level blue pine

forest: 12/C1f forest sub-type is represented by pure Pinus wallichiana stand in

Bhadarwah and its close vicinity. These stands are present in the lower belt of

sub- type 12/C1c on the peaks along left bank of Neeru nallah. The soils of the

area remain acidic and rich in humus (Plate-10, Figs. 1-2).

4.1.2.2. Type 12/C2: Upper West Himalayan temperate forest

4.1.2.2.1. Sub-type 12/C2a: Kharsu Oak forest: Sub-type

12/C2a i.e. Kharsu Oak forest is represented by pure stands of

Quercus semecarpifolia and few stands of Trema politoria on the hill

slopes of right and left banks near Paranoo. The soil of the area

remains dry and grey in colour (Plate-5, Fig.2).

4.1.3. Group 13: Himalayan dry temperate forests

4.1.3.1. Type 13/C1: Dry broadleaved and coniferous

forest: Climatically intermediate between sub-tropical and temperate zone, type

13/C1 is represented from Paranoo to Bhalla, while upper peaks of Kellar forest

range do not fall in this type. On the slopes of right bank, between Paranoo to

Bhalla, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus dilatata, Fraxinus species are distributed.

Zizyphus mauritiana, Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana represent the 13/C1

type above Bhalla and in the vicinity of Gurakha (slopes on right bank). The

populations of Alnus nitida and Ficus palmata, two broad leaved species, are

distributed along both the banks of Neeru nallah and its tributaries from Bhalla to

Bheja (2200 msl). Slopes of left bank between Paranoo and Bhalla are

characterized by Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus dilatata at low

elevations, while Cedrus deodara dominates the vegetation at higher elevations.

Snowfall is the prime requisite for this forest type. Berberis lycium, Rosa

macrophylla, Rubus ellipticus, Daphne oleoides, Viburnum grandiflorum

dominate the shrub vegetation. Ficus palmata grow as individual pockets near

the nallahs (Plate-11, Figs. 1-3).

4.1.4. Group 15: Moist alpine scrub

This type of vegetation is found at very high elevations, along the

snow line.

4.1.4.1. Type 15/C1: Birch/Rhododendron scrub forest:

This forest type is mainly represented by dwarf, stunted trees interspersed in

pastures and are restricted to the slopes of Ashapatti (3300 msl) and below

Sankh-ro-Padhar (3860 msl). The flora of this zone includes Betula utilis,

Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, Corydalis species and Lonicera

parviflora etc. The trunks are short and extremely branched attaining a girth of

about 50 cms. The area is characterized by very heavy snowfall (Plate-12, Figs.

1-2).

4.1.5. Group 16: Dry alpine scrub

4.1.5.1. Type 16/E1: Dwarf Juniper scrub: Dwarf Juniper

scrub forest type is restricted in distribution to the upper portion of the Neeru

valley particularly in Ramtund area towards Kaplash lake. Adjacent to the open

meadows, the species like Juniperus communis, Juniperus recurva, Caragana

are distributed in patches. The species grow well in the rocky area, which

remains dry with intense sun-shine. Although frequent rainfall in summer is

characteristic feature of the area, yet the area remain dry due to rocky surface.

Winters bring heavy snowfall in the area (Plate-13, Figs. 1-2).

4.2 Floristic studies:

4.2.1. Floristic details of medicinal plants:

The area of Neeru watershed from Pul Doda to Kaplash represents

sub-tropical to temperate climatic conditions. The area thus has all the floristic

elements ranging from sub-tropical to temperate. 194 medicinal plant species

belonging to 72 families have been collected from the area. The entire specimens

collected from the area have been deposited in the herbarium of the department

of Botany, University of Jammu and enlisted in Annexure-A along with their

respective families. Each plant species with its medicinal importance has been

given in Annexure-B. Asteraceae is the most dominant family among the

medicinal flora with 18 genera and 20 species (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Names of families, number of genera and number of

species.

S. No. Families No. of Genera No. of Species

1. Acanthaceae 1 1

2. Acoraceae 1 1

3. Aizoaceae 1 1

4. Amaranthaceae 1 1

5. Anacardiaceae 2 2

6. Apiaceae 9 10

7. Apocynaceae 1 1

8. Araceae 2 2

9. Araliaceae 1 1

10. Asclepiadaceae 1 1

11. Asteraceae 18 20

12. Balsaminaceae 1 1

13. Berberidaceae 1 1

14. Betulaceae 1 1

15. Boraginaceae 3 3

16. Brassicaceae 7 8

17. Campanulaceae 1 1

18. Cannabaceae 1 1

19. Caprifoliaceae 2 2

20. Caryophyllaceae 2 2

21. Commelinaceae 1 1

22. Convolvulaceae 1 2

23. Crassulaceae 1 1

24. Cucurbitaceae 1 1

25. Cyperaceae 1 1

26. Dioscoreaceae 1 1

27. Ericaceae 2 2

28. Euphorbiaceae 2 3

29. Fabaceae 3 5

30. Fumariaceae 3 4

31. Gentianaceae 1 2

32. Geraniaceae 2 3

33. Hypericaceae 1 1

34. Iridaceae 1 1

35. Juglandaceae 1 1

36. Juncaceae 1 1

37. Lamiaceae 12 12

38. Liliaceae 5 5

39. Loranthaceae 1 2

40. Meliaceae 1 1

41. Moraceae 1 1

42. Morinaceae 1 1

43. Oleaceae 1 1

44. Oxalidaceae 1 1

45. Papaveraceae 1 1

46. Papilionaceae 1 1

47. Phytolaccaceae 1 1

48. Plantaginaceae 1 2

49. Poaceae 3 3

50. Podophyllaceae 1 1

51. Polemoniaceae 1 1

52. Polygalaceae 1 1

53. Polygonaceae 5 8

54. Primulaceae 2 2

55. Punicaceae 1 1

56. Ranunculaceae 8 12

57. Rosaceae 7 11

58. Rubiaceae 3 5

59. Rutaceae 1 1

60. Salicaceae 1 1

61. Sapindaceae 1 1

62. Saxifragaceae 1 1

63. Scrophulariaceae 4 5

64. Solanaceae 5 7

65. Symplocaceae 1 1

66. Taxaceae 1 1

67. Thymealaeaceae 1 1

68. Ulmaceae 1 1

69. Urticaceae 2 2

70. Valerianaceae 1 2

71. Verbenaceae 1 1

72. Violaceae 1 4

Total 161 194

4.2.2. Life forms and Biological spectrum:

The life form of the plant is the physiognomic form produced as a

result of all the life processes in unison with the environment. The life form

classification and construction of the biological spectrum for medicinal plants of

the Neeru watershed was undertaken after a complete enumeration of the floristic

composition of medicinal plants. A total of 194 medicinal plant species have

been listed and grouped into various life forms (Annexure-A). The units of

classification used are as per Raunkiaer (1918) as modified by Braun-Blanquet

(1932). The various classes used in the present study for the life forms are as

under.

Therophytes (TH): All annuals; perennating buds are the embryo in the

seeds.

Hydrophytes and Helophytes (HH): Water, marshy and swampy plants

with perennating organs submerged in water in unfavorable conditions.

Geophytes (G): Perennating buds below ground.

Hemi-crytophtes (H): Renewal buds situated at ground level, including

biennials.

Chamaephytes (CH): Woody or semi-woody perennials with renewal buds

situated at 25cm height or less above ground level.

Nanophanerophytes (N): Shrubs with vegetative organs less than 2m

above soil.

Phanerophytes (PH): Trees with vegetative organs more than 2m above

soil.

Lianas (L): Climbing plants.

Epiphytes (E): Those plants, which settle down on the trunks and branches

of trees.

Out of 194 medicinal plants collected from the study area, 52

species belong to Therophytes, 18 to Macrophanerophytes, 1 to

Hemicryptophytes, 15 to Nanophanerophytes, 4 to Epiphytes, 15 to Geophytes, 6

to Hydrophytes / Helophytes, 1 to Lianas, and 32 to Chamaephytes respectively

(Annexure- A).

Each life form of the study area has been calculated as percentage

and compared with Raunkiaer’s normal biological spectrum (Table-4.2, Plate-

25).

Table 4.2:-Total percentage of medicinal plants of different life form

classes.

Life Forms

TH

HH

G

H

H

N

M

L

E

Raunkiaer’s

spectrum (%age life

form in normal

spectrum)

13.0

2.0

4.0

26.0

9.0

15.0

28.0

-

3.0

Study area (%age life

form in study area)

26.80 3.09 7.73 26.28 16.49 7.73 9.27 0.51 2.06

Deviation From

Raunkiaer’s spectrum

+13.8 +1.09 +3.73 +0.28 +7.49 -7.27 -18.73 +0.51 -0.94

4.2.3. Phytosociological studies:

Phytosociological studies were conducted in all the selected sites of

the study area. The primary data (frequency, density and basal area) was

evaluated using field observations and its results were incorporated for secondary

data analysis. The secondary data includes relative frequency, relative density,

relative dominance, importance value index, Margalef’s index, Menhinick’s

index and Shannon Wiener’s index.

4.2.3.1. Frequency, density and Importance Value Index

(IVI):

4.2.3.1.1. Frequency (Winter): The vegetation of the

area varies from season to season and from site to site. During the data collection

and sampling in winter months of the year, it was observed that Taraxacum

officinale was represented with highest frequency i.e. 80% at site A; Duchesnea

indica was represented with 65% frequency among medicinal plants at site B;

Gentiana argentea and Viola pilosa were represented with 55% frequency

among medicinal plants on site C; Cannabis sativa was represented with

frequency of 60% among medicinal plants at site D; Colchicum luteum was

represented with frequency of 55% among medicinal plants at site E; while at

site F, Tulipa stellata with 65% frequency is followed by Verbascum thapsus

with 55% frequency among medicinal plants. The less frequent species among

medicinal plants during winter season were Viola pilosa with a frequency of 10%

at site A; Fumaria parviflora with a frequency of 15% at site C; Bistorta

amplexicaulis with a frequency of 15% at site C; Viola pilosa with a frequency of

10% at site D; Urtica dioica with a frequency of 10% at site E; and Viola

patrinii, Ajuga parviflora and Galium aparine with a frequency of 10% each at

site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.1.2. Density (Winter): The most densely

distributed medicinal plant species recorded during winters include, Fumaria

parviflora with a value of 1.90 at site A; Duchesnea indica with a value of 1.4 at

site B; Viola pilosa with a value of 1.25 each at site C; Thymus serpyllum with a

value of 1.3 at site E and Taraxacum officinale with a value of 1.25 at site F. The

least densely distributed medicinal plant species during winter months were

Indigofera heterantha with a value of 0.20 at site A; Fumaria parviflora and

Hedera nepalensis with a value of 0.4 at site B; Carpesium abrotanoides with a

value of 0.25 at site C; Viola pilosa with a value of 0.20 at site D; Urtica dioica

each with a value of 0.1 at site E; Datura stramonium with a value of 0.1 at site F

(Annexure-C).

4.2.3.1.3. Importance Value Index (IVI) (Winter):

The maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during winter

months was calculated for Phytolacca acinosa with IVI value of 23.540 at site A;

Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 22.518 at site B; Taraxacum officinale with

IVI value of 20.392 at site C; Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 21.554 on

site D; Arisaema jacquemontii with IVI value of 28.228 at site E and Hedera

nepalensis with IVI value of 28.011 at site F. Likewise the minimum Importance

Value Index among medicinal plants during winter season was calculated in

Viola pilosa with IVI value of 2.953 at site A; Fumaria parviflora with IVI value

of 4.365 at site B; Galium tenuissimum with IVI value of 4.133 at site C; Viola

pilosa with IVI value of 4.225 at site D; Urtica dioica with IVI value of 4.308 at

site E and Galium aparine with IVI value of 2.533 at site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.2.1. Frequency (Spring): The most frequent

medicinal plant species during the months of spring were Tulipa stellata, Mentha

longifolia, Micromeria biflora with 90% frequency at site A; Thymus serpyllum

with 85% frequency at site B; Geranium wallichianum and Capsella bursa-

pastoris with 80% frequency each at site C; Saussurea heteromalla, Micromeria

biflora, Viola pilosa, Thymus serpyllum with 90% frequency at site D; Fragaria

vesca with 85% frequency at site E; and Saussurea heteromalla, Dioscorea

deltoidea, Duchesnea indica, Ranunculus arvense, Fumaria parviflora,

Micromeria biflora with 80% frequency each at site F. Beside the frequent

species few species were less frequent in the months of Spring. These species

were Justicia adhatoda seedlings, Achillea millefolium and Geranium

wallichianum with only 5% frequency each at site A; Polygala abyssinica with

20% frequency at site B; Hedera nepalensis with 5% frequency at site C; Datura

stramonium seedling with 10% frequency at site D; Valeriana wallichii with 15%

frequency at site E, and Primula denticulata with 10% frequency at site F

(Annexure-C).

4.2.3.2.2. Density (Spring): The most densely

distributed medicinal plant species during spring months were Ranunculus

arvensis and Micromeria biflora with a value of 1.2 at site B; Viola pilosa with

a value of 1.8 at site B; Fragaria vesca and Fumaria parviflora with a value of

1.15 at site C; Fumaria parviflora with a value of 1.35 at site D; Ajuga parviflora

with a value of 3.6 at site E; Dioscorea deltoidea with a value of 1.45 at site F.

Likewise least densely distributed medicinal plant species were also recorded

from each site during the months of spring. These species were Justicia adhatoda

with a value of 0.1 at site A; Verbascum thapsus with a value of 0.4 at site B;

Rabdosia rugosa and Potentilla argyrophylla with a value of 0.4 at the site C;

Potentilla nepalensis with a value of 0.3 at the site D; Rumex hastatus with a

value of 0.5 at the site E and Primula denticulata with a value of 0.2 at site F

(Annexure-C).

4.2.3.2.3. Importance Value Index (Spring): The

maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during spring months

was calculated for Justicia adhatoda with IVI of 13.00 followed by Saussurea

heteromalla, Tulipa stellata, Mentha longifolia and Plantago major with IVI

values of 11.682, 11.590, 11.408 and 11.218 respectively at site A; Salvia

lanata with IVI of 15.415 followed by Verbascum thapsus and Duchesnea indica

with IVI values of 14.923 and 12.014 respectively at site B; Hypericum

perforatum with IVI of 13.162 followed by Phytolacca acinosa with IVI of

12.746 at site C; Gnaphalium leuto-album with IVI of 20.226 followed by

Saussurea heteromalla, Plantago major and Solanum nigrum with IVI values of

19.476, 16.658 and 14.429 respectively at site D; Rabdosia rugosa with IVI of

15.181 followed by Verbascum thapsus, Tagetus minuta and Hypericum

perforatum with IVI values of 13.972, 13.707 and 13.238 respectively at site E;

Saussurea heteromalla with IVI of 26.273b followed by Arisaema jacquemontii,

Tagetus minuta and Bergenia ciliata with IVI values of 18.875, 17.247 and

13.739 respectively at site F. Likewise the minimum Importance Value Index is

also calculated for medicinal plants of the area in spring months. The calculated

data reveals that Geranium wallichianum with IVI of 0.771 at site A; Fumaria

parviflora with IVI of 3.54 at site B; Galium aparine with IVI of 2.643 at site C;

Achyranthes bidentata with IVI of 2.659 at site D; Fumaria parviflora with IVI

of 3.009 at site E and Primula denticulata with IVI of 1.616 at site F exhibit the

minimum IVI in the study area (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.3.1. Frequency (Summer): The most frequent

medicinal plant species during the months of summer were Plantago ovata and

Galium elegans with 90% frequency each followed by Geranium wallichianum

with a frequency of 85% at site A; Fumaria parviflora with a frequency of 85%

each at site B; Thymus serpyllum with a frequency of 80% at site C; Plantago

ovata with a frequency of 80% at site D; Micromeria biflora with a frequency of

80% at site E and Arisaema jacquemontii with a frequency of 75% at site F

followed. Besides the frequent species few species were represented as less

frequent in the months of summer. These include Desmodium podocarpum and

Gentiana argentea each with only 10% frequency at site A; Taraxacum officinale

with 10% frequency at site B; Phytolacca acinosa with 10% frequency at site C;

Commelina benghalensis with 10% frequency at site D; Corydalis rutifolia with

5% frequency at site E, and Capsella bursa-pastoris and Oxalis parviflora with

15% frequency each at site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.3.2. Density (Summer): The most densely

distributed medicinal plant species during summer months were Achillea

millefolium with a density value of 1.35 at site A; Fumaria parviflora, Plantago

ovata and Duchesnea indica each with a density value of 1.2 at site B; Thymus

serpyllum with a density value of 1.45 at site C; Plantago ovata with a density

value of 1.2 at site D; Micromeria biflora with a density value of 1.2 at site E

and Rabdosia rugosa with a density value of 1.2 at site F. Likewise least densely

distributed medicinal plant species were Gentiana argentea with a density value

of 0.15 at site A; Taraxacum officinale with a density value of 0.3 at site B;

Phytolacca acinosa and Cannabis sativa each with a density value of 0.35 at the

site C; Commelina benghalensis with a density value of 0.1 at the site D;

Corydalis rutifolia with a density value of 0.15 on the site E and Plantago ovata

with a density value of 0.125 at site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.3.3. Importance Value Index (Summer): The

maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during summer

months was in Arisaema jacquemontii with IVI value of 14.689 followed by

Verbascum thapsus and Saussurea heteromalla with IVI value of 12.3 and

11.695 respectively at site A; Indigofera heterantha with IVI value of 10.013 at

site B; Rabdosia rugosa with IVI value of 14.269 at site C; Xanthium strumarium

with IVI value of 13.71 at site D; Phytolacca acinosa with IVI value of 19.252

followed by Potentilla species with IVI value of 15.47 at site E; and Verbascum

thapsus with IVI value of 19.552 followed by Taraxacum officinale with IVI

value of 10.96 at site F. Gentiana argentea with IVI value of 0.998 at site A,

Taraxacum officinale with IVI value of 2.141 at site B; Viola patrinii with IVI

value of 4.471 at site C; Anagallis arvensis with IVI value of 3.684 at site D;

Corydalis rutifolia with IVI value of 1.128 at site E; and Capsella bursa -

pastoris with IVI value of 2.335 at site F represented the minimum IVI values in

the area for this season (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.4.1. Frequency (Autumn): The most frequent

medicinal plant species during the months of autumn were Dioscorea deltoidea

with a frequency of 60% at site A; Verbascum thapsus with a frequency of 55%

each at site B; Galium aparine with a frequency of 70% at site C; Plantago ovata

and Achillea millefolium each with frequency of 60% each at site D; Artemisia

vestita with a frequency of 60% at site E; and Artemisia vestita with a frequency

of 80% at site F. Beside the frequent species, the less frequent species such as

Ranunculus arvensis with a frequency of 10% at site A; Micromeria biflora,

Oxalis corniculata and Euphorbia helioscopia with a frequency of 10% each at

site B; Bistorta amplexicaulis with a frequency of 10% at site C; Desmodium

podocarpum with a frequency of 10% at site D; Phytolacca acinosa with a

frequency of 10% at site E; and Oxalis corniculata with a frequency of 10% each

at site F were also recorded (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.4.2. Density (Autumn): The most densely

distributed medicinal plant species during autumn months were Cannabis sativa

with a density value of 1.40 at site A; Capsella bursa-pastoris with a density

value of 3.75 at site B; Galium aparine with a density value of 1.15 at site C;

Xanthium strumarium with a density value of 0.45 at site D; Mentha longifolia

with a density value of 1.05 at site E; and Artemisia vestita, Plantago major with

a density value of 0.45 each at site F. Likewise least densely distributed

medicinal plant species were Arisaema jacquemontii with a density value of 0.20

at site A; Euphorbia helioscopia and Micromeria biflora with a density value of

0.25 each at site B; Xanthium strumarium with a density value of 0.3 at the site

C; Datura stramonium with a density value of 0.2 at site D; Phytolacca acinosa

with a density value of 0.35 at site E and Capsella bursa-pastoris with a density

value of 0.1 at site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.4.3. Importance Value Index (Autumn): The

maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during autumn

months was recorded in Commelina benghalensis with IVI value of 19.695 at site

A; Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 25.468 at site B; Phytolacca acinosa

with IVI value of 15.591 at site C; Xanthium strumarium with IVI value of

19.334 at site D; Digitalis purpurea with IVI value of 19.252 at site E; and

Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 30.147 at site F. The minimum Importance

Value Index for medicinal plants of the area in autumn months was represented

by Micromeria biflora with IVI value of 3.075 at site A, Micromeria biflora with

IVI value of 2.464 at site B, Bistorta amplexicaulis with IVI value of 4.647 at

site C; Desmodium podocarpum with IVI value of 3.215 at site D; Ainsliaea

latifolia with IVI value of 3.773 at site E; and Capsella bursa-pastoris with IVI

value of 3.155 at site F (Annexure-C).

4.2.3.2. Diversity Indices:

4.2.3.2.1. Margalef’s index: In the secondary data

analysis, during winter, the maximum value of Margalef’s index was calculated

as 6.306 at site A and minimum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as

4.850 at site E. During spring, the maximum value of Margalef’s index was

calculated as 7.471 at site C and minimum value of Margalef’s index was

calculated as 5.535 at site B. During summer, the maximum value of Margalef’s

index was calculated as 7.527 at site E and minimum value of Margalef’s index

was calculated as 5.975 at site D, while during autumn the maximum value of

Margalef’s index was calculated as 6.093 at site A and minimum value of

Margalef’s index was calculated as 4.695 at site F (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1).

4.2.3.2.2. Menhinick’s index: Similarly, during winter,

the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.315 at site F and

minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.030 at site B. During

spring, the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.292 at site

A and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 1.726 at site B.

During summer the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as

2.315 at site E and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 1.924

at site D, while during autumn the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was

calculated as 2.266 at site A and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was

calculated as 1.792 at site C (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1).

4.2.3.2.3. Shannon-Wiener’s index: During winter the

maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.416 at site

B and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.083

at site E. During spring the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been

calculated as 3.749 at site A and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has

been calculated as 3.457 at site B During summer the maximum value of

Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 4.400 at site F and minimum

value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.394 at site C. During

autumn the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as

3.481 at site A and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been

calculated as 3.078 at site F (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1).

Table-4.3:- Showing the diversity indices for different sites of the

study area for all the four seasons of the year 2003.

Sites/Season Margalef’s index Menhinick’s index Shannon-Wiener’s

index

A/Winter 6.306 2.241 3.302

B/Winter 5.023 2.030 3.416

C/Winter 5.290 2.055 3.256

D/Winter 5.288 2.179 3.215

E/Winter 4.850 2.106 3.083

F/Winter 5.902 2.315 3.213

A/Spring 6.934 2.292 3.749

B/Spring 5.535 1.726 3.457

C/Spring 7.471 2.263 3.689

D/Spring 5.891 1.953 3.714

E/Spring 6.884 2.137 3.608

F/Spring 6.991 2.031 3.660

A/Summer 7.210 2.128 3.455

B/Summer 7.119 2.198 3.529

C/Summer 6.281 2.219 3.394

D/Summer 5.975 1.924 3.418

E/Summer 7.527 2.315 3.806

F/Summer 7.523 2.261 4.400

A/Autumn 6.093 2.266 3.481

B/Autumn 5.183 1.879 3.112

C/Autumn 5.001 1.792 3.127

D/Autumn 5.847 2.139 3.204

E/Autumn 5.443 2.090 3.183

F/Autumn 4.695 1.940 3.078

4.2.4. Biomass studies:

Eleven species were taken for biomass studies from all the twelve

sites of study area (Table-4.4). These species were selected for biomass because

of the variation in size of these plants observed at different study sites. Maximum

above ground biomass in case of Ajuga parviflora was recorded as 0.990g at site

J between 2020-2240 msl and the minimum biomass of the same species was

recorded as 0.710g at site F between 1500-1600 msl; the maximum below ground

biomass was recorded as 0.533g at site C between 1200-1300 msl and the

minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.307g at site E between 1280-

1380 msl.

In case of Bistorta amplexicaulis the maximum above ground

biomass was recorded as 0.720g at site K between 1600-1700 msl and minimum

above ground biomass was recorded as 0.280g at site G between 1700-1860 msl;

the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 4.100g at site F between

1500-1600 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 2.194g at

site A between 1740-1850 msl. In case of Fragaria vesca the maximum above

ground biomass was recorded as 1.926g at site L between 2060-2200 msl, while

the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.128g at site H between

2400-2480 msl; maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.588g at site

H between 2400-2480 msl while minimum below ground biomass was recorded

as 0.06g at site A between 1740-1850 msl.

In case of Galium aparine the maximum above ground biomass

was recorded as 0.812g at site E between 1280-1380 msl and the minimum above

ground biomass was recorded as 0.420g at site G between 1799-1860 msl; the

maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.121g at site E between 1280-

1380 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.020g at site G

between 1799-1860 msl. In case of Genetiana argentea maximum above ground

biomass was recorded as 0.320g at site F between 1500-1600 msl and minimum

above ground biomass was recorded as 0.115g at site H between 2400-2480 msl;

the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.141g at site F between

1500-1760 msl and the minimum below ground biomass was recorded as

0.014msl at site D between 1600-1720 msl. In case of Gnaphalium leuto-album

the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 2.850g at site L between

2060-2200 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.780 at

site K between 1600-1700 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was

recorded as 0.721g at I between 2260-2360 msl and minimum below ground

biomass was recorded as 0.012g at site D between 1600-1720 msl. In case of

Micromeria biflora the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.621g

at site B between 1180-1300 msl and minimum above ground biomass was

recorded as 0.132g at site C between 1200-1300 msl; the maximum below

ground biomass was recorded as 1.498 at site B between 1180-1300 msl and

minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.102 at site C between 1200-

1300 msl. In case of Plantago lanceolata the maximum above ground biomass

was recorded as 1.923g at site K between 1600-1700 msl and minimum above

ground biomass was recorded as 0.334g at site C between 1180-1300 msl; the

maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.768g at site K between

1600-1700 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.338 at

site B between 1180-1300 msl. In case of Sauromatum guttatum the maximum

above ground biomass was recorded as 3.210g at site E between 1280-1380 msl

and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.552g at site H between

2400-2480 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 10.87g at

site E between 2060-2200 msl and minimum below ground biomass was

recorded as 8.191g at site H between 1280-1380 msl.

In case of Taraxacum officinale the maximum above ground

biomass was recorded as 1.326g at site G between 1700-1860 msl and the

minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.210g at site C between 1200-

1300 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 1.225g at site H

between 2400-2480 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as

0.200g at site C between 1200-1300 msl. In case of Valeriana wallichii the

maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.812g at site L between 2060-

2200 msl and the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.500g at site

H between 2400-2480 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as

1.821g at site L between 2060-2200 msl and minimum below ground biomass

was recorded as 0.298g at site H between 2400-2480 msl (Table-4.4).

Table 4.4 :- Biomass studies of eleven herbs at different study sites. (All values in grams.)

Sites Plant Species Biomass

A B C D E F G H I J K L

Ajuga parviflora Above

ground

Below

ground

0.892

0.421

0.912

0.451

0.740

0.533

-

-

0.879

0.307

0.710

0.410

0.820

0.510

-

-

-

-

0.990

0.450

0.870

0.510

0.720

0.320

Bistorta

amplexicaulis

Above

ground

Below

ground

0.291

2.194

0.312

2.791

0.520

3.920

0.320

2.970

0.412

2.821

0.500

4.100

0.280

3.220

0.570

2.280

0.621

2.711

0.488

3.691

0.720

3.820

0.451

3.940

Fragaria vesca Above

ground

Below

ground

0.197

0.06

-

-

-

-

0.370

0.587

0.145

0.075

0.163

0.261

1.296

0.120

0.128

0.588

0.512

0.213

0.146

0.238

0.260

0.236

1.926

0.184

Galium aparine Above

ground

Below

ground

0.750

0.100

0.652

0.070

-

-

0.610

0.050

0.812

0.121

0.570

0.04

0.420

0.020

0.520

0.050

0.670

0.040

0.720

0.090

0.790

0.080

0.521

0.060

Gentiana

argentea

Above

ground

Below

ground

0.153

0.021

-

-

-

-

0.155

0.014

0.118

0.031

0.320

0.141

0.251

0.132

0.115

0.051

0.224

0.102

0.215

0.112

0.230

0.102

0.173

0.015

Gnephalium

leuto- album

Above

ground

Below

ground

0.798

0.023

0.822

0.032

-

-

0.825

0.012

1.108

0.022

-

-

2.285

0.223

2.013

0.231

1.820

0.721

0.839

0.049

0.780

0.032

2.850

0.318

Micromeria

biflora

Above

ground

Below

ground

0.188

0.167

1.621

1.498

0.132

0.102

-

-

-

-

0.165

0.142

0.493

0.170

0.211

0.198

0.282

0.188

0.150

0.131

-

-

0.160

0.129

Plantago

lanceolata

Above

ground

Below

ground

1.212

0.352

0.364

0.338

0.334

0.339

0.382

0.412

0.346

0.375

1.334

0.388

0.684

0.422

1.632

0.381

1.251

0.340

1.732

0.521

1.923

0.768

1.811

0.341

Sauromatum

guttatum

Above

ground

Below

ground

2.101

9.721

-

-

1.750

9.212

-

-

3.210

11.72

-

-

2.030

10.11

1.552

8.191

-

-

-

-

1.991

9.230

2.50

10.87

Taraxacum

officinalis

Above

ground

Below

ground

0.892

0.710

0.721

0.502

0.210

0.200

0.285

0.231

0.270

0.220

0.521

0.322

1.326

0.821

1.211

1.225

-

-

0.721

0.812

1.201

0.922

1.100

0.981

Valeriana

wallichii

Above

ground

Below

ground

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.500

0.298

0.794

1.092

0.501

0.922

-

-

0.812

1.821

4.2.5. Altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants:

During explorations the medicinal plants of the area have been

categorized in five different groups (below 1500 msl, 1500-2000 msl, 2000-2500

msl, 2500-3000 msl, 3000-3500 msl and above 3500 msl) on the basis of their

altitudinal distribution (Table 4.5). 44 medicinal plants species have been

collected below 1500 msl, 100 medicinal plant species between 1500-2000 msl,

96 plant species between 2000-2500 msl, 66 medicinal plant species between

2500-3000 msl, 44 medicinal plants between 3000-3500 msl and 14 medicinal

plants above 3500 msl. It has also been observed that few plant species are

distributed in a wide range of altitudinal stretch. The maximum medicinal plants

grow between the range of 1500-2000 msl and 2000-2500 msl. The range above

3500 msl represents few exclusive medicinal species having rhizomes and bulbs

in their below-ground parts. This is because the area remains under snow for

most time of the year. The flora of this region get only four months (July-

October) to come out of ground to complete their life cycle. (Table-4.5; Plate-26,

Fig. 2)

Table 4.5:- Altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants. S. No. Below 1500 msl 1500-2000 msl 2000-2500 msl 2500-3000 msl 3000-3500 msl Above 3500 msl

1. Acalypha

brachystachya

Acalypha

brachystachya

Acalypha

brachystachya

Achillea

millefolium

Achillea

millefolium

Aconitum

heterophyllum

2. Ajuga parviflora Achillea millefolium Achillea

millefolium

Aconitum

heterophyllum

Aconitum ferox Aconitum hookeri

3. Anagallis

arvensis

Achyranthes

bidentata

Achyranthes

bidentata

Anemone

obtusiloba

Aconitum

heterophyllum

Adonis aestivalis

4. Berberis lycium Acorus calamus Acorus calamus Arisaema

jacquemontii

Aconitum hookeri Bromus patulus

5. Cannabis sativa Aesculus indica Agropyron repens Arundo donax Adonis aestivalis Draba gracillima

6. Capsella bursa-

pastoris

Agropyron repens Ajuga parviflora Atropa acuminate Bergenia ciliata Jurinea

macrocephala

7. Colchicum

luteum

Ajuga parviflora Anagallis arvensis Berberis lycium Bidens pilosa Nepeta elliptica

8. Commelina

benghalensis

Anagallis arvensis Arisaema

jacquemontii

Bergenia ciliata Bromus patulus Oxyria digyna

9. Daphne oleoides Arisaema

jacquemontii

Artemisia scoparia Bidens pilosa Caltha palustris Pleurospermum

brunonis

10. Datura

stramonium

Artemisia brevifolia Berberis lycium Bromus patulus Codonopsis ovata Potentilla

argyrophylla

11. Duchesnea

indica

Berberis lycium Bupleurum

falcatum

Bupleurum

falcatum

Corydalis

govaniana

Rhododendron

campanulatum

12. Euphorbia pilosa Bistorta

amplexicaulis

Cannabis sativa Caltha palustris Corydalis

thyrsiflora

Saussurea costus

13. Ficus palmata Bunium persicum Capsella bursa-

pastoris

Cannabis sativa Cynoglossum

micranthum

Tanacetum

longifolium

14. Fumaria

parviflora

Bupleurum falcatum Cardamine

impatiens

Capsella bursa-

pastoris

Delphinium

inacana

Thymus serpyllum

15. Galinsoga Cannabis sativa Colchicum luteum Cardamine Erysimum -

parviflora impatiens repandum

16. Galium aparine Capsella bursa-

pastoris

Commelina

benghalensis

Commelina

benghalensis

Euphrasia

officinalis

-

17. Geranium

nepalense

Cardamine

impatiens

Datura

stramonium

Corydalis rutifolia Fagopyrum

esculentum

-

18. Girardinia

heterophylla

Carpesium

abrotanoides

Delphinium

vestitum

Cynoglossum

micranthum

Fritillaria roylei -

19. Hedera

nepalensis

Cichorium intybus Desmodium

podocarpum

Desmodium

polycarpon

Hedera nepalensis -

20. Hydrocotyle

javanica

Colchicum luteum Desmodium

tiliaefolium

Desmodium

tiliaefolium

Hyoscyamus niger -

21. Hypericum

perforatum

Commelina

benghalensis

Digitalis lanata Digitalis purpurea Juncus bufonius -

22. Ipomoea nil Daphne oleoides Digitalis purpurea Dioscorea

deltoidea

Leontopodium

himalayanum

-

23. Justicia

adhatoda

Datura stramonium Dioscorea

deltoidea

Erigeron

canadensis

Meconopsis

aculeata

-

24. Lithospermum

arvense

Dioscorea deltoidea Duchesnea indica Erysimum

repandum

Morina longifolia -

25. Mentha

longifolia

Duchesnea indica Erigeron

canadensis

Euphrasia

officinalis

Nepeta elliptica -

26. Micromeria

biflora

Erodium cicutarium Erodium

circutarium

Fagopyrum

esculentum

Origanum normale -

27. Origanum

normale

Euphorbia

helioscopia

Euphorbia pilosa Fragaria vesca Oxyria digyna -

28. Oxalis

corniculata

Euphorbia pilosa Fagopyrum

cymosum

Fritillaria roylei Pedicularis

pectinata

-

29. Pistacia

integerrima

Fagopyrum

cymosum

Fagopyrum

esculentum

Geranium

wallichianum

Pleurospermum

brunonis

-

30. Plantago Ficus palmata Fragaria vesca Geum roylei Podophyllum -

lanceolata hexandrum

31. Plantago major Fragaria vesca Fritillaria roylei Gnaphalium luteo-

album

Polemonium

caeruleum

-

32. Polygala

abyssinica

Fumaria parviflora Fumaria parviflora Hedera nepalensis Polygala

abyssinica

-

33. Punica granatum Galinsoga parviflora Gallium aparine Heracleum

candicans

Rhododendron

campanulatum

-

34. Ranunculus

aquatilis

Galium aparine Gentiana argentea Hyoscyamus niger Rosa brunonii -

35. Ranunculus

arvensis

Gentiana kurroo Gentiana kurroo Juncus bufonius Rumex nepalensis -

36. Rubia cordifolia Gentiana argentea Geranium

wallichianum

Mentha longifolia Salvia lanata -

37. Rubus niveus Geranium

wallichianum

Geum roylei Micromeria biflora Sedum ewersii -

38. Rumex hastatus Geranium nepalense Girardinia

heterophylla

Origanum normale Selinum vaginatum -

39. Sauromatum

guttatum

Girardinia

heterophylla

Gnaphalium luteo-

album

Pedicularis

pectinata

Solidago virgaurea -

40. Solanum

surrattense

Gnaphalium luteo-

album

Hedera nepalensis Phytolacca

acinosa

Tanacetum

longifolium

41. Stachys sericea Hedera nepalensis Heracleum

candicans

Plantago major Taxus wallichiana -

42. Taraxacum

officinale

Heracleum

candicans

Hyoscyamus niger Podophyllum

hexandrum

Thymus serpyllum -

43. Viscum album Hydrocotyle

javanica

Ipomoea pilosa Polemonium

coeruleum

Trillium

govanianum

44. Zanthoxylum

alatum

Hypericum

perforatum

Juglans regia Polygala

abyssinica

Valeriana wallichii -

45. - Ipomoea nil Juncus bufonius Polygonum - -

nepalense

46. - Juglans regia Lonicera alpigena Potentilla

nepalensis

- -

47. - Juncus bufonius Melothria

heterophylla

Rhododendron

anthopogon

- -

48. - Lonicera alpigena Mentha longifolia Rorippa islandica - -

49. - Mariscus

sieberianus

Micromeria biflora Rosa brunonii - -

50. - Mentha longifolia Nasturtium

officinale

Rumex nepalensis - -

51. - Micromeria biflora Origanum normale Salvia lanata - -

52. - Mollugo pentaphylla Oxalis corniculata Sedum ewersii - -

53. - Nasturtium officinale Pergularia daemia Selinum veginatum - -

54. - Origanum normale Phytolacca acinosa Silene conoidea - -

55. - Oxalis corniculata Plantago

lanceolata

Solanum nigrum - -

56. - Pergularia daemia Plantago major Solidago virga-

aurea

- -

57. - Phytolacca acinosa Polemonium

caeruleum

Spiraea canescens - -

58. - Pistacia integerrima Polygala

abyssinica

Symplocos

crataegoides

- -

59. - Plantago lanceolata Polygonum

nepalense

Taraxacum

officinale

- -

60. - Plantago major Populus ciliata Taxus wallichiana - -

61. - Polygala abyssinica Potentilla

nepalensis

Thymus serpyllum - -

62. - Polygonum glabrum Primula

denticulata

Trifolium repens - -

63. - Populus ciliata Prinsepia utilis Urtica dioica - -

64. - Potentilla nepalensis Punica granatum Valeriana wallichii - -

65. - Primula denticulata Rabdosia rugosa Verbascum

thapsus

- -

66. - Prinsepia utilis Ranunculus

aquatilis

Viola odorata - -

67. - Punica granatum Rhododendron

anthopogon

- - -

68. - Rabdosia rugosa Rhus succedenea - - -

69. - Ranunculus aquatilis Robinia

pseudacacia

- - -

70. - Ranunculus arvensis Rorippa indica - - -

71. - Rhus succedanea Rorippa islandica - - -

72. - Robinia pseudacacia Rosa brunonii - - -

73. - Rorippa indica Rubia cardifolia - - -

74. - Rorippa islandica Rumex nepalensis - - -

75. - Rosa macrophylla Sauromatum

guttatum

- - -

76. - Rubia cordifolia Saussurea

heteromalla

- - -

77. - Rubus niveus Selinum

vaginatium

- - -

78. - Rumex hastatus Siegesbeckia

orientalis

- - -

79. - Rumex nepalensis Silene conoidea - - -

80. - Saussurea

heteromalla

Sium latijugum - - -

81. - Siegesbeckia

orientalis

Solanum nigrum - - -

82. - Silene conoidea Spiraea cancescens - - -

83. - Sisymbrium irio Tagetus minuta - - -

84. - Solanum nigrum Taraxacum

officinale

- - -

85. - Spiraea cancescens Thymus serpyllum - - -

86. - Spiraea sorbifolia Trifolium repens - - -

87. - Stellaria aquatica Tulipa stellata - - -

88. - Tagetus minuta Urtica dioica - - -

89. - Taraxacum

officinale

Valeriana pyrifolia - - -

90. - Thymus serpyllum Valeriana wallichii - - -

91. - Trachyspermum

ammi

Verbascum thapsus - - -

92. - Trifolium repens Viola canescens - - -

93. - Urtica dioica Viola odorata - - -

94. - Valeriana wallichii Viola patrinii - - -

95. - Verbascum thapsus Viscum japonicum - - -

96. - Viola odorata Xanthium

strumarium

- - -

97. - Viscum album - - - -

98. - Viscum japonicum - - - -

99. - Withania somnifera - - - -

100. - Xanthium

strumarium

- - - -

4.3. Soil Chemistry:

Soil from twelve different sites within the study area was analysed

for the physico-chemical parameters. 20 soil samples were collected (9-12 inches

below the soil surface) at random from each of the sites and mixed to form a

single sample for a single site. Thus 12 samples in general were taken for the

analysis.

4.3.1. Physical Parameters:

4.3.1.1. Texture: At majority of the sites within the study

area soil was observed as sandy-loam followed by silt loam and sandy-clay loam,

while loam type of soil was found at only one site. Sandy-loam soils were

observed between 1180- 1300 msl at site B; between 1200-1300 msl at site C;

1600- 1720 msl at site D; between 2400-2480 msl at site H; between 2020- 2240

msl at site J and between 2060-2200 msl at site L. Silt-loam soils were observed

between 1740-1850 msl at site A; between 1280-1380 msl at site E; between

1500-1600 msl at site F. Sandy-clay-loam soils were observed between 2260-

2360 msl at site I; between 1680-1700 msl at site K and loam soils were observed

between 1700-1860 msl at site G (Table-4.6).

4.3.1.2. Moisture: The moisture content of the soil in the

study area was dependent upon the aspect, altitude and position of the study site

because the study area is mountainous with altitudinal slope gradient due to

which the water holding capacity of the soils is low. The moisture content of the

soils at different sites varies between maximum of 30% at site D & I between

1600-1720 msl & 2260- 2360 msl to minimum of 15% at site C between 1200-

1300 msl. Majority of the soils had a moisture content of 20 ± % (Table-4.6;

Plate-27, Fig 1).

4.3.1.3. Temperature: The soil temperature of the area

ranged from maximum of 22oC at site D between 1600-1720 msl to minimum

8oC at site K between 1680-1780 msl. It has been observed that the site more

exposed to the sun rays was hotter than the site less exposed to the sun rays.

Moreover the moisture and texture of the soil also affect the soil temperature

(Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig.1).

4.3.1.4. pH: The pH of the soils, in the study area, has

been recorded as more or less acidic and ranged from 4.2 at site B between 1180-

1300 msl to 6.7 at site G between 1700-1860 msl. The acidic condition of the soil

gets support from the analysis of carbonates as nil and very less bicarbonates. In

most of the cases the soil pH ranged from 4.5 – 6.5 at sites A, C, D, E, F, H, I, J,

K & L while pH below 4.5 (4.2) was observed at only one site i.e. site B

between 1740-1850 msl. Similarly pH above 6.5 (6.7) has also been observed at

only one site i.e. site G between 1700-1860 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig. 2).

4.3.1.5. Electric Conductivity: The electric conductivity

of the soils at maximum sites ranged from 102µ Mhos/cm at site L between

2060-2200 msl to 178 µ Mhos/cm at site I between 2260-2360 msl. The lowest

electric conductivity was determined as18µ Mhos/cm at site F. In deodar forest

area the EC has been determined as 178 and 136µ Mhos/cm at site I and K

between 2260-2360 msl and 1680-1780 msl, respectively, while in open land the

EC has been determined as 18, 19.4 and 123 µ Mhos/cm at sites F, G and A

between 1500-1600 msl, 1700-1800 msl and 1740-1850 msl, respectively. Site A

is nearer to the deodar forest as compared to the sites F and G. Rest of the sites

B, C, D, E, H & J showed maximum EC ranging from 102 to 178 µ Mhos/cm as

these sites have been either in the dense forest area or in the agricultural area

(Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig. 2).

4.3.2. Macroelements:

4.3.2.1. Organic Carbon: For chemical analysis the

humus and litter was first separated from the soil samples. The analysed soil of

the study area exhibited low organic carbon ranging from 0.1% at site A between

1740-1850 msl to 0.6% at site H between 2400-2480 msl. This reveals that the

decomposition under these soils has been very much low and the availability of

nutrients due to decomposition of organic matter has also been low (Table-4.6;

Plate-29, Fig. 2).

4.3.2.2. Carbonates: The carbonates and bicarbonates

play a very important role in the alkalinity of the soil. Due to the acidic nature of

soils on all the sites, the carbonate has been found absent. (Table-4.6; Plate-30,

Fig. 1).

4.3.2.3. Bicarbonates: Bicarbonates has been found low

in all soils of all the sites ranging from 0.0122% at site E between 1280-1380 msl

to 0.0244% at site C between 1200-1300 msl in the study area (Table-4.6; Plate-

30, Fig.1).

4.3.2.4. Calcium: In all soils, calcium has been determined

low as all the soils were acidic in nature. Thus in consonance with the acidic

nature of the soils. The calcium content of all the soils, on all sites, in the study

area, has also been low. Calcium has been determined with low value ranging

from 0.12% at site J between 2020-2240 msl to 0.36% at sites B & D between

1180-1300 msl & 1600-1720 msl, respectively, in the study area (Table-4.6;

Plate-28, Fig. 2).

4.3.2.5. Magnesium: Like calcium, magnesium has also

been determined low in consonance with the acidic nature of the soil. Magnesium

registered a minimum value of 0.19% at sites C & K between 1200-1300 msl &

1680-1780 msl, respectively and a maximum value of 0.41% at site D between

1600 msl-1720 msl. It is interesting to know that calcium and magnesium are

also responsible for the acidic nature of the soil on all sites of the study area

(Table 4.6; Plate 28, Fig. 2).

4.3.2.6. Chlorides: Chlorides have also been determined

as low in all the soils of the study area. The values of the chloride percentage

ranged between a minimum of 0.0053% at site A between 1740-1850 msl to a

maximum of 0.0177% at site C between 1200-1300 msl. Thus, it is evident from

the analysis that chlorides were also not available in appreciable quantity in the

study area (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1).

4.3.2.7. Sodium: Sodium has been determined in all soil

samples ranging from a minimum of 2.1% at site B between 1180-1300 msl to

maximum of 2.28% at site E between 1280-1380 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig.

1).

4.3.2.8. Potassium: The amount of potassium has been

determined between a minimum of 2.81% at site J between 2020 – 2240 msl to a

maximum of 4.02% at site C between 1200-1300 msl in the study area. Besides

these two sites, values of potassium range from 3.245 to 3.98% at other ten sites

i.e. A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, K & L (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 1).

4.3.2.9. Phosphorus: The percentage of total phosphorus

has been found to be in fractions at all the sites and ranged between a minimum

of 0.01% to maximum of 0.04%. The minimum value (0.01%) has been

determined at two sites D & H between 1600-1720 msl & 2400-2480 msl and the

maximum value (0.04%) has also been determined at two sites A & G between

1740-1850 msl & 1700-1860 msl; the other sites exhibited value of 0.02% on

sites B, E, J, K and 0.03% on C, F, I, L (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1).

4.3.2.10. Sulphate: The percentage of sulphate has also

been determined in all the soil samples at all the sites and it ranged between a

minimum of 0.032% at site G between 1700-1860 msl to a maximum of 0.084%

at site B between 1180-1300 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1).

4.3.2.11. Nitrate: The percentage of nitrate has also been

determined at all the sites and it ranged between a minimum of 1.1% at site A

between 1740-1850msl to a maximum of 5.01% at site K between 1680-1780

msl (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 1).

4.3.2.12. Iron: The percentage of iron ranged from 0.72%

to 6.52%. The minimum percentage (0.72%) has been recorded at site G between

1700-1860 msl, and the highest percentage (6.52%) was recorded at site K

between 1680-1780 msl. Majority of the sites registered a range from 1.08%-

6.04% (Table- 4.6; Plate-29, Fig. 2).

4.3.3. Microelements:

4.3.3.1. Copper: The amount of Copper showed a great

fluctuation. The range varied between 0.85ppm to 12.722ppm. The minimum

value of 0.85 ppm was recorded at only one site i.e. site J between 2020-2240

msl followed by 0.934 ppm on site K between 1680-1780 msl. The maximum

value of 12.722 ppm followed by 12.224 ppm has been determined for site A and

site E between 1740-1850 msl & 1280-1380 msl, respectively. At majority of the

sites the value of copper has been registered between 2.614 ppm- 6.988 ppm

(Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig 2).

4.3.3.2. Cadmium: The amount has been determined as

low and the range varied between a minimum of 0.009 ppm to 0.089 ppm in the

study area. The minimum value of 0.009 ppm has been recorded at site J between

2020-2240 msl while the maximum value of 0.089 ppm followed by 0.071 have

been recorded at site A and L between 1740-1850 msl and between 2060-2200

msl respectively. At majority of sites the values of copper ranged between 0.021

ppm to 0.045 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig 2).

4.3.3.3. Zinc: The amount of Zinc exhibited very little

fluctuation. The range varied between a minimum of 0.448 ppm at site C

between 1200-1300 msl to 1.1ppm at site E between 1280-1380 msl. At majority

of the sites the value ranges between 0.457 ppm to 0.833 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-

31, Fig. 2).

4.3.3.4. Nickel: A great fluctuation has been observed in

the amount of Nickel. The value ranged from a minimum of 3.83 ppm to 9.27

ppm. The minimum value of 3.83 ppm has been observed at three sites B, H & K

between 1180-1300 msl, 2400-2480 msl & 1680-1780 msl, respectively, while

the maximum value of 9.27 ppm has been recorded for only one site A between

1740-1850 msl. At majority of sites, the values ranged between 4.15 ppm to 5.11

ppm (Table-4.7; Plate- 31, Fig. 1).

4.3.3.5. Cobalt: The amount of cobalt exhibited a very

small fluctuation and values ranged from minimum of 0.86 ppm at site H

between 2400-2480 msl to maximum of 2.28 ppm at sites E & L between 1280-

1380 msl & 2060-2200 msl, respectively. At majority of the sites the values

ranged between 1.19ppm to 1.95ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig. 1).

4.3.3.6. Lead: The amount of lead exhibited a very small

fluctuation and value ranged from the minimum of 6.32 ppm at site E and J

between 1280-1380 msl and 2020-2240 msl to maximum of 9.03 ppm at site L

between 2060-2200 msl (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig. 1).

Table-4.6: Physico - chemical parameters of soil (macro-elements).

TAROWN PARAN00 BALERU BRAM-

PUR

SANII PANJ-

GRAM

DHARA KANSRU MANT-

HLU

BHEJA DUGGI MOTHLU SITES

A B C D E F G H I J K L

ALTITUDE 1740-

1850m

1180-

1300m

1200-

1300m

1600-

1720m

1280-

1380m

1500-

1600m

1700-

1860m

2400-

2480m

2260-

2360m

2020-

2240m

1680-

1780m

2060-

2200m

TEXTURE Silt Loam Sandy

Loam

Sandy

Loam

Sandy

Loam

Silt

Loam

Silt

Loam

Loam Sandy

Loam

Sandy

Clay

Loam

Sandy

Loam

Sandy

Clay

Loam

Sandy

Loam

MOISTURE (%) 25 20 15 30 25 20 20 25 30 20 20 25

TEMPRATURE (oC) 10 15 13 22 13 15 20 18 17 10 8 9

pH 6.5 4.2 6.1 4.5 5.5 4.5 6.7 6.2 6.5 5.5 5.3 6.5

CONDUCTANCE

(µMho/c)

18.9 123 117 112 19.5 18 19.4 168 178 18.7 136 102

ORGANIC CARBON (%)

0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4

CARBONATES (%) Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent

BICARBONATES(%) 0.02135 0.01355 0.0244 0.0183 0.0122 0.0164 0.0244 0.01526 0.0183 0.0188 0.0171 0.0143

CALCIUM (%) 0.22 0.36 0.2 0.36 0.18 0.32 0.24 0.16 0.3 0.12 0.24 0.32

MAGANESIUM (%) 0.32 0.35 0.19 0.41 0.25 0.29 0.25 0.38 0.25 0.38 0.19 0.25

CHLORIDES (%) 0.0053 0.0071 0.0177 0.0142 0.0124 0.0122 0.0088 0.0106 0.0126 0.0124 0.0117 0.0123

SODIUM (%) 2.22 2.1 2.24 2.2 2.28 2.12 2.14 2.16 2.2 2.14 2.1 2.19

POTASSIUM (%) 3.98 3.24 4.02 3.94 3.52 3.71 3.68 3.84 3.88 2.81 3.52 3.89

PHOSPHORUS (%) 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03

SULPHATE (%) 0.076 0.084 0.068 0.044 0.0482 0.044 0.032 0.076 0.072 0.052 0.056 0.06

NITRATE (%) 1.1 1.5 3.03 2.03 2.52 2.01 3.03 4.02 2.02 1.5 5.01 3.01

IRON ppm 5.44 2.52 3.96 1.08 6.04 4.36 0.72 4.72 3.6 2.52 6.52 1.44

Table-4.7 : Physico – chemical parameters of soil (microelements).

SITES TAROWN PARANU BALERU BRAM-

PUR

SANII PANJ

GRAM

DHARA KANSRU MANTH-

LU

BHEJA DUGGI MOTH-

LU

A B C D E F G H I J K L

ALTITUDE 1740-

1850m

1180-

1300m

1200-

1300m

1600-

1720m

1280-

1380m

1500-

1600m

1700-

1860m

2400-

2480m

2260-

2360m

2020-

2240m

1680-

1780m

2060-

2200m

Copper ppm 12.722 6.988 5.016 3.297 12.224 4.032 3.777 1.989 2.614 0.85 0.934 5.771

Cadmium ppm

0.089 0.044 0.03 0.032 0.021 0.028 0.03 0.045 0.037 0.009 0.021 0.072

Zinc ppm 0.725 0.833 0.448 0.626 1.1 0.812 0.457 0.52 0.722 0.607 0.616 0.812

Nickel ppm 9.27 3.83 4.47 5.11 4.71 4.71 5.11 3.83 4.15 4.47 3.83 5.11

Cobalt ppm 1.2 0.97 1.19 1.95 2.28 2.17 1.41 0.86 1.73 1.19 1.52 2.28

Lead ppm 7.45 7.22 6.77 7.82 6.32 7.9 7.15 8.73 7.3 6.32 7.67 9.03

4.4. Conservation of Medicinal Plants of the Study Area:

A threatened species is one which is at significant risk of extinction

in the foreseeable future, due to various causes like environmental factors,

ecological substitutions, biological factors, pathological cause and anthropogenic

interferences in the form of habitat destruction, human overexploitation etc. The

Species Survival Commission of IUCN first attempted to categorise the

threatened taxa according to different degrees of threat perceptions as: Extinct;

Endangered; Vulnerable and Rare. Soon after the publication of IUCN’s Red

Data Book in 1978 on global basis, several countries including India brought out

their own red data books on Plants and Animals. During the last 2 decades,

Botanical Survey of India with continued explorations, inventorisation and

assessment of various parameters of floral diversity has identified about 1500

species of plants which are rare and threatened. It has also been observed that the

species are becoming rare or threatened mainly due to anthropogenic factors like

habitat destruction and overexploitation.

In the study area the same anthropogenic factors have also been

observed for the heavy loss of floral elements. The overexploitation of medicinal

plants is the major factor among anthropogenic activities in the study area. Some

of the threats observed in the study area are:-

1. The collection of immature floral elements for medicinal

uses viz. Gentiana species.

2. The collection of all the flowers in the wild habitat viz. Viola

species, Pleurospermum species, Corydalis species.

3. The collection of below ground parts for medicinal uses

(Bergenia species, Jurinea macrocephala, Saussurea costus,

Picrorhiza kurroo) etc.

4. Collection of immature fruits for food and medicinal uses.

5. Grazing by goat and sheep flocks.

6. Cleaning of forests for agricultural purposes.

7. Cutting and cleaning of forests for timber.

8. Illegal collection of herbs for medicinal uses and traditional

rituals.

9. Construction of circular roads and link roads in the study

area.

10. Collection of herbs by pilgrims on their way towards

pilgrimage destinations at high altitudes.

11. Forest fires.

In the collected medicinal flora of the area there are only few

threatened floral elements according to Red Data Book of BSI. These are:-

1. Dioscorea deltoidea

2. Gentiana kurroo

3. Podophyllum hexandrum

4. Saussurea costus

5. Taxus wallichiana

Of the five threatened medicinal plants, Dioscorea deltoidea and

Podophyllum hexandrum were taken for developing conservation strategies. The

two plant species have been studied for both seed germination and

transplantation in the study area as well as University Botanical Garden. After

the regular trials it has been observed that conservation and propagation of plants

through seed germination is useful only in the study area, while under proper

care and proper artificial conditions the below ground parts of both the plant

species germinate in University Botanical Garden (320 msl). In the second year

of study the Podophyllum hexandrum was not able to germinate from the one

year old transplanted below ground parts, but the plants of Dioscorea deltoidea

germinated from the last year’s transplanted germplasm (Plate-32; Figs. 1-12). In

the second year of study some rhizomes of the Dioscorea deltoidea were cut in

suitable one and half inches pieces (taking care that germinating bud shouldn’t

damage) and planted again in pots in the glass house (Plate-33; Figs. 1-12). By

the year 2005, the plants were again germinated in the glass house from these

pieces of rhizomes. Data showing the stages of germination and conservation

practices has been tabulated below (Table- 4.8).

Table-4.8: Conservation practices of Dioscorea deltoidea.

Date Jan.15,

2005

Jan.15,

2005

Jan.16,

2005

Jan.16,

2005

Jan.16,

2005

Jan.17,

2005

Jan.17,

2005

Jan.17,

2005

Pot no. 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4

Plant no. I II I II III I II I

BG (Rhizome)

Length 3in. 3 in. 3 ½ in. 3 in. 2 in. 2 in. 2 in. 4 in.

Girth 2 ½ in. 2 in. 3 in. 2 in. 2 in. 1 ½ in. 2 in. 2 ½ in.

NOSB 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

NNSB 2 1 4 1 1 2 1 3

BG (Root)

Length

(max.)

(min.)

8cm

1cm

12 cm

1 ½ cm

5 ½ in

1 in.

3 in.

1 in.

5 in.

1 in.

9 in.

1 cm.

13 in.

1

12 in.

1 ½

NOR 27 14 15 11 10 16 12 18

AG (shoot)

Number 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Length 22in 23 in. 62 in. 24 in. 18 in. 23 in. 16 in. 22

NOL 17 22 Nil Nil. 13 14 8 8 & 3

SOL

(max.)

(min.)

2 ½ X 2 in.

0.5X0.2 in.

2 X 2 in

0.2X0.1cm

N.A. N.A.

2 X 1½ in.

0.1X0.1 cm

2 X 1½ in.

1.2 X 1cm

2 X 2in.

1 X 1in.

3 X 1 ½ in.

&

3 X 1 ½ in.

1 X 1 ½ in.

& nil.

CNY 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 3

BG: Below ground part; NOSB: Number of old shoot bud; NNSB: Number of new

shoot bud; NOR: Number of Roots; AG: Above ground part; NOL: Number of leaves;

SOL: Size of Leaves; CNY: Cutting for New Year.

For the next year, 19 vegetative buds from rhizomes were separated

from the last year’s planted species. These 19 buds have been planted again in

the separate pots. Bhat and Bindroo (1982) were followed for the induction of

early bud sprouting in Dioscorea deltoidea. Soil used in pots was maintained to

acidic pH to provide the maximum availability of the micronutrient to the crop.

All the buds have germinated into plantlets within two months. Within four

months of plantation of the species few plants have reached maturity by

producing flowers. Data showing the stages of germination for the season have

been tabulated below (Table-4.9).

Table 4. 9: Data recorded for Conservation practices of Dioscorea deltoidea on July 9, 2005

PN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

NOC 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NOS 4 1 4 1 5 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 1 1 2 2 4

NOFS 1 Nil 2 Nil 2 1 Nil Nil 1 Nil Nil Nil Nil 1 Nil Nil Nil Nil 1

NOFr Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

PN: Pot number; NOC: Number of cuttings; NOS: Number of Shoots; NOFS: Number of Flowering shoots; NOFr: Number of Fruiting

shoots.

5 pots of last year were not disturbed and have been placed in

glasshouse as such to observe the growth, development and propagation of

propagules.

Seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum have not germinated in the

university botanical garden but in the research station at an altitude of 1600 msl

within the study area seeds sown in August 2003 have germinated after 21 months

(Table-4.10; Plate-34; Figs.1-5).

Table-4.10: Cultivation trial for Podophyllum hexandrum at research

station Bhadarwah (1600msl).

Date/Year Number of seeds sown Number of seeds germinated

August 2003 50 Nil

April 2004 Nil Nil

August 2004 Nil Nil

April 2005 Nil 48

In the same year of study germplasm of one more plant (Digitalis

purpurea) was collected from the study area and tried in the University Botanical

Garden. Firstly three plants of the species were transplanted to the botanical

garden in open field. The plant species was transplanted in the month of

September 2003. The species survived for eight months (September 2003 - April

2004) without any distortion in the greenery of the leaves. But during month of

May 2004, the symptoms of the death of the plant were observed and then the

plants were shifted to greenhouse. Likewise in August 2004, 35 plants were also

taken to the University Botanical Garden for experimental purpose. Out of these

five are planted in pots of the Glasshouse and 30 are planted in the open field of

University Botanical Garden. Out of these 30 plants only two plants attained

maturity phase by flowering in the botanical garden and only one plant in the

glasshouse was observed in flowering. (Plate-35; Figs. 1-9).

***********

Discussion

5.1. Forest cover:

During exploration of the medicinal plants of the study area, the

vegetation types and forest types of the Neeru watershed were also recorded. After

a detailed survey for three years, a forest map has been compiled in which the

forests of the study area have been grouped in five groups which are further

classified in types and sub-types (Plate-14 & Fig.2). From these observations it has

been concluded that the area is dominated by Cedrus deodara trees and the

dominating forest sub-type is 12/C1c i.e. moist deodar forest. This observation is

in consonance with the observations of Kumar (1987) who reported Cedrus

deodara as the dominating tree species in the Bhadarwah area. Abundance of

Cedrus deodara in the present study area indicate that in addition to the rainfall

the distribution of the precipitation during the year plays an important role in the

general make up of the forest vegetation. This has also been emphasized by

Champion (1936). The thick canopy of Cedrus deodara forest in the study area

does not allow the ground flora to grow but the areas devoid of thick forests have

the maximum ground flora. This may be due to the minimum availability of

sunlight to the ground vegetation because of the thick canopy of giant Cedrus

deodara and other broad-leaved shrubs. This observation is supported by the

findings of Mayers (1980).

5.2. Floristic details:

Ethno-botany is the study of how people of a particular culture and

region make use of indigenous plants. Ethno-historic research in India reveals that

Indians are conservationists. The floristic study of the medicinal plants has shown

that the area is endowed with large number of medicinal herbs than other plants on

each study site (Annexure-C). In the present study, 161 genera with 194 species of

medicinal plants have been recorded (Table-4.1). Dominant family among

medicinal plants in the study area is Asteraceae with 18 genera and 20 species

followed by Lamiaceae with 10 genera and 11 species ( Table-4.1), while the total

number of 323 genera with 488 species represent the flora of Bhadarwah forests

and the dominating family in the study area is Asteraceae with 61 species

(Kumar, 1987). Although in the present study only the medicinal plants have been

considered but it becomes very evident from the observation of Kumar (1987)

that the climate of the area favours the Asteraceae family to establish well in the

Neeru-valley. The climatic zonation of the study area resembles the climatic

features of Mussoori (now in Uttaranchal), but the flora of study area is somewhat

different from the flora of Uttaranchal. In Mussoori, there is a coniferous climate

(Gupta, 1967) while in Neeru watershed at most of the hills the Rhododendron

sp. and Quercus sp. are also seen along with the Juniperus sp. On comparison of

the flora of the study area with the flora of Mussoori, it becomes apparent that

Graminaeae (Poaceae) falls at number one with 123 species in Mussoori while as

it is Asteraceae in the study area. Similarly the flora of Simla is again dominated

by Graminaeae (Poaceae) with 133 species (Collett, 1921).

5.2.1. Life forms:

The life form classification of the medicinal plant species favour the

therophytic flora to flourish well in the area because of the topography, climate

and soil chemistry. This observation is in consonance with the observations of

Kumar (1987), but doesn’t conform to the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum. In the

study area therophytic and chamaephytic medicinal plants show a great positive

divergence from the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum, reflecting a thero-

chamaephytic climate of the region (Table-4.2). As per the Raunkiaer’s normal

spectrum the phytoclimate of the study area should be phanero-hemicryptophytic

while the studies of the Kumar (1987) reveal that the phytoclimate of the

Bhadarwah forest is thero-hemicryptophytic, because of so many factors, at

macro, meso and micro-climatic level. It is interesting to observe that the study for

medicinal plants only, in the same area, reflects that the area favours thero-

chamaephtic phyto-climate. Kaul and Sarin (1976), while working in another

belt and aspect of the Bhadarwah forest, reported chamaephytes and

hemicryptophytes as the largest life form classes. But present study of medicinal

plants registers therophytic and chamaephytic life forms as the largest life form

classes in the study area. Moreover the geophytes register double the value than

the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum. This may be because of the temperate climate of

the area which favours such plants which can preserve their vegetative

(propagative) buds under the soil during the chilling winters.

When the life forms of the present study were compared with the life

forms of adjoining areas the results showed that the therophytes register a high

percentage at all the places except Trikuta Hills (Table-5.1). According to

Bharucha and Dave (1944) the high value of therophytes is an indicator of the

amount of influence of man and animal.

Table 5.1: Comparison of Life forms of medicinal flora of study area

with adjoining areas.

Life forms TH HH G H CH N M L E

Study area Author,

2005

26.80 3.09 7.73 26.28 16.49 7.73 9.27 0.51 2.06

Bhadarwah

Forest

Kumar,

1987

29.3 3.30 4.5 37.1 11.5 6.14 6.35 1.43 0.40

Trikuta

Hills

Kour,

2001

27.31 3.09 7.73 26.00 16.49 15.0 28.0 1.03 3.0

Patnitop Kumar,

1997

29.8 3.2 3.5 26.4 15.2 8.5 10.4 2.6 0.2

Kathua Jhangir,

2004

32.89 1.27 2.55 15.77 12.36 12.79 16.63 5.11 0.63

Jammu Sharma,

2003

35.45 1.78 2.02 9.11 13.93 11.64 16.70 8.87 0.50

Raunkiaer’s normal

Spectrum

13.0 2.0 4.0 26.0 9.0 15.0 28.0 - 3.0

5.2.2. Phytosociology:

In the present study, the medicinal flora of the area has been

classified in two classes (i) known medicinal plants, and (ii) unknown medicinal

plants. During the phytosociological studies it has been observed that the

maximum plants in each quadrate are from the first class i.e. known medicinal

plants. This observation also reveals that the study area is very much suitable for

the cultivation of medicinal plants.

During the phytosociological analysis of the flora of Neeru

watershed in winters, the medicinal species like Taraxacum officinale, Verbascum

thapsus, Oxalis corniculata, Duchesnea indica, Phytolacca acinosa, Tagetus

minuta, Hedera nepalensis, Colchicum luteum, Girardinia heterophylla, Arisaema

jacquemontii and Bergenia ciliata register a high IVI and this is in consonance

with the studies of Kumar (1987) in Bhadarwah and Kumar (1997) in the

Patnitop (temperate regions) of the province. The phytosociological analysis of the

herbaceous flora of other three seasons is in consonance with the earlier studies of

Kumar (1987), Kumar (1997), and Kesar (2002). The medicinal plants are

though dominant in the study area, yet most of them are not taken by the grazing

animals. This observation is similar to the observations of Kumar (1987), Kumar

(1997), Behera (2000), Kesar 2002, Sharma (2003), and Jhangir (2004).

Comparison of the diversity indices of the present study with the

diversity indices calculated by Sharma (2003) for Himalayan Sub-tropical

vegetation of Jammu shows that there is a great variation among the Margalef’s

index. The Margalef’s index as calculated by Sharma (2003) for three types of

vegetation i.e. sub-tropical deciduous forest, Himalayan sub-tropical scrub and

Himalayan subtropical Pine forest ranges between 17.68-34.89 while the

Margalef’s index in the study area ranges between 4.695-7.527 in all the study

sites in all the four seasons (Table 4.3). The calculated Menhinick’s index from

the study area is almost similar to that of Sharma (2003) in the Jammu forests.

Similarly the Shannon-Wiener’s index calculated from the study area is similar to

that of Sharma (2003).

5.2.3. Biomass studies:

The differences in the nutrient content and their distribution in the

ecosystem are governed by several inter-related factors. Kumar (1987), while

working on the phytosociological and productive studies of Bhadarwah forests,

reported that the root-shoot ratio increase from moist to mesic and xeric

conditions. These observations have been supported by Bray (1963), Struik

(1965) and Monk (1966). After consulting the work of Kumar (1987) and visual

observations only few species were taken for the biomass study. The criteria for

the selection of these species were the variation in size of these plants at different

study sites. In the present study similar findings have been recorded as given by

Bray (1963). The sites falling in xeric conditions (A, B, C and D) possess

maximum root-shoot ratio, as compared to the other sites (Table-4.4). This may be

due to the high demand for water contents by the plants.

5.3. Soil Chemistry:

Edaphic factors more or less control the occurrence, composition

and succession of forests within a climatic zone. The soil temperature was found

to be related to air temperature, though exposure and plant cover tend to modify

this relationship. The surface soil temperature was lower than the air temperature.

Temperature and mountain aspect relationship was in consonance with the studies

of Kumar (1987) and Wazir (1984). The results of the present study are in

consonance with the results of the Shanks (1956), who have observed that soil and

air temperature differences tend to be greater in higher temperature range than at

lower temperature.

Soil moisture had a direct relationship with soil temperature. Wetter

soils were colder than the dry ones. These results find the support from the

observations of Kumar (1987). Krishnaswamy et al (1957) studied the micro-

climate of a plantation in Dehradun and concluded that soil temperature remained

higher throughout the year in open habitat while it was observed to be lower under

plantation. Similar results have also been observed during the soil studies in the

study area.

The soils of the study area have been observed as acidic and are in

consonance with the observations of Wazir (1984) and Kumar (1987) (Table

4.6). Our observations also find support from the works of Puri and Gupta

(1951) who observed values of pH ranging between 5.8 to 6.1 for soils under

Abies pindrow and 6.2 to 6.6 for Pinus wallichiana for forest soils of Kulu

Himalayas. As the soils of the area are acidic in nature, there is maximum

availability of mineral nutrients to the plants. This can be concluded by comparing

the results with the work of Lucas and Davis (1961). According to the findings of

Lucas and Davis (1961), nutrients viz. Mo, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Mg, Ca, S, K, P and

N are available in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. Townsend (1974) has categorized the

various nutritional elements in four different classes viz.

1. Macro-nutrient elements

2. Micro-nutrient elements

3. Harmful elements

4. Incidental elements

In the present study about 18 macro and micro-elements from the

soil were analysed and classified in four classes as per the classification of

Townsend (1974). These are C, P, K, Mg, Ca Fe and Na as macronutrient

elements; Co, Cu, Zn as micro-nutrient elements; Ni and Pb as the harmful

elements and Cd as the incidental element. But in the present study, few other

elements like carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates were also analysed

from the soils because these elements are important for setting the pH gradient in

the soil. The absence of carbonate and low range of bicarbonate (from 0.012% to

0.024%) reveals that the soils are acidic in nature (Table-4.6). Gypsum pieces

present on the soil surface of the study area are slightly soluble, but release

sufficient sulphates to support plant growth. It has been observed that there is low

percentage of sulphates as compared to the percentage of calcium (Table-4.6).

This observation is in consonance with the observations of Taiz and Zeiger

(2002).

According to Taiz and Zeiger (2002) root growth is generally

favoured in slightly acidic soils at pH value between 5.5 and 6.5. Our observations

conform to the above hypothesis. In the study area, the predominating medicinal

flora possesses the underground parts which are used for medicinal purposes in

local treatments. Moreover, the dominating tree species of the area Cedrus

deodara and many other floral elements bear a mycorrhizal association and all the

soils of the study area are acidic in nature. Acidity promotes the weathering of

rocks that release K, Mg, Ca and Mn and increase the solubility which facilitates

absorption by the roots. The amount of rainfall and decomposition of organic

matter in soils are major factors in lowering the soil pH.

5.4. Conservation of threatened medicinal plant species:

A classification of the medicinal vegetation on physiognomic basis

revealed that the study area is represented by therophytic type of flora. Thus seeds

were preferred for the conservation practice. Initially only two plant species were

taken to develop the conservation strategy. Seeds were tried for both the species at

research station Bhadarwah (1600 msl), but it was observed that the seeds

germination in both the species was very poor. The underground parts viz.

rhizomes for both Dioscorea deltoidea and Podophyllum hexandrum were tried for

further studies.

It has been observed that the rhizomes of D. deltoidea are woody in

nature but decay off due to the attack of tuber rotting fungi. To prevent the decay

during field growth of the species, the rhizomes were pre-treated with 3000 ppm

of Benamyl fungicide (Bhattacharjee, 2000). The protocol proposed by

Bhattacharjee (2000) for D. floribunda was followed to cultivate D. deltoidea.

The rhizomes of the species were divided into crown, median and tip parts. In case

of D. floribunda, it has been observed that tips grow slowly while rhizome pieces

from crown and median parts grow quickly (Bhattacharjee, 2000). Our

observations are slightly different for D. deltoidea. The crown of D. deltoidea

grows faster than the median and tip parts. It has also been observed that 3-4

plantlets grow simultaneously from the crown part, but later on only one attain

maturity. This is clear indication of resource allocation. Therefore, it may be

beneficial to separate the germinating buds in early stages and plant them

individually. The germinating buds in the rhizome are distinguishable from rest of

rhizome by few characters as follows:

1. The germinating buds are bright yellow in colour than the rest of rhizome

(dark brown).

2. The germinating buds are swollen outgrowths.

3. More often young shoots are observed on the germinating buds.

4. Germinating buds are soft than the rest of the rhizome.

In the present study, the methods as proposed by Bhat and Bindroo

(1982) were followed for the induction of early buds sprouting in D. deltoidea. D.

deltoidea produce viable seeds, but seed production is rare and germination is

slow. In the present study seeds were also studied for their germination after the

treatment with different concentrations of GA3 (Yousuf, 2002). In the present

study maximum germination was observed in the seeds treated with 50ppm GA3

(Plate 36).

According to Bhattacharjee (2000) Podophyllum sp. is propagated

from seeds or by division of rhizomes. Seed germination is poor. Seeds are sown

in spring season, seedlings are transplanted in a well pulverized and fertilized soil

at a distance of 30cm x 20cm. Organic rich moist soil, partially shaded borders,

marshes or bog gardens are suitable for its cultivation. In the present study the

rhizomes were collected from the altitude of 2800 msl to 1600 msl and were

transplanted at research station Bhadarwah. After one year of transplantation each

rhizome germinated into one plantlet only. Simultaneously, the seeds were also

sown at 1600 msl in spring season. These seeds sown in August 2003 germinated

after 21 months. This proves that the seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum possess a

long period of dormancy.

***********

Summary

The Himalayas are the youngest mountain ranges of the world,

especially the central ridge of that mountain system, which forms the southern

limit of Tibet for 2,500 miles from Assam in the east to Jammu and Kashmir in the

west. Himalayas are series of more or less parallel or converging ranges

intercepted by numerous valleys and extensive plateaus. Due to the variation in

topography, it enjoys a variety of climate, and has been divided into three

ecological zones i.e., sub-mountainous, temperate zone and alpine zone. These

climatic variations make it quite a bit interesting and rich zone of biodiversity. The

inner dry valleys and Trans-Himalayan tracts that lie north of the main Himalayan

mountain wall receive very low monsoon rainfall but relatively heavy snowfall.

Same is the condition in the area of study i.e. Neeru watershed.

Neeru watershed (J&K) situated in the Northwest Himalayas was

selected for ecological studies and conservation of medicinal plants. Climatically

and ecologically the area represents almost the whole state, as the climatic

conditions of the area range from sub-tropical to alpine. Neeru stream originating

from Kaplash Lake (4341 msl) and Ashapatti Glacier (3300 msl) is the main

stream of the area. Neeru stream is dual in origin and the two tributaries join each

other in main town of Bhadarwah (1600 msl) and then flow for about 30 km to

meet Chenab River at Pul Doda (821 msl).

The forests of Neeru- watershed have been divided into six types and

further in seven sub-types of five groups as per the classification of Champion

and Seth (1964). The vegetation of each type and sub-type has been described in

detail. The dominant forest type of the area includes moist Cedrus deodara forest.

Among medicinal flora, Asteraceae is the most dominant family in the area with

18 genera and 20 species. The other dominant families, with regard to the

medicinal plants, in the area include Lamiaceae (12 genera, 12 species),

Apiaceae (9 genera, 10 species), Ranunculaceae (8 genera, 12 species),

Rosaceae (7 genera, 11 species) and Brassicaceae (7 genera, 8 species).

A total of 194 medicinal plant species belonging to 161 genera of

tracheophytes grouped in 72 families have been recorded from the study area,

during three years (April, 2003 to April, 2005) of field study. A complete list of

194 medicinal plants, from the study area, with their medicinal values has been

presented. Most of the specimens have been collected, preserved and mounted on

herbarium sheets and deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany,

University of Jammu. A large number of plants have been photographed in their

natural habitat.

Phytosociological studies have been conducted during all the four

seasons by laying quadrates of suitable size. The study includes the collection of

primary data, and based on the primary data the secondary data has been

calculated. The values have been presented in a tabular form and also discussed in

detail. During the phytosociological analysis of the flora of Neeru watershed in

winters, the medicinal flora like Phytolacca acinosa, Taraxacum officinale,

Verbascum thapsus, Arisaema jacquemontii and Hedra nepalensis registered a

high IVI. During spring, Justicia adhatoda, Salvia lanata, Hypericum perforatum,

Phytolacca acinosa, Gnaphalium leuto-album, Rabdosia rugosa registered a high

value of IVI. During summer, Arisaema jacquemontii, Rabdosia rugosa,

Phytolacca acinosa, Verbascum thapsus and Taraxacum officinale registered a

high value of IVI, while during autumn, Verbascum thapsus, Phytolacca acinosa,

Digitalis purpurea registered a high value of IVI. Diversity indices like

Margalef’s index, Menhinick’s index, and Shannon-Wiener’s index have been

calculated for the medicinal plants of the area.

Biomass studies for eleven medicinal plants have been conducted

because of the variation in size of the species at different sites. The relationship of

soil chemistry, meteorological data and altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants

in the area has also been discussed in relation to the vegetation.

Life forms and biological spectrum of the medicinal plants of the

study area have also been investigated. Out of 194 medicinal plants collected from

the study area, 52 species belong to therophytes, 18 to macro-phanerophytes, 51 to

hemi-cryptophytes, 15 to nano-phanerophytes, 4 to epiphytes, 15 to geophytes, 6

to hydrophytes/helophytes, 1 to lianas, and 32 to chamaephytes respectively.

These life forms have been compared with Raunkiaer’s normal biological

spectrum and the biological spectrum of the adjoining areas. Based on these

observations the phytoclimate of the area has been discussed thoroughly.

In the present study the medicinal flora of the region has been

grouped in five groups on the basis of altitudinal gradient and the altitudinal range

between 1500-2000 msl has been recognized as the zone with maximum diversity

of medicinal flora. Hence this zone has been chosen as an experimental station for

the conservation of some of the medicinal plants of the area.

In physico-chemical analysis of soil the parameters taken for the

analysis were, texture, moisture, temperature, pH, electric conductivity,

carbonates, bicarbonates, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Sodium, Potassium,

Total Phosphorus, Sulphates, Nitrates, Iron, Copper, Cadmium, Zinc, Nickel,

Cobalt and Lead.

Conservation of medicinal plants of the study area also has been

discussed and conservation practices for Dioscorea deltoidea and Podophyllum

hexandrum have also been carried out in situ and ex situ.

The thesis also contains a chapter on materials and methodology,

which has been described in detail. A separate chapter each on review of literature

and upto-date bibliography has also been included. The tabular data has been

given in the form of appendices and line charts. Bar charts have also been drawn,

where ever found necessary.

***********

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---------------*********---------------

Annexure A : List of medicinal plants from the study area ( Neeru Watershed ) with their families and

Life forms.

S. No. Name of species Family Plate No./Fig.No. Life form Acc. No.

1. Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae 22-5 N

2. Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae 24-9 HH

3. Mollugo pentaphylla L. Aizoaceae TH

4. Achyranthes bidentata Bl. Amaranthaceae 23-3 H SKHC - NEERU-101/8249

5. Pistacia integerrima Stew.

Anacardiaceae 17-9 MPH SKHC-NEERU-102/8250

6. Rhus succedanea L. Anacardiaceae PH

7. Anethum sowa Roxb. Apiaceae 19-2 CH

8. Bunium persicum (Boiss) B.

Fedtsch.

Apiaceae 19-1 CH SKHC-NEERU-103/8251

9. Heracleum candicans Wall. Apiaceae 19-3 H

10. Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Apiaceae H

11. Pleurospermum brunonis Benth. Apiaceae 19-4 H SKHC-NEERU-105/8253

12. Selinum vaginatum Clarke.

Apiaceae H SKHC-NEERU-109/8257

13. Sium latijugum Clark. Apiaceae HH

14. Bupleurum longicaule Wall.

Apiaceae TH

15. Bupleurum falcatum L. Apiaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-107/8255

16. Trachyspermum ammi Apiaceae TH

17. Nerium indicum Mill. Apocynaceae 21-3 N

18. Arisaema jacquemontii Engl. Araceae 24-10 G

19. Sauromatum guttatum Schott. Araceae 24-11 G

20. Hedera nepalensis K . Koch. Araliaceae 19-5 E (CLIMBER) SKHC-NEERU-110/8258

21. Pergularia daemia (Forskal)

Chiov.

Asclepiadaceae CH

22. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Asteraceae CH

23. Artemisia vestita Wall. Asteraceae CH SKHC-NEERU-113/8261

24. Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae 20-3 CH

25. Inula royleana DC. Asteraceae 20-6 CH

26. Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 20-2 H SKHC-NEERU-131/ 8279

27. Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Asteraceae 20-4 H

28. Jurinea macrocephala Benth. Asteraceae 20-5 H

29. Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Asteraceae H SKHC-NEERU-119/8267

30. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Asteraceae H

31. Saussurea heteromalla

(D. Don) Hand. – Mazz.

Asteraceae 20-7 H SKHC-NEERU-132/8280

32. Solidago virga-aurea L. Asteraceae H SKHC-NEERU-126/8274

33. Tagetus minuta L. Asteraceae H SKHC-NEERU-125/8273

34. Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex

DC.

Asteraceae 20-8 H

35. Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch.-

Bip.

Asteraceae 20-10 TH

36. Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae TH

37. Carpesium abrotanoides L. Asteraceae TH

38. Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae TH

39. Siegesbeckia orientalis L.

Asteraceae TH

40. Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Asteraceae 20-9 TH

41. Xanthium strumarium L.

Asteraceae TH

42. Impatiens roylei Klotz.

Balsaminaceae 17-5 TH

43. Berberis lycium Royle. Berberidaceae 16-1 N SKHC-NEERU-135/8283

44. Betula utilis D. Don. Betulaceae MPH

45. Cynoglossum micranthum Dalz. & Boraginaceae 21-6 CH SKHC-NEERU-137/8284

Gibs.

46. Macrotomia benthamii DC. Boraginaceae MPH

47. Lithospermum arvense L. Boraginaceae TH

48. Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench. Brassicaceae 16-8 TH SKHC-NEERU-141/8289

49. Cardamine impatiens L. Brassicaceae TH

50. Draba gracillima Hk. F.& T. Brassicaceae TH

51. Erysimum repandum L. Brassicaceae TH

52. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Ait. Brassicaceae TH

53. Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern. Brassicaceae TH

54. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas. Brassicaceae TH

55. Sisymbrium irio L. Brassicaceae TH

56. Codonopsis ovata Benth. Campanulaceae H

57. Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae 24-2 CH

58. Lonicera alpigena L. Caprifoliaceae N

59. Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. Caprifoliaceae 19-6 N SKHC-NEERU-145/8293

60. Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop. Caryophyllaceae 16-12 H

61. Silene conoidea L. Caryophyllaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-146/8294

62. Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae 24-8 TH SKHC-NEERU-152/8300

63. Ipomoea nil (Linn) Roth. Convolvulaceae CH

64. Ipomoea pilosa Cav. Convolvulaceae 21-7 CH

65. Sedum ewersii Ledeb. Crassulaceae N

66. Melothria heterophylla (Lour.)

Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-154/8302

67. Mariscus sieberianus Nees. Cyperaceae H

68. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Dioscoreaceae 24-4 G

69. Cassiope fastigiata D.Don. Ericaceae 20-12 CH SKHC-NEERU- 156/8304

70. Rhododendron campanulatum

D.Don.

Ericaceae 20-11 N

71. Acalypha brachystachya Hornew. Euphorbiaceae TH

72. Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae 23-10 TH SKHC-NEERU-159/8307

73. Euphorbia pilosa L. Euphorbiaceae 23-11 TH

74. Desmodium podocarpum DC. Fabaceae CH SKHC-NEERU-161/8308

75. Desmodium polycarpum DC. Fabaceae CH

76. Desmodium tiliaefolium D. Don Fabaceae CH

77. Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae 17-10 H SKHC-NEERU-206/8354

78. Robinia pseudo-acacia L. Fabaceae MPH

79. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Fumariaceae 16-5 CH SKHC-NEERU-163/8311

80. Corydalis rutifolia Sibth. Fumariaceae 16-6 CH SKHC-NEERU-164/8312

81. Corydalis thyrsiflora Prain.

Fumariaceae 16-4 CH SKHC-NEERU-165/8313

82. Fumaria parviflora Lamk. Fumariaceae 16-7 TH

83. Gentiana argentea Royle. Gentianaceae 21-4 H SKHC-NEERU-169/8317

84. Gentiana kurroo Royle. Gentianaceae 21-5 H

85. Geranium wallichianum Sw. Geraniaceae 17-3 CH SKHC-NEERU-171/8319

86. Geranium nepalense Sw. Geraniaceae 17-2 CH SKHC-NEERU-170/8318

87. Erodium cicutarium Leman. Geraniaceae TH

88. Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae 17-1 CH

89. Iris kemaonensis D.Don. Iridaceae 15-12 G

90. Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae MPH

91. Juncus bufonius L. Juncaceae HH

92. Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 22-8 CH SKHC-NEERU-187/8335

93. Saliva moorcroftiana Wall. Lamiaceae 22-10 CH

94. Clinopodium vulgare L. Lamiaceae H

95. Nepeta elliptica Royle. Lamiaceae H

96. Rabdosia rugosa （Wall.）

Hara.

Lamiaceae 22-9 H SKHC-NEERU-181/8329

97. Salvia lanata Roxb. Lamiaceae H

98. Thymus serpyllum Auct. Lamiaceae 22-11 H SKHC-NEERU-184/8323

99. Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson. Lamiaceae 22-12 HH SKHC-NEERU-172/8320

100. Ajuga parviflora Benth. Lamiaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-189/8337

101. Micromeria biflora (Buch-Ham.)

Benth.

Lamiaceae 22-7 TH SKHC-NEERU-173/8321

102. Origanum normale Don. Lamiaceae TH

103. Stachys sericea Wall. Ex Benth. Lamiaceae TH

104. Allium sp. Liliaceae G

105. Colchicum luteum Baker. Liliaceae 24-7 G SKHC-NEERU-190/8338

106. Fritillaria roylei Hook. Liliaceae G

107. Trillium govanianum Wall. Ex. D.

Don.

Liliaceae 24-5 G SKHC-NEERU-192/8340

108. Tulipa stellata Hook. Liliaceae 24-6 G SKHC-NEERU-193/8341

109. Viscum album L. Loranthaceae 23-9 E SKHC-NEERU-194/8342

110. Viscum japonicum Thumb. Loranthaceae E

111. Melia azadirachta L. Meliaceae 17-6 PH

112. Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae 24-3 MPH

113. Morina longifolia Wall. Morinaceae 20-1 TH SKHC-NEERU-195/8343

114. Olea ferruginea Royle. Oleaceae 21-2 MPH

115. Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 17-4 CH

116. Meconopsis aculeata Royle. Papaveraceae 16-3 H SKHC-NEERU-202/8350

117. Indigofera heterantha Wall. Papilionaceae PH

118. Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Phytolaccaceae 23-4 CH

119. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 23-2 H SKHC-NEERU-210/8358

120. Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 23-1 H SKHC-NEERU-209/8357

121. Arundo donax L. Poaceae CH

122. Agropyron repens Beauv. Poaceae TH

123. Bromus patulus Duthie. Poaceae TH

124. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. Podophyllaceae 16-2 H SKHC-NEERU-211/8359

125. Polemonium caeruleum L. Polemoniaceae H

126. Polygala abyssinica R.Br. ex

Fresen.

Polygalaceae H SKHC-NEERU-212/8360

127. Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. Polygonaceae H SKHC-NEERU-214/8362

128. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don)

Greene.

Polygonaceae 23-5 TH SKHC-NEERU-213/8361

129. Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn. Polygonaceae TH

130. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Polygonaceae TH

131. Polygonum glabrum Willd. Polygonaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-216/8364

132. Polygonum nepalense Meissn. Polygonaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-215/8363

133. Rumex hastatus D. Don. Polygonaceae 23-6 TH SKHC-NEERU-217/8365

134. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae 23-7 TH

135. Primula denticulata Smith. Primulaceae H

136. Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 21-1 TH

137. Punica granatum L. Punicaceae 18-10 MPH

138. Aconitum ferox Wall.

Ranunculaceae 15-3 G SKHC-NEERU-227/8375

139. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Ranunculaceae 15-1 G

140. Aconitum hookeri Stapf. Ranunculaceae 15-2 G SKHC-NEERU-220/8368

141. Anemone tetrasepala Royle. Ranunculaceae 15-5 G SKHC-NEERU-221/8369

142. Delphinium roylei Munz. Ranunculaceae 15-9 G

143. Delphinium vestitum Wall. Ranunculaceae 15-8 G SKHC-NEERU-219/8367

144. Adonis aestivalis L. Ranunculaceae H

145. Anemone obtusiloba D. Don. Ranunculaceae 15-4 H SKHC-NEERU-225/8373

146. Clematis montana D.Don

Ranunculaceae 15-7 H

147. Ranunculus arvensis L. Ranunculaceae 15-11 H SKHC-NEERU-230/8378

148. Caltha palustris L.

Ranunculaceae 15-6 HH

149. Ranunculus aquatilis L. Ranunculaceae 15-10 HH

150. Duchesnea indica (Andrews)

Focke.

Rosaceae 18-1 CH SKHC-NEERU-234/8382

151. Fragaria vesca L. Rosaceae 18-2 CH SKHC-NEERU-233/8381

152. Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosaceae 18-7 E (CLIMBER)

153. Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosaceae 18-6 E (LIANA) SKHC-NEERU-236/8384

154. Geum roylei Wall. Rosaceae 18-3 H

155. Potentilla argyrophylla Wall ex

Lehm.

Rosaceae 18-4 H SKHC-NEERU-235/8383

156. Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Rosaceae H SKHC-NEERU-238/8386

157. Prinsepia utilis Royle. Rosaceae 18-5 N

158. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle. Rosaceae N SKHC-NEERU-237/8385

159. Spiraea canescens D. Don. Rosaceae 18-8 N

160. Spiraea sorbifolia Hoof. Rosaceae N

161. Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae 19-10 N SKHC-NEERU-246/8394

162. Rubus niveus Thunb. Rubiaceae 19-9 N SKHC-NEERU-240/8388

163. Galium rotundifolium L. Rubiaceae TH SKHC-NEERU-244/8392

164. Galium tenuissimum Bieb. Rubiaceae 19-7 TH SKHC-NEERU-245/8393

165. Gallium aparine L. Rubiaceae 19-8 TH SKHC-NEERU-248/8394

166. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. Rutaceae 17-7 PH

167. Populus ciliata Wall. Ex Royle. Salicaceae MPH

168. Aesculus indica Hiern. Sapindaceae 17-8 PH

169. Bergenia ciliata (Hew.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae 18-9 H SKHC-NEERU-252/8400

170. Digitalis lanata Ehrh. Scrophulariaceae 22-2 CH SKHC-NEERU-253/8401

171. Digitalis purpurea L. Scrophulariaceae 22-1 CH SKHC-NEERU-254/8402

172. Euphrasia officinalis L.

Scrophulariaceae CH

173. Pedicularis pectinata Wall ex.

Beth.

Scrophulariaceae 22-4 H SKHC-NEERU-255/8403

174. Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae 22-3 H SKHC-NEERU-261/8409

175. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Solanaceae 21-11 CH

176. Atropa acuminate L. Solanaceae N

177. Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae 21-8 TH

178. Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae 21-12 TH SKHC-NEERU-269/8417

179. Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae TH

180. Solanum pseudo-capsicum L. Solanaceae 21-9 TH

181. Solanum surrattense Burm.F. Solanaceae 21-10 TH

182. Symplocos crataegoides Buch-

Ham. Ex. D.Don

Symplocaceae MPH

183. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae PH SKHC-NEERU-268/8416

184. Daphne oleoides Schreib. Thymealaeaceae 23-8 PH

185. Celtis australis L. Ulmaceae MPH

186. Girardinia heterophylla Dcne. Urticaceae 23-12 H

187. Urtica dioica Linn Urticaceae 24-1 H

188. Valeriana pyrolifolia Decne. Valerianaceae 19-11 H SKHC-NEERU-264/8412

189. Valeriana wallichii DC. Valerianaceae 19-12 H SKHC-NEERU-263/8411

190. Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae 22-6 N SKHC-NEERU-271/8419

191. Viola canescens Wall. ex. Roxb. Violaceae H SKHC-NEERU-265/8413

192. Viola odorata L. Violaceae 16-9 H

193. Viola patrinii DC. Violaceae 16-10 H SKHC-NEERU-266/8414

194. Viola serpens Wall. Violaceae 16-11 H SKHC-NEERU-267/8415

Annexure B : Medicinally important plant species with families, medicinal importance and ethno-

botanical uses:

S. No. Name of species Family Medicinal importance/ Ethno botany

1. Acalypha brachystachya Euphorbiaceae Decoction of the leaves and flower heads is employed as a carminative, tonic and aromatic

stimulant. Locals of the area use leaves and flowers of the plant to cure cold.

2. Achillea millefolium Asteraceae Infusion of the species is diuretic, stimulant and haemostatic. Decoction of the leaves and

flowers are carminative, tonic and aromatic stimulant. Locals of the area use leaves and

flowers for vapour bath in cold and fever. The tea from the leaves of the plant is given in cold.

3. Achyranthes bidentata Amaranthaceae The plant is diuretic and astringent. The locals in case of kidney complaints use it.

4. Aconitum ferox

Ranunculaceae It is given to infants in the cold, cough and stomachache by mixing root powder with milk. The

roots are also useful in piles.

5. Aconitum heterophyllum Ranunculaceae The tubers and flowers are valuable febrifuge, a bitter tonic especially in combating debility

after malarial and other fevers. Powder of rhizome (in small quantity) is used in diarrhoea and

dysentery. The plant is poisonous in nature and is used cautiously.

6. Aconitum hookeri Ranunculaceae Powdered tubers are mixed with mustard oil and applied on head to cure hair fall due to fungal

infection.

7. Acorus calamus Acoraceae Rhizomes of the plant are carminative, stimulant and tonic. Rhizome is considered as the

digestive remedy for fatty food. Locals eat under ground parts for curing stomachache.

Rhizomes are tied around the neck of children to control the infection caused by intestinal

worms.

8. Adonis aestivalis Ranunculaceae Whole plant is cardiac stimulant. Ethno medicinally the leaf extract is used against boils.

9. Aesculus indica Sapindaceae Oil from the seeds is used externally in rheumatic complaints. Fruits of the tree are given to

sheep and goats in dry and cold season. Flowers are astringent and tonic

10. Agropyron repens Poaceae The rhizome is demulcent and diuretic. Decoction of under ground parts is used as a remedy

for kidney problems.

11. Ainsliaea latifolia Asteraceae The roots of the plant are used as anthelmintic.

12. Ajuga parviflora Lamiaceae Leaves and flowers are considered as astringent febrifuge, stimulant, diuretic and aperient.

The leaves and flowers are used as the tea material and are given in case of internal heat.

13. Allium sp. Liliaceae The species is used as the condiment in the food as it is a good carminative.

14. Anagallis arvensis Primulaceae It is used in cases of lung abscess and expectorant.

15. Anemone obtusiloba Ranunculaceae The roots are mixed with milk and given internally for convulsions and externally on wounds.

16. Anemone tetrasepala Ranunculaceae A paste of the crushed roots is used on wounds.

17. Anethum sowa Apiaceae The seeds of the plant are used as carminative.

18. Arisaema jacquemontii Araceae The dried tubers mixed with the rhizome of turmeric in sesame oil are rubbed on the skin for

the treatment of muscular pains. Leaf paste is antiseptic, but locals of the area use decoction of

the leaves as antidote for scorpion bite and snakebite.

19. Artemisia scoparia Asteraceae Leaves are anthelmintic and used in other stomach complaints like indigestion and liver

infections. Powder of leaves mixed with oil or ghee is massaged on joints to get relief from

joint pains.

20. Artemisia vestita Asteraceae An aromatic herb used as A. scoparia.

21. Arundo donax Poaceae The plant is used in hypertension.

22. Atropa acuminate Solanaceae Root preparation of this plant is used for the external treatment of gout and rheumatism. The

plant is extremely narcotic. Extract of the plant is employed in ophthalmology, psychiatry,

whooping cough, asthma, and gastric ulcers.

23. Berberis lycium Berberidaceae Resount, a preparation from this plant is used in household remedy during acute conjunctivitis,

and in chronic opthalmia. Rasount is also given in fevers by the locals of the area. A simple

decoction of plant roots is given in jaundice.

24. Bergenia ciliata Saxifragaceae Roots are used in fevers, diarrhoea and cough as astringent, diuretic and tonic. Roots are

antiseptic and used to treat wounds and injuries. The under ground parts of the species are used

to dissolve the kidney and bladder stone.

25. Betula utilis Betulaceae Oil is extracted from bark or twigs which has medicinal properties. An infusion of twigs and

bark is used to treat gout and rheumatism, and it is said to purify blood and stimulate urine

flow. Dusting powder prepared from dried leaves and twigs soothe chafed skin.

26. Bidens pilosa Asteraceae Dried leaves and flowers are used in cough. Locals use the decoction of the leaves and flowers

for treating cold and cough.

27. Bistorta amplexicaulis Polygonaceae Due to high tannin content, it is effective in checking bleeding and diarrhoea. Rhizomes are

used in the preparation of herbal tea which is supposed to be beneficial in checking heavy

menstrual bleeding.

28. Bromus patulus Poaceae Dried leaves and flowers are used in cough. Locals use the decoction of the leaves and flowers

for treating cold and cough.

29. Bunium persicum Apiaceae The fruits are regarded as stimulant, carminative and are useful in curing diarrhoea, dyspepsia,

fever, flatulence, stomachache, hemorrhoids and obstinate hiccups.

30. Bupleurum falcatum Apiaceae The roots of the species are reported to be used for liver troubles and stomach complaints.

Powdered roots are prescribed in liver infections.

31. Bupleurum longicaule

Apiaceae Decoction of the plant is used for renal, colic and gastro-intestinal disturbances.

32. Caltha palustris

Ranunculaceae The leaves of plant are vesicant and very bitter. It is used as febrifuge.

33. Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae Entire plant is analgesic and sedative. Locals smoke the Cannabis leaves as narcotic.

34. Capsella bursa- pastoris Brassicaceae Plant is rich in vitamin C and shows properties against ulcers, tumors and uterine cancer.

Locals of the area use decoction of the entire plant to treat bloody urine and diarrhoea.

35. Cardamine impatiens Brassicaceae Whole plant is used as a stimulant, diaphoretic, stomachic, carminative and diuretic. The leaves

are chewed for digestive process.

36. Carpesium abrotanoides Asteraceae The roots, leaves and seeds possess laxative, diuretic and anthelmintic properties. The seeds are

boiled and administrated to get rid from worms.

37. Cassiope fastigiata Ericaceae The leafy twigs are ground into a paste and applied in the fire burns.

38. Celtis australis Ulmaceae The fruits of the plant are used to treat amenorrhea and colic.

39. Cichorium intybus Asteraceae Roots extract are used in fevers, vomiting, and diarrhoea and spleen enlargement.

40. Clematis montana Asteraceae Locals of the area mix one black pepper with a pinch of leave’s powder of the plant species and

use as a remedy for the indigestion of infants.

41. Clinopodium vulgare

Lamiaceae Whole plant is used as astringent, carminative and cardiac tonic.

42. Codonopsis ovata Campanulaceae The roots and leaves are crushed to poultice and applied to ulcers and wounds.

43. Colchicum luteum Liliaceae Seeds and corms contain alkaloid called as colchicine. The dried corms are carminative,

laxative, aphrodisiac and aperient. Locals of the area eat the fresh corms.

44. Commelina benghalensis Commelinaceae Herb is a demulcent, emollient, laxative and refrigerant. The rhizomes of the plant are cooked

as vegetable and given to constipation patients.

45. Corydalis govaniana Fumariaceae Roots are administered against muscular and gastric pains. These are used in syphilitic,

scrofulous, and cutaneous affections.

46. Corydalis rutifolia Fumariaceae Whole herb is collected and dried in shade and mixed with C. govaniana having similar use.

47. Corydalis thyrsiflora

Fumariaceae Used as C. govaniana.

48. Cynoglossum micranthum Boraginaceae The roots mixed with milk are used as a tonic.

49. Daphne oleoides Thymealaeaceae The crushed leaves with wheat flour are used for poulticing boils.

50. Datura stramonium Solanaceae The plant is known as antispasmodic in asthma and Parkinson’s disease. The dried leaves are

smoked in a pipe or home made cigarette to treat asthma. A poultice made from the flowers is

applied to wounds to reduce pain. The leaves are also applied to boils and ulcers. A decoction

of flowers and roots has been used as a sedative to calm patients during setting of fractures.

51. Delphinium roylei Ranunculaceae Root extract is used for rheumatic pains.

52. Delphinium vestitum Ranunculaceae Used as a cardiac and respiratory depressant.

53. Desmodium podocarpum Fabaceae Decoction of plant used in cough.

54. Desmodium polycarpon Fabaceae Leaves of the plant are used as stomachic.

55. Desmodium tiliaefolium Fabaceae Whole plant is a emmenagogue, stomachic and mildly purgative.

56. Digitalis lanata Scrophulariaceae Used as cardiac stimulant.

57. Digitalis purpurea Scrophulariaceae Medicinally used for its effect on cardio-vascular system.

58. Dioscorea deltoidea Dioscoreaceae Steroid sapogenin and valuable drug cortisone is prepared from the species. Locally the

rhizomes are applied to kill lice. Rhizomes are also used for general gastric problems.

59. Draba gracillima Brassicaceae The plant is considered as antiscorbutic.

60. Duchesnea indica Rosaceae The leaves are crushed and applied on skin diseases and also on wounds and cuts.

61. Erigeron canadensis Asteraceae Leaves of the plant are used in diarrhoea, dysentery, uterine hemorrhages, and dropsy, gravel

and kidney infections.

62. Erodium cicutarium Geraniaceae The plant is used against dropsy. Extract is a good source of vitamin K and is also used in

dysentery.

63. Erysimum repandum Brassicaceae Plant is very useful in fever. Poultice of the plant is used for general gastric complaints.

64. Euphorbia helioscopia Euphorbiaceae The milky exude of the plant is used by locals for destruction of fungal infection of skin, like

ringworm infection.

65. Euphorbia pilosa Euphorbiaceae The roots are purgative and vermifuge. It is also used to treat fistula sores.

66. Euphrasia officinalis

Scrophulariaceae The plant is believed to be effective for ophthalmic ailments. Locals use the plant extract for

conjunctivitis and it is taken internally for jaundice.

67. Fagopyrum cymosum Polygonaceae The seeds are used in colic, choleretic, and diarrhoea and in all abdominal obstructions.

Decoction of root is used in rheumatic pains, lung disease and typhoid, while the juice is useful

in urinary disease.

68. Fagopyrum esculentum Polygonaceae Leaves are used for the treatment of hypertension.

69. Ficus palmata Moraceae The fruits are demulcent and laxative. They are used in diseases of the lungs and the bladder.

Dried fruits are given to constipation by the locals.

70. Fragaria vesca Rosaceae The infusion of leaves of this plant is diuretic and diaphoretic. The fruits are refrigerant and

diuretic and sometimes laxative. It is recommended for gout also. The root is known as

astringent and useful in genito-urinary diseases.

71. Fritillaria roylei Liliaceae Bulbs are used as antipyretic and expectorant. Bulbs are dried, powdered and taken as the

remedy for lung problems (pain).

72. Fumaria parviflora Fumariaceae Dried plant is anthelmintic, diuretic, and diaphoretic in low fever and is used to purify blood in

skin diseases. Locals use the juice of the whole plant for liver infection and digestion.

73. Galium aparine Rubiaceae Infusion of the plant is aperient, diuretic, refrigerant, alternative and antiscorbutic.

74. Galium rotundifolium Rubiaceae The plant is used against colic, sore throat and chest complaints. Pounded leaves are applied to

check bleeding from fresh cuts.

75. Galium tenuissimum Rubiaceae Infusion of leaves is used to treat the skin eruptions.

76. Gentiana argentea Gentianaceae Roots and rhizomes of these plants have medicinal properties. It is used to treat indigestion,

rheumatism and also as tonic for nervous distress.

77. Gentiana kurroo Gentianaceae It is used as a bitter tonic to stimulate gastric secretion, improve appetite and cure debility. The

herb is good anthelmintic, blood purifier, carminative and diaphoretic.

78. Geranium wallichianum Geraniaceae The roots stock is important in medical science and used by the locals in eye troubles. The root

is chewed to stop gum bleeding.

79. Geranium nepalense Geraniaceae The entire plant is good diuretic and astringent. It is used to treat renal diseases.

80. Geum roylei Rosaceae Roots and leaves are astringent, stomachic, febrifuge and are toxic in higher doses.

81. Girardinia heterophylla Urticaceae The forced contact of the stinging shoots is made with swollen joints to activate blood

circulation. The blisters produced as a result thereof, give out watery juice and ultimately result

in subsiding of the swelling. The paste is applied to boils to enhance suppuration.

82. Gnaphalium luteo-album Asteraceae Plant species is medicinal and used as astringent to control bleeding from wounds.

83. Hedera nepalensis Araliaceae Leaves are stimulant, diaphoretic and cathartic. Locals chew leaves as stimulant.

84. Heracleum candicans Apiaceae Roots are extracted to prepare lotions for the skin to cure leukoderma. Locals use the roots to

cure skin diseases.

85. Hydrocotyle javanica Apiaceae Leaves are blood purifier, digestive, and used to treat dysentery. Leaves stalk is used for relief

from toothache.

86. Hyoscyamus niger Solanaceae The species is considered as the sedative in nervous diseases and irritable conditions such as

asthma and whooping cough.

87. Hypericum perforatum Hypericaceae The species is used as astringent, expectorant, diuretic and anthelmintic. Whole plant is used in

urinary troubles, diarrhoea and in the therapy of depression state. The decoction of the leaves is

used for the good flow of urine by locals.

88. Impatiens roylei

Balsaminaceae The roots of the plant species are used for cooling effect.

89. Indigofera heterantha Papilionaceae Flower infusion of the plant species is used for healing wounds.

90. Inula royleana Asteraceae The roots are poisonous and used as the substitute of Saussurea costus

91. Ipomoea nil Convolvulaceae The seeds are purgative, vermifuge, anti- inflammatory and carminative. Locals use the seeds

for constipation, rheumatic pains, scabies and other skin problems.

92. Ipomoea pilosa Convolvulaceae Dried leaves are used as an ointment for burns. The seeds are considered as purgative when

mixed with the seeds of china rose.

93. Iris kemaonensis Iridaceae The rhizome of these plants has medicinal properties. It is used to treat indigestion,

rheumatism and also as tonic for nervous distress.

94. Juglans regia Juglandaceae Leaves astringent, tonic and anthelmintic. Kernels are recommended in dysentery. Locals

apply the leaves paste on the old wounds by fungal infections.

95. Juncus bufonius Juncaceae Pith of the plant is considered as pectoral and diuretic. The pith portion boiled in water is given

in lung pains.

96. Jurinea macrocephala Asteraceae The decoction of the roots is given in colic, fevers after childbirth. The plant is considered as a

good antiseptic. Oil from roots is useful in gout and rheumatism.

97. Justicia adhatoda Acanthaceae The plant parts are boiled in water and used for both in the treatment of body inflammation and

body ache. The leaf decoction is administered in cough and chronic bronchitis. Locals use the

leaves in the preparations of cough and fever medicines. The twigs are used to cure pyorrhea.

98. Leontopodium himalayanum Asteraceae The plant infusion is given in general weakness and headache.

99. Lithospermum arvense Boraginaceae Leaves are sedative. The decoction of roots and twig is given in the form of syrup in eruption

diseases. Seeds are diuretic. They are also used in gout pains. The twigs and seeds are boiled

by the locals to obtain syrup for skin infections.

100. Lonicera alpigena Caprifoliaceae Plant is considered as antipyretic in case of stomach problems. Locally decoction of leaves and

flowers is used against stomach complaints.

101. Macrotomia benthamii Whole plant is used as expectorant and in cardiac disorder.

102. Mariscus sieberianus Cyperaceae Locally the leaves of the plant are chewed to remove the worms from stomach and intestines.

103. Meconopsis aculeata Papaveraceae Water extract of the herb is used to wash wounds.

104. Melia azadirachta Meliaceae The leaves and the seeds are bitter, expectorant used in enlargement of the spleen and in heart

complaints, emetic, styptic, and stop epitasis, strengthen the teeth, allay inflammation, cure

scabies and dry skin eruptions. The flowers and leaves are used to relieve nervous headache

and cold swellings.

105. Melothria heterophylla Cucurbitaceae Roots are stimulant, invigorating and purgative. Roots are used for gonorrhea. Seeds are

purgative. Locals mix root extract with cold milk and sugar and use for cure of gonorrhea.

106. Mentha longifolia Lamiaceae Herb is carminative, antiseptic and stimulant. A decoction of the plant is used in fever. Locals

use the leaves as digestive medicine by mixing the leaves in chutneys and other food

preparations.

107. Micromeria biflora Lamiaceae Herb is used against worms of the wounds. Locals use the leaves of the plant as an ingredient

of tea for treating cold. The leaves are chewed to digest oily food by the locals.

108. Mollugo pentaphylla Aizoaceae Plant is a good aperient and antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is taken to cure stomach

complaints.

109. Morina longifolia Morinaceae Roots are powdered and administered on wounds to check the growth of insects.

110. Nasturtium officinale Brassicaceae Plant is considered as antiscorbutic, stimulant, antibacterial, blood purifier, vermifuge and

diuretic. The seeds are antidysenteric. Boiled seeds are taken as antidysenteric and leaves are

eaten to improve appetite by the locals.

111. Nepeta elliptica Lamiaceae The infusion of seeds is used as carminative and uterine disorders.

112. Nerium indicum Apocynaceae It is regarded poisonous and reported as anthelmintic, cardiac, carminative, diaphoretic,

febrifuge, ophthalmic, powerful heart poison and a good repellant. The plant is used for

swelling, leprosy, skin diseases and ulcers.

113. Olea ferruginea Oleaceae The root is a good application for scorpion-sting; its ashes are useful in rheumatism and

diseases of the brain. The fruit is tonic, emmenogogue, appetizer, useful in biliousness, liver

complaints, scabies, thirst, burning of the eyes, caries of the teeth, toothache. The oil has a bad

taste, purgative, tonic, useful in griping, liver troubles, pain in the joints, rheumatism, lumbago,

old wounds; the oil from green fruits is astringent and a good tonic for old people. Oil extracted

from the fruit and is used medicinally as a rubefacient. The leaves and bark are bitter and

astringent, and used as an antiperiodic in fever and debility.

114. Origanum normale Lamiaceae The leaves and flowers are carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. The oil of the

flowers of the species is used as stimulant and tonic in diarrhoea, colic and is applied on body

ache. The paste of the leaves of the plant species is used in fire burns, skin eruptions and boils.

115. Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae Plant is used to cure scurvy and is a good appetizer. Leaves and roots are used to treat

dysentery and diarrhoea. Locals prepare chutneys of the leaves to stabilize saliva.

116. Oxyria digyna Polygonaceae Leaves are considered as antiscorbutic and refrigerant.

117. Pedicularis pectinata Scrophulariaceae Leaves are diuretic, astringent and homeostatic.

118. Pergularia daemia Asclepiadaceae Leaves are considered as antibacterial, leaf decoction is generally used against diarrhoea and

menstrual troubles. Locals consider the plant a life saving plant for females.

119. Phytolacca acinosa Phytolaccaceae Locals use the plant species as a substitute for Atropa belladonna. Ethno medicinally the root

extract of the species is used in stomach cramps and dysentery.

120. Pistacia integerrima

Anacardiaceae Galls are used in asthma, phthisis and other diseases of the respiratory tract and in dysentery.

121. Plantago lanceolata Plantaginaceae Seeds are considered as good diuretic, purgative, haemostatic, astringent. Seeds and husk are

used to cure inflammation of the mucous membrane of gastro-intestinal and genito-urinary

tracts. The leaves of the plant are used as antiseptic by the locals.

122. Plantago major Plantaginaceae The husk of the seeds yields a colloidal mucilage which primarily consists of xylose, arbinose

and galacturonic acid. The seeds are used to cure gastric complaints, burning sensation in

stomach and dysentery.

123. Pleurospermum brunonis Apiaceae The powdered shoots are mixed with butter and massaged over the entire body to alley fever.

The same paste is used locally on head to get rid of headache.

124. Podophyllum hexandrum Podophyllaceae The root paste is applied on ulcers, cuts and wounds. It is also used as a purgative, for curing

skin diseases and arresting tumorous growth.

125. Polemonium caeruleum Polemoniaceae An astringent, infusion used on the wounds and boils.

126. Polygala abyssinica Polygalaceae The plant is considered as a good expectorant.

127. Polygonum glabrum Polygonaceae Colic, jaundice and piles are three diseases cured by the plant extract. Locals boil the uprooted

plant and generally use against liver infections.

128. Polygonum nepalense Polygonaceae A decoction of the species is used to control swelling due to internal injuries.

129. Populus ciliata Salicaceae The bark of the plant is used as a tonic, stimulant and blood purifier.

130. Potentilla argyrophylla Rosaceae The plant is used against angina pectoris (spasm due to heart disease).

131. Potentilla nepalensis Rosaceae Infusion of the roots is applied on the boils and burns. Locally the infusion of the roots is

considered as an indigenous ointment for burns.

132. Primula denticulata Primulaceae Infusion of the whole plant is used to remove leaches from the nostrils of cattle. Locals use the

same species for removing leaches from skin.

133. Prinsepia utilis Rosaceae Oil obtained from the seeds possesses rubifacient properties. Locals apply the oil externally in

rheumatism and pains resulting from over fatigue.

134. Prunella vulgaris Lamiaceae An infusion of leaves and flowers are used as a gargle for sore throat irritations. It is also used

to treat diarrhoea, hemorrhages, for relieving gas and colic.

135. Punica granatum Punicaceae Seeds contain steroid estrogen. Bark is anthelmintic and used in dysentery and diarrhoea. Fruits

are said to be stomachic, and cardiac. Leprosy patients use the juice of fruits. Locals apply the

paste of leaves on head to get relief from headache and blood pressure.

136. Rabdosia rugosa Lamiaceae Locals use the leaves extract for curing stomach pains.

137. Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculaceae Plant is used in asthma.

138. Ranunculus arvensis Ranunculaceae Plant is antibiotic, used in intermittent fevers, gout and asthma. The paste made from the roots

is used in rheumatic pains of gout.

139. Rhododendron

campanulatum

Ericaceae Leaves medicinal in chronic rheumatism. Leaves are mixed with tobacco and smoked for cold

and hemicrania.

140. Rhus succedanea Anacardiaceae Used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery and fruit is used in ointment preparations.

141. Robinia pseudo-acacia Fabaceae Leaves are antispasmodic and laxative; an infusion is prescribed in digestive disorders. Flowers

are boiled and used as powerful diuretic.

142. Rorippa indica Brassicaceae Plant is diuretic, stimulant and antiscorbutic. Decoction is also given in diarrhoea, dysentery

and fever. Seed extract is given to treat asthma.

143. Rorippa islandica Brassicaceae Plant is antiscorbutic, stimulant, and diuretic. The decoction is used in hepatic and stomach

problems.

144. Rosa brunonii Rosaceae The plant is said to be used in bilious affections and the root is said to be beneficial in eye

diseases.

145. Rosa macrophylla Rosaceae The locals intake the fruits against scurvy disease.

146. Rosa webbiana Rosaceae Petals of the species are used to cures nasal bleeding, nose swelling, hepatitis, jaundice and

liver diseases.

147. Rubia cardifolia Rubiaceae Leaves are used to check bleeding from cuts.

148. Rubus niveus Rubiaceae Roots are considered as astringent, antidysenteric, and antiseptic. The leaves are also used by

the locals as antidysenteric.

149. Rumex hastatus Polygonaceae Leaves are rubbed by the locals against stings of Urtica dioica.

150. Rumex nepalensis Polygonaceae The sap of leaves and stem is applied on cuts for its astringent properties.

151. Salvia moorcroftiana Lamiaceae Roots are used in colds and cough. Leaves are used for guinea worm and are applied as

poultice for boils. Wounds and chronic affections of the skin. Seeds are emetic and are used in

hemorrhoids, colic and dysentery. Locally the root is used in stomach pains.

152. Salvia lanata Lamiaceae The crushed leaves are applied in laceration of toes during rainy season.

153. Sauromatum guttatum Araceae The tubers are used as the stimulating poultice.

154. Saussurea costus Asteraceae The plant is used as anti-rheumatic.

155. Saussurea heteromalla Asteraceae Crushed leaves are locally applied to wounds.

156. Sedum ewersii Crassulaceae The paste of roots and leaves is applied on moles. Leaves are emollient, refrigerant and are

prescribed as a remedy for sores, burns and piles.

157. Selinum vaginatum

Apiaceae The root possesses a sweet odour and is considered as a nervine sedative.

158. Sigesbeckia orientalis

Asteraceae Parasitic infections and ringworm infections are cured by the infusion from the plant. Locally

the plant is used to heel gangrenous ulcers.

159. Silene conoidea Caryophyllaceae The plant is emollient and is also used as fumigant. Its juice is prescribed in opthalmia.

160. Sisymbrium irio Brassicaceae Leaves and seeds are rich source of protein and vitamin C. Seeds are boiled and the extract is

used locally for reducing fever.

161. Sium latijugum Apiaceae Leaves and seeds are reported to be diuretic diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant, antiscorbutic

and vermifuge. It is also used in gangrenous infections.

162. Solanum nigrum Solanaceae A rich source of riboflavin, nicotinic acid and vitamin C. The green immature fruits contain

four steroidal glycol - alkaloids. Herb is antiseptic and antidysenteric. Fruits are considered to

posses tonic, diuretic and cathartic properties. Fruits are domestic remedies for fevers,

diarrhoea, ulcers and eye trouble. Locals use leaves as a diuretic in gout.

163. Solanum pseudo-capsicum Solanaceae Alcoholic extract of roots and stem of the plant possess antibacterial activity. Systematic use

Solanocapsine - a compound from the species is used as for cardiac troubles but high doses are

fetal.

164. Solanum surrattense Solanaceae The juice of the plant is useful in dysentery and fever. The drug made from this is administered

against asthma.

165. Solidago virga-aurea Asteraceae Plant possesses diuretic and carminative properties.

166. Spiraea canescens Rosaceae Aerial parts are used in nervous system disorder.

167. Spiraea sorbifolia Rosaceae Aerial parts are used in nervous system disorder and cardiovascular disorders.

168. Stachys sericea Lamiaceae Whole of the plant is used in epilepsy.

169. Stellaria aquatica Caryophyllaceae The decoction of the leaves is used as a galactagogue.

170. Symplocos crataegoides Symplocaceae Leaves and bark are used in the treatment of opthalmia and also as tonic to prevent abortion.

171. Tagetus minuta Asteraceae The flowers are stomachic, aperient, diuretic and diaphoretic. Locals of the area use the flower

decoction to cure griping of the stomach

172. Tanacetum longifolium Asteraceae The roots are considered as medicinal. Root powder is given with milk or tea in extreme

stomach pain.

173. Taraxacum officinale Asteraceae Roots are diuretic, tonic laxative, cholagogue, anti-rheumatic and aperient. The leaves are

cooked and the preparation is a household remedy for chronic disorders of kidney and liver.

174. Taxus wallichiana Taxaceae Leaves and bark are emmenagogue and antispasmodic. Aril is used in asthma and bronchitis.

Stem bark is used as substitute for tea.

175. Thymus serpyllum Lamiaceae The herb is anti-spasmodic, antiseptic, expectorant, carminative, anthelmintic and stimulating

properties. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of skin eruptions. The seeds are

considered as anti-febrile and anthelmintic. It is a popular remedy for locals to cure stomach

complaints, cough and cold.

176. Trachyspermum ammi Apiaceae Seeds are antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic and carminative. The seeds are eaten by the locals in

case of stomach pains.

177. Trifolium repens Fabaceae Tincture of the flowers is used in the rheumatic pains due to gout.

178. Trillium govanianum Liliaceae Roots are used for medicinal purpose against dysentery

179. Tulipa stellata Liliaceae The bulbs of the plant are eaten during sinking of heart.

180. Urtica dioica Urticaceae A powerful diuretic, lukewarm infusion control excessive menstrual flow. Leaves extract is

locally used for cleaning hair dandruff. Leaves are cooked and eaten to decrease the weight of

body.

181. Valeriana pyrolifolia Valerianaceae Dried rhizomes are considered as aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, sedative, and tonic.

Locals use the powdered rhizome for liver and kidney disorders.

182. Valeriana wallichii Valerianaceae The root is bitter with a flavor; heating, cures epileptic fits, head troubles, diseases of the eye

and the blood, used in suppression of urine, poisoning, swooning.

183. Verbascum thapsus Scrophulariaceae Leaves and flowers are used for treatment of diarrhoea and pulmonary diseases. Leaves are

used as adulterant for Digitalis. Dried leaves and flowers are smoked in case of asthma and act

as stimulant.

184. Viburnum grandiflorum Caprifoliaceae The seeds of the plant show cooling effect.

185. Viola canescens Violaceae The decoction of plant is used to loosen phlegm in the chest and for pulmonary problems.

186. Viola odorata Violaceae Herb is considered as aperient, antipyretic, cooling, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic and

expectorant. Locals use the leaves and stem of the herb as one of ingredient of local tea.

Decoction of the leaves is used in cold, fever and throat infection in winters.

187. Viola patrinii Violaceae Locals boil the herb and use the extract in fever and cold.

188. Viola serpens Violaceae The plant is used in the treatment of lung trouble and blood disorder.

189. Viscum album Loranthaceae Plant is used for the treatment of hypertension, arteriosclerosis and tumors.

190. Viscum japonicum Loranthaceae The plant is diuretic.

191. Vitex negundo Verbenaceae The herb is alternative, anodyne, antiparasitic, appetizer, and aromatic, astringent, cardiac

demulcent, and emmenogogue, expectorant, febrifuge and nervine tonic. It has been credited

with curative effects in asthma, lung diseases, spleen enlargements, urinary troubles, tonsillitis,

sciatica, rheumatism etc.

192. Withania somnifera

Solanaceae The roots of the plant are considered as alternative aphrodisiac, tonic, diuretic, narcotic,

hypnotic, sedative and abortifacient. Locals use the root decoction in rheumatism, cough,

dropsy and general weakness.

193. Xanthium strumarium

Asteraceae The root is bitter tonic, useful in cancer and scrofula. Decoction of roots is used locally over

ulcers, boils and abscesses. The fruits are used as tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic, sedative, cooling

and demulcent and are also given in small-pox.

194. Zanthoxylum alatum Rutaceae Bark is used as an aromatic tonic in fever, dyspepsia and cholera. Fruits, branches and thorns

are used as a remedy for toothache and are considered carminative, stomachic and

anthelmintic. The stem has exhibited hypoglycemic activity in preliminary trials. An extract of

the fruits is reported to be useful in expelling roundworms. The seeds are utilised for making

hair lotions.

Annexure C : Phytosociological parameters during winter at site A for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

COVER

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Phytolacca acinosa 15 0.45 8.045 1.162 1.581 20.796 23.540

Verbascum thapsus 50 1.00 3.142 3.875 3.514 08.123 15.514

Stipa brandisii 80 1.95 0.502 6.201 6.854 01.299 14.355

Duchesnea indica 70 1.65 1.131 5.426 5.799 02.924 14.150

Oxalis corniculata 75 1.85 0.282 5.813 6.502 00.731 13.047

Fumaria parviflora 65 1.90 0.282 5.038 6.678 00.731 12.448

Taraxacum officinale 80 1.50 0.282 6.201 5.272 00.731 12.205

Micromeria biflora 75 1.50 0.125 5.813 5.272 00.324 11.411

Galium elegans 75 1.40 0.125 5.813 4.920 00.324 11.059

Cynodon dactylon 55 1.85 0.031 4.263 6.502 00.081 10.847

Ajuga parviflora 65 1.20 0.502 5.038 4.217 01.299 10.556

Valeriana wallichii 15 0.30 3.142 1.162 1.054 08.123 10.340

Saussurea heteromalla 20 0.55 2.545 1.550 1.933 06.580 10.063

Ricinus communis 20 0.35 2.545 1.550 1.230 06.580 09.360

Geranium nepalense 50 1.10 0.502 3.875 3.866 01.299 09.042

Carex sp. 25 0.50 2.011 1.937 1.757 05.199 08.894

Anaphalis busua 50 1.00 0.502 3.875 3.514 01.299 08.690

Veronica polita 30 0.60 1.540 2.325 2.108 03.980 08.415

Carpesium cernuum 15 0.35 2.011 1.162 1.230 05.199 07.592

Hedera nepalensis 35 0.50 1.131 2.713 1.757 02.924 07.395

Androsace rotundifolia 30 0.55 1.131 2.325 1.933 02.924 07.183

Plantago lanceolata 30 0.60 0.785 2.325 2.108 02.030 06.465

Arthraxon prionodes 30 0.70 0.502 2.325 2.460 01.299 06.085

Fragaria vesca 20 0.60 0.785 1.550 2.108 02.030 05.690

Brunella vulgaris 20 0.60 0.502 1.550 2.108 01.299 04.959

Bistorta amplexicaulis 25 0.55 0.502 1.937 1.054 01.299 04.292

Bupleurum marginatum 20 0.50 0.282 1.550 1.757 00.731 04.038

Indigofera heterantha 15 0.20 0.785 1.162 0.702 02.030 03.896

Lespedeza cuneata 25 0.40 0.125 1.937 1.405 00.324 03.668

Urtica dioica 15 0.30 0.502 1.162 1.054 01.299 03.517

Mentha longifolia 20 0.55 0.282 1.550 1.054 00.731 03.335

Rumex hastatus 20 0.55 0.282 1.550 1.054 00.731 03.335

Galium asperifolium 25 0.35 0.031 1.937 1.230 00.081 03.249

Goodyera repens 10 0.10 0.785 0.775 0.351 02.030 03.157

Viola pilosa 10 0.25 0.502 0.775 0.878 01.299 02.953

Medicago lupulina 10 0.15 0.502 0.775 0.527 01.299 02.602

Phytosociological parameters during winter at site B for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Sonchus arvensis 35 0.75 12.571 3.535 3.640 16.070 23.246

Verbascum thapsus 35 0.60 12.571 3.535 2.912 16.070 22.518

Tagetus minuta 20 0.55 12.573 2.020 3.000 16.070 20.760

Indigofera sp. 15 0.40 12.571 1.515 1.941 16.070 19.527

Duchesnea indica 65 1.40 01.131 6.565 6.796 01.446 14.808

Stipa brandisii 50 0.95 03.142 5.050 4.611 04.017 13.679

Plantago ovata 55 1.30 00.502 5.555 6.310 00.642 12.509

Thymus serpyllum 50 1.00 02.011 5.050 4.854 02.571 12.476

Viola pilosa 60 1.10 00.785 6.060 5.339 01.004 12.404

Cynodon dactylon 60 0.95 00.502 6.060 4.611 00.642 11.315

Rumex hastatus 50 0.85 01.540 5.050 4.126 01.968 11.145

Taraxacum officinale 50 1.10 00.282 5.050 5.339 00.361 10.751

Malva parviflora 25 0.50 04.525 2.525 2.427 05.785 10.737

Carex sp. 50 0.95 00.031 5.050 4.611 00.040 09.702

Bistorta amplexicaulis 30 0.90 01.540 3.030 4.368 01.968 09.367

Colchicum luteum 40 0.80 00.785 4.044 3.883 01.004 08.928

Arenaria serpyllifolia 25 1.00 01.131 2.525 4.854 01.446 08.825

Ajuga parviflora 35 0.95 00.502 3.535 4.611 00.642 08.789

Oxalis corniculata 35 0.80 00.502 3.535 3.883 00.642 08.061

Hedera nepalensis 20 0.40 03.142 2.020 1.941 04.017 07.979

Euphorbia helioscopia 25 0.45 02.011 2.525 2.184 02.571 07.281

Androsace rotundifolia 35 0.50 00.785 3.535 2.427 01.004 06.966

Tulipa stellata 25 0.45 01.539 2.525 2.184 01.789 06.499

Geranium wallichianum 30 0.50 00.502 3.030 2.427 00.642 06.100

Cannabis sativa 25 0.45 00.785 2.525 2.184 01.004 05.714

Micromeria biflora 25 0.55 00.125 2.525 3.000 00.160 05.355

Fumaria parviflora 20 0.45 00.125 2.020 2.184 00.160 04.365

Phytosociological parameters during winter at site C for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Taraxacum officinale 50 1.20 7.071 5.235 6.106 7.213 20.392

Hedera nepalensis 40 1.20 7.071 4.188 6.106 7.213 20.392

Verbascum thapsus 45 0.80 7.071 4.712 4.071 7.213 18.356

Rumex nepalensis 30 0.50 7.071 3.141 2.544 7.213 16.829

Colchicum luteum 25 0.45 7.071 2.617 2.290 7.213 16.575

Ajuga parviflora 40 1.15 4.525 4.188 5.852 4.616 14.994

Bupleurum marginatum 30 0.50 5.311 3.141 2.544 5.418 13.274

Valeriana wallichii 30 0.65 4.525 3.141 3.307 4.616 12.450

Galium elegans 20 0.30 5.311 2.094 1.526 5.414 12.256

Calanthe tricarinata 15 0.40 4.525 1.570 2.035 4.616 11.178

Bistorta amplexicaulis 15 0.30 4.525 1.570 1.526 4.616 10.669

Salvia nubicola 15 0.20 4.525 1.570 1.017 4.616 10.160

Plantago ovata 40 0.65 3.142 4.188 3.307 3.206 09.656

Gentiana argentea 55 1.05 2.011 5.759 5.343 2.051 09.406

Geranium nepalense 25 0.55 3.142 2.617 2.798 3.206 09.147

Potentilla sp. 30 0.50 3.142 3.141 2.544 3.206 08.893

Arisaema jacquemontii 25 0.35 3.457 2.617 1.781 3.526 08.765

Viola pilosa 55 1.25 0.785 5.759 6.361 0.801 07.948

Stipa brandisii 35 1.10 0.879 3.664 5.597 0.897 07.375

Fragaria vesca 55 1.20 0.502 5.759 6.106 0.512 07.122

Micromeria biflora 50 0.90 1.131 5.235 4.580 1.154 06.865

Cynodon dactylon 55 1.25 0.031 5.759 6.361 0.032 06.424

Carpesium abrotanoides 10 0.25 2.545 1.047 1.272 2.596 06.414

Lespedeza cuneata 15 0.20 2.545 1.570 1.017 2.596 06.160

Oxalis corniculata 25 0.50 1.539 2.617 2.544 1.571 05.655

Carex sp. 35 0.65 1.131 3.664 3.307 1.154 05.593

Rabdosia rugosa 20 0.30 2.011 2.094 1.526 2.051 05.590

Plantago lanceolata 40 0.60 1.131 4.188 3.053 1.154 05.339

Galium tenuissimum 30 0.70 0.282 3.141 3.562 0.288 04.133

Phytosociological parameters during winter at site D for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

COVER

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.80 3.142 4.848 3.786 12.919 21.554

Sonchus arvensis 25 0.75 3.142 3.030 3.549 12.919 19.499

Girardinia heterophylla 30 0.55 3.142 3.636 2.602 12.919 19.159

Salvia sp. 15 0.30 3.142 1.818 1.419 12.919 16.157

Rumex hastatus 30 1.00 1.540 3.636 4.732 06.330 14.699

Cannabis sativa 60 1.10 0.502 7.272 5.205 02.067 14.545

Datura stramonium 30 0.70 1.540 3.636 3.312 06.330 13.279

Mentha longifolia 45 1.50 0.125 5.454 7.098 00.516 13.070

Duchesnea indica 35 0.80 1.131 4.242 3.786 04.651 12.679

Cynodon dactylon 45 1.30 0.031 5.454 6.152 00.129 11.736

Veronica polita 20 0.55 1.540 2.424 2.602 06.330 11.357

Stipa brandisii 45 1.00 0.282 5.454 4.732 01.162 11.349

Euphorbia hirta 50 1.00 0.125 6.060 4.732 00.516 11.309

Taraxacum officinale 30 1.35 0.282 3.636 6.389 01.162 11.188

Plantago major 35 0.75 0.785 4.242 3.549 03.229 11.021

Colchicum luteum 30 0.90 0.282 3.636 4.259 01.162 09.058

Plantago lanceolata 25 0.45 0.785 3.030 2.129 03.229 08.389

Thymus serpyllum 25 1.00 0.125 3.030 4.732 00.516 08.279

Micromeria biflora 35 0.70 0.125 4.242 3.312 00.516 08.072

Fumaria parviflora 25 0.80 0.282 3.030 3.786 01.162 07.979

Ajuga parviflora 20 0.64 0.502 2.424 3.028 02.067 07.520

Polygonum hydropiper 20 0.64 0.502 2.424 3.028 02.067 07.520

Oxalis corniculata 20 0.65 0.031 2.424 3.076 00.129 05.629

Galium aparine 20 0.65 0.031 2.424 3.076 00.129 05.629

Xanthium strumarium 20 0.40 0.282 2.424 1.893 01.162 05.480

Anaphalis busua 20 0.30 0.282 2.424 1.419 01.162 05.006

Cirsium arvense 20 0.35 0.125 2.424 1.656 00.516 04.597

Viola pilosa 10 0.20 0.502 1.212 0.946 02.067 04.225

Phytosociological parameters during winter at site E for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Arisaema jacquemontii 30 0.60 28.285 4.255 4.081 19.891 28.228

Salvia nubicola 10 0.10 28.285 1.418 0.680 19.891 21.990

Digitalis purpurea 35 0.75 12.571 4.964 5.102 08.840 18.907

Cynodon dactylon 60 1.45 00.125 8.510 9.863 00.088 18.462

Bergenia ciliata 15 0.30 19.642 2.127 2.040 13.813 17.982

Thymus serpyllum 50 1.30 02.011 7.091 8.843 01.414 17.349

Stipa brandisii 55 1.30 00.125 7.801 8.843 00.088 16.733

Senecio arvense 20 0.50 12.571 2.836 3.401 08.840 15.078

Verbascum thapsus 25 0.35 12.571 3.546 2.380 08.840 14.767

Calanthe tricarinata 20 0.40 12.571 2.836 2.721 08.840 14.398

Colchicum luteum 55 0.90 00.125 7.801 6.122 00.088 14.012

Galium aparine 40 0.95 00.282 5.673 6.462 00.198 12.335

Taraxacum officinale 35 0.80 00.785 4.964 5.442 00.552 10.959

Euphorbia hirta 35 0.85 00.078 4.964 5.782 00.055 10.802

Carex sp. 40 0.70 00.282 5.673 4.761 00.198 10.634

Fragaria vesca 25 0.60 01.131 3.546 4.081 00.795 08.423

Impatiens brachycentra 20 0.40 01.697 2.836 2.721 01.193 06.751

Rumex nepalensis 20 0.35 01.539 2.836 2.380 01.082 06.300

Bupleurum marginatum 20 0.40 00.785 2.836 2.721 00.552 06.110

Viola pilosa 25 0.35 00.125 3.546 2.380 00.088 06.015

Mentha longifolia 15 0.20 02.545 2.127 1.360 01.790 05.278

Plantago ovata 15 0.35 00.502 2.127 2.380 00.353 04.862

Micromeria biflora 15 0.35 00.282 2.127 2.380 00.198 04.707

Gentiana argentea 15 0.35 00.125 2.127 2.380 00.088 04.597

Urtica dioica 10 0.10 03.142 1.418 0.680 02.210 04.308

Phytosociological parameters during winter at site F for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Hedera nepalensis 35 0.70 28.285 3.664 3.580 20.766 28.011

Verbascum thapsus 55 1.00 12.571 5.759 5.115 09.229 20.103

Bergenia ciliata 15 0.40 19.642 1.570 2.046 14.420 18.037

Indigofera sp. 25 0.45 15.211 2.617 2.301 11.167 16.087

Euphorbia helioscopia 15 0.75 12.571 1.570 3.836 09.229 14.636

Urtica dioica 40 1.00 07.071 4.188 5.115 05.191 14.495

Taraxacum officinale 45 1.25 00.282 4.712 6.393 00.207 11.313

Carex sp. 60 0.95 00.031 6.282 4.859 00.023 11.165

Colchicum luteum 45 1.15 00.282 4.712 5.882 00.207 10.802

Datura stramonium 10 0.10 12.571 1.047 0.511 09.229 10.787

Tulipa stellata 65 0.70 00.125 6.806 3.580 00.092 10.479

Cynodon dactylon 50 0.90 00.502 5.235 4.603 00.349 10.188

Stipa brandisii 55 0.80 00.125 5.759 4.092 00.092 09.943

Rumex hastatus 35 1.00 01.540 3.664 5.115 01.130 09.910

Mentha longifolia 40 0.65 02.011 4.188 3.324 01.476 08.989

Cannabis sativa 45 0.65 00.785 4.712 3.324 00.576 08.613

Fragaria vesca 20 0.55 04.525 2.094 2.813 03.322 08.230

Thymus serpyllum 25 0.65 02.011 2.617 3.324 01.476 07.419

Plantago ovata 30 0.60 00.502 3.141 3.069 00.349 06.559

Tagetus minuta 25 0.45 02.011 2.617 2.301 01.476 06.396

Viola pilosa 25 0.60 00.785 2.617 3.069 00.576 06.263

Duchesnea indica 25 0.55 01.131 2.617 2.813 00.830 06.261

Bupleurum marginatum 20 0.45 01.540 2.094 2.301 01.130 05.526

Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.30 02.514 2.094 1.534 01.845 05.474

Micromeria biflora 25 0.50 00.125 2.617 2.557 00.092 05.267

Fumaria parviflora 20 0.60 00.125 2.094 3.069 00.092 05.255

Medicago lupulina 25 0.45 00.502 2.617 2.301 00.207 05.127

Bunium persicum 15 0.35 02.011 1.570 1.790 01.476 04.837

Arthraxon prionodes 15 0.30 02.011 1.570 1.534 01.476 04.581

Viola patrinii 10 0.20 02.011 1.047 1.023 01.476 03.546

Ajuga parviflora 10 0.30 00.502 1.047 1.534 00.207 02.789

Galium aparine 10 0.25 00.282 1.047 1.278 00.207 02.533

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site A for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Bupleurum marginatum 40 1.25 0.101 2.539 4.570 07.544 14.654

Adhatoda vesca 05 0.10 0.166 0.317 0.365 12.317 13.000

Saussurea heteromalla 20 0.30 0.125 1.269 1.096 09.315 11.682

Tulipa stellata 90 1.20 0.020 5.714 4.387 01.489 11.590

Mentha longifolia 90 1.15 0.020 5.714 4.204 01.489 11.408

Plantago major 60 0.95 0.053 3.809 3.473 03.935 11.218

Ranunculus arvensis 80 1.20 0.011 5.079 4.387 00.837 10.304

Micromeria biflora 90 1.20 0.001 5.714 4.387 00.088 10.190

Rabdosia rugosa 75 1.10 0.015 4.761 4.021 01.133 09.917

Plantago lanceolata 50 1.00 0.037 3.174 3.656 02.794 09.624

Gentiana argentea 45 1.20 0.031 2.857 4.387 02.327 09.571

Androsace rotundifolia 70 1.10 0.011 4.444 4.021 00.837 09.303

Medicago lupulina 60 0.90 0.025 3.809 3.290 01.882 08.982

Lespedeza cuneata 60 0.90 0.025 3.809 3.290 01.882 08.982

Commelina benghalensis 10 0.15 0.101 0.634 0.548 07.544 08.727

Duchesnea indica 60 1.10 0.011 3.809 4.021 00.837 08.668

Clinopodium vulgare 40 1.10 0.025 2.539 4.021 01.882 08.444

Carex sp. 60 1.10 0.005 3.809 4.021 00.370 08.201

Arisaema flavum 15 0.25 0.080 0.952 0.914 05.958 07.825

Hedera nepalensis 50 0.75 0.025 3.174 2.742 01.882 07.799

Cannabis sativa 15 0.60 0.061 0.952 2.193 04.557 07.704

Fragaria vesca 50 1.05 0.005 3.174 3.839 00.392 07.406

Taraxacum officinale 50 0.90 0.002 3.174 3.290 00.207 06.672

Cynodon dactylon 50 0.90 0.0003 3.174 3.290 00.022 06.487

Valeriana wallichii 10 0.15 0.070 0.634 0.548 05.239 06.423

Euphorbia pilosa 40 0.55 0.020 2.539 2.010 01.489 06.039

Bistorta amplexicaulis 10 0.40 0.053 0.634 1.462 03.935 06.032

Youngia japonica 10 0.20 0.061 0.634 0.731 04.557 05.924

Urtica dioica 30 0.40 0.031 1.904 1.462 02.327 05.694

Rumex hastatus 40 0.60 0.007 2.539 2.193 00.578 05.311

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.60 0.007 2.539 2.193 00.578 05.311

Datura stramonium 10 0.15 0.045 0.634 0.548 03.349 04.533

Viola pilosa 30 0.70 0.0003 1.904 2.559 00.022 04.485

Phytolacca acinosa 15 0.20 0.031 0.952 0.731 02.327 04.010

Cardamine impatiens 30 0.40 0.007 1.904 1.462 00.578 03.945

Anagallis arvense 15 0.50 0.005 0.952 1.828 00.370 03.150

Galium elegans 25 0.40 0.0003 1.587 1.462 00.022 03.071

Goodyera repens 10 0.20 0.020 0.634 0.731 01.489 02.855

Achillea millefolium 05 0.10 0.020 0.317 0.365 01.489 02.172

Oxalis corniculata 15 0.25 0.0003 0.952 0.914 00.022 01.888

Geranium wallichianum 05 0.10 0.001 0.317 0.365 00.088 00.771

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site B for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Stipa brandisii 90 1.60 5.311 4.639 4.383 15.968 24.990

Salvia species 60 1.05 3.142 3.092 2.876 09.447 15.415

Verbascum thapsus 30 0.40 4.085 1.546 1.095 12.282 14.923

Duchesnea indica 60 1.05 2.011 3.092 2.876 06.046 12.014

Sonchus arvense 45 1.10 2.011 2.319 3.013 06.046 11.378

Cichorium intybus 65 1.15 1.539 3.350 3.150 04.627 11.127

Sonchus arvense 45 0.85 2.011 2.319 2.328 06.046 10.693

Androsace rotundifolia 30 0.50 2.545 1.546 1.369 07.652 10.567

Plantago ovata 35 0.90 2.011 1.804 2.465 06.046 10.315

Carex species 90 1.50 0.502 4.639 4.109 01.509 10.257

Rabdosia rugosa 50 1.15 1.130 2.577 3.150 03.397 09.124

Bistorta amplexicaulis 55 1.00 1.131 2.835 2.739 03.400 08.974

Micromeria biflora 80 1.35 0.282 4.123 3.698 00.847 08.668

Plantago lanceolata 80 1.10 0.502 4.123 3.013 01.509 08.645

Viola pilosa 60 1.80 0.125 3.092 4.931 00.375 08.398

Oxalis corniculata 70 1.60 0.125 3.608 4.383 00.375 08.366

Clinopodium vulgare 55 1.15 0.785 2.835 3.150 02.360 08.345

Thymus serpyllum 85 1.10 0.282 4.381 3.013 00.847 08.241

Cynodon dactylon 90 1.00 0.282 4.639 2.739 00.847 08.225

Gentiana argentea 85 1.35 0.031 4.381 3.698 00.093 08.172

Anagallis arvense 60 1.20 0.502 3.092 3.287 01.509 07.888

Mentha longifolia 60 1.40 0.282 3.092 3.835 00.847 07.774

Taraxacum officinale 60 1.40 0.031 3.092 3.835 00.093 07.020

Poa sp. 70 1.10 0.125 3.608 3.013 00.375 06.996

Rumex hastatus 40 1.05 0.502 2.061 2.876 01.509 06.446

Fragaria vesca 55 1.15 0.125 2.835 3.150 00.375 06.360

Ajuga parviflora 40 0.95 0.502 2.061 2.602 01.509 60.172

Galium asperifolium 60 1.05 0.031 3.092 2.876 00.093 06.061

Ranunculus species 45 1.15 0.125 2.319 3.150 00.375 05.844

Capsella bursa-pastoris 60 0.90 0.031 3.092 2.465 00.093 05.650

Youngia japonica 30 0.60 0.502 1.546 1.643 01.509 04.698

Cannabis sativa 45 0.60 0.125 2.319 1.643 00.375 04.337

Polygala abyssinica 20 0.65 0.502 1.030 1.780 01.509 04.319

Fumaria parviflora 35 0.60 0.031 1.804 1.643 00.093 03.540

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site C for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Hypericum perforatum 45 0.90 7.071 2.179 2.284 8.699 13.162

Phytolacca arvensis 60 0.45 7.071 2.905 1.142 8.699 12.746

Calanthe tricarinata 40 0.70 7.071 1.937 1.776 8.699 12.412

Dioscorea deltoidea 35 0.95 4.525 1.694 2.411 5.567 09.672

Ajuga parviflora 45 0.90 3.457 2.179 2.284 4.253 08.716

Taraxacum officinale 70 1.05 2.011 3.389 2.664 2.474 08.527

Agrostis pilosula 40 1.05 3.142 1.937 2.664 3.865 08.466

Carex species 90 1.20 0.785 4.358 3.045 0.965 08.368

Hedera nepalensis 05 1.00 4.525 0.242 2.538 5.567 08.347

Gentiana argentea 50 0.75 3.142 2.421 1.903 3.865 08.189

Cichorium intybus 70 0.90 2.011 3.389 2.284 2.474 08.147

Gnaphalium hypoleucum 40 0.90 3.142 1.937 2.284 3.865 08.086

Geranium wallichianum 80 1.10 1.131 3.874 2.791 1.391 08.056

Rabdosia rugosa 60 0.40 3.142 2.905 1.015 3.865 07.785

Bupleurum marginatum 60 0.90 2.011 2.905 2.284 2.474 07.663

Aquilegia pubiflora 15 0.40 4.525 0.726 1.015 5.567 07.308

Capsella bursa - pastoris 80 1.10 0.502 3.874 2.791 0.617 07.282

Fragaria vesca 60 1.15 1.131 2.905 2.918 1.391 07.214

Torilis japonica 40 1.00 2.011 1.937 2.538 2.474 06.949

Fumaria parviflora 65 1.15 0.502 3.147 2.918 0.617 06.682

Viola pilosa 50 1.10 1.131 2.421 2.791 1.391 06.603

Indigofera heterantha 25 0.60 3.142 1.210 1.522 3.865 06.597

Androsace rotundifolia 05 1.40 2.011 0.242 3.553 2.474 06.269

Cardamine impatiens 25 0.45 3.142 1.210 1.142 3.865 06.217

Plantago ovata 50 1.05 0.785 2.421 2.664 0.965 06.050

Brunella vulgaris 60 0.95 0.502 2.905 2.411 0.617 05.933

Duchesnea indica 60 0.90 0.502 2.907 2.284 0.617 05.808

Oxalis corniculata 40 0.70 1.539 1.937 1.776 1.893 05.606

Cynodon dactylon 60 1.00 0.031 2.905 2.538 0.038 05.481

Youngia japonica 60 0.45 1.131 2.905 1.142 1.391 05.438

Phleum himalaicum 40 1.10 0.502 1.937 2.791 0.617 05.345

Verbascum thapsus 70 0.75 0.031 3.389 1.903 0.038 05.330

Micromeria biflora 60 0.90 0.031 2.905 2.284 0.038 05.227

Arisaema jacquemontii 55 0.90 0.031 2.663 2.284 0.038 04.985

Veronica polita 45 1.05 0.031 2.179 2.664 0.038 04.881

Bistorta amplexicaulis 45 0.80 0.502 2.179 2.030 0.617 04.826

Clinopodium vulgare 35 1.10 0.031 1.694 2.791 0.038 04.523

Thymus serpyllum 30 1.10 0.031 1.452 2.791 0.038 04.281

Valeriana wallichii 35 0.90 0.031 1.694 2.284 0.038 04.016

Galium asperifolium 20 1.00 0.282 0.968 2.538 0.346 03.852

Poa annua 10 1.05 0.502 0.484 2.664 0.617 03.765

Colchicum luteum 35 0.25 1.131 1.694 0.634 1.391 03.719

Potentilla species 20 0.40 1.131 0.968 1.015 1.391 03.374

Ainsliaea latifolia 30 0.55 0.031 1.452 1.395 0.038 02.885

Galium aparine 20 0.60 0.125 0.968 1.522 0.153 02.643

Lespedeza cuneata 30 0.40 0.031 1.452 1.015 0.038 02.505

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site D for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Gnaphalium leuto-album 70 0.90 10.182 4.361 3.087 12.778 20.226

Saussurea heteromalla 90 1.10 08.045 5.607 3.773 10.096 19.476

Plantago ovata 80 1.15 06.159 4.984 3.945 07.729 16.658

Solanum nigrum 20 0.90 08.045 1.246 3.087 10.096 14.429

Micromeria biflora 90 1.15 02.011 5.607 3.945 02.523 12.075

Indigofera heterantha 30 0.70 04.525 1.869 2.401 05.679 09.949

Viola pilosa 90 1.15 00.282 5.607 3.945 00.353 09.905

Fumaria parviflora 80 1.35 00.125 4.984 4.631 00.156 09.771

Thymus serpyllum 90 1.15 00.125 5.607 3.945 00.156 09.708

Euphorbia helioscopia 20 0.50 05.311 1.246 1.715 06.665 09.626

Cynodon dactylon 90 1.05 00.125 5.607 3.602 00.156 09.365

Ranunculus arvensis 60 1.15 01.131 3.738 3.945 01.419 09.102

Girardinia heterophylla 45 0.65 03.142 2.803 2.229 03.943 08.975

Anagallis arvensis 40 0.70 03.142 2.492 2.401 03.943 08.836

Galium asperifolium 65 1.25 00.282 4.049 4.288 00.353 08.690

Bistorta amplexicaulis 45 0.95 02.011 2.803 3.259 02.523 08.585

Oxalis corniculata 70 1.00 00.502 4.361 3.430 00.630 08.421

Xanthium stramonium 35 0.65 03.142 2.180 2.229 03.943 08.352

Cichorium intybus 40 1.10 01.539 2.492 3.773 01.931 08.196

Datura stramonium 10 0.40 04.525 0.623 1.372 05.679 07.674

Arisaema flavum 40 0.65 02.011 2.492 2.229 02.523 07.244

Urtica dioica 20 0.55 03.142 1.246 1.886 03.943 07.075

Taraxacum officinale 60 0.90 00.125 3.738 3.087 00.156 06.981

Hedera nepalensis 55 0.80 00.502 3.426 2.744 00.630 06.800

Mentha longifolia 20 1.00 01.131 1.246 3.430 01.419 06.095

Salvia species 35 0.60 01.131 2.180 2.058 01.419 05.657

Galium elegans 35 0.90 00.282 2.180 3.087 00.353 05.620

Duchesnea indica 35 0.90 00.282 2.180 3.087 00.353 05.620

Cannabis sativa 25 0.60 01.131 1.557 2.058 01.419 05.034

Euphorbia pilosa 25 0.90 00.125 1.557 3.087 00.156 04.800

Rumex hastatus 15 0.70 01.131 0.934 2.401 01.419 04.754

Cirsium arvense 30 0.60 00.502 1.869 2.058 00.630 04.557

Verbascum thapsus 20 0.40 01.539 1.246 1.372 01.931 04.549

Potentilla nepalensis 15 0.30 02.011 0.934 1.029 02.523 04.486

Achyranthes bidentata 15 0.40 00.282 0.934 1.372 00.353 02.659

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site E for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Rabdosia rugosa 65 1.05 7.071 3.367 2.720 09.094 15.181

Verbascum thapsus 25 0.90 8.045 1.295 2.331 10.346 13.972

Tagetus minuta 30 0.70 8.045 1.554 1.813 10.340 13.707

Hypericum perforatum 35 0.90 7.071 1.813 2.331 09.094 13.238

Cichorium intybus 60 0.80 5.311 3.108 2.072 06.830 12.010

Bergenia ciliata 20 0.70 7.071 1.036 1.813 09.094 11.943

Ajuga parviflora 35 3.60 0.282 1.813 9.326 00.362 11.501

Calanthe tricarinata 10 0.35 7.071 0.518 0.906 09.094 10.518

Taraxacum officinale 75 1.05 2.011 3.886 2.720 02.586 09.192

Carex species 90 1.40 0.282 4.663 3.626 00.362 08.651

Fragaria vesca 85 1.15 0.942 4.404 2.979 01.211 08.594

Urtica dioica 25 0.55 4.525 1.295 1.424 05.819 08.538

Plantago lanceolata 60 1.40 0.785 3.108 3.626 01.009 07.743

Plantago major 75 1.00 0.942 3.886 2.590 01.211 07.687

Indigofera species 45 0.50 3.142 2.331 1.295 04.041 07.667

Ranunculus arvense 80 1.15 0.031 4.145 2.979 00.039 07.163

Impatiens sulcata 55 1.20 0.785 2.849 3.108 01.009 06.966

Oxalis corniculata 70 1.10 0.031 3.626 2.849 00.039 06.514

Galium asperifolium 70 1.10 0.028 3.626 2.849 00.036 06.511

Ipomea purpurea 70 1.00 0.125 3.626 2.590 00.160 06.376

Cynodon dactylon 60 1.20 0.125 3.108 3.108 00.160 06.376

Cannabis sativa 50 0.90 1.131 2.590 2.331 01.454 06.375

Micromeria biflora 65 1.10 0.031 3.367 2.849 00.039 06.255

Artemisia species 45 0.90 1.131 2.331 2.331 01.454 06.116

Youngia japonica 45 0.90 1.131 2.331 2.331 01.454 06.116

Potentilla species 50 1.10 0.502 2.590 2.849 00.645 06.084

Arisaema jacquemontii 40 0.60 1.539 2.072 1.554 01.979 05.605

viola pilosa 60 0.90 0.125 3.108 2.331 00.160 05.599

Gentiana argentea 50 1.10 0.031 2.590 2.849 00.039 05.478

Euphorbia helioscopia 40 0.60 1.131 2.072 1.554 01.454 05.080

Galium elegans 40 1.05 0.125 2.072 2.720 00.160 04.952

Arthraxon prionodes 55 0.70 0.031 2.849 1.813 00.039 04.701

Senecio species 30 0.40 1.539 1.554 1.036 01.979 04.569

Geranium wallichianum 25 0.70 1.131 1.295 1.813 01.454 04.562

Valeriana wallichii 15 0.60 1.539 0.777 1.554 01.979 04.310

Mentha longifolia 25 0.90 0.502 1.295 2.331 00.645 04.271

Bupleurum marginatum 35 0.60 0.502 1.813 1.554 00.645 04.012

Rumex hastatus 20 0.50 1.131 1.036 1.295 01.454 03.785

Capsella bursa-pastoris 35 0.60 0.125 1.813 1.554 00.160 03.527

Thymus serpyllum 30 0.70 0.028 1.554 1.813 00.036 03.403

Fumaria parviflora 25 0.60 0.125 1.295 1.554 00.160 03.009

Aquilegia pubiflora 10 0.35 0.502 0.518 0.906 00.645 02.069

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site F for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Saussurea heteromalla 80 1.15 13.859 3.411 2.634 20.228 26.273

Arisaema Jacquemontii 70 1.15 09.082 2.985 2.634 13.256 18.875

Tagetus minuta 70 1.10 08.045 2.985 2.520 11.742 17.247

Bergenia ciliata 20 0.50 08.045 0.852 1.145 11.742 13.739

Dioscorea deltoidea 80 1.45 01.539 3.411 3.321 02.246 08.978

Sonchus arvense 70 0.90 02.545 2.985 2.061 03.714 08.760

Stipa brandisii 90 1.70 00.502 3.837 3.894 00.732 08.463

Verbascum thapsus 60 0.70 02.545 2.558 1.603 04.152 08.313

Bupleurum marginatum 10 0.35 04.525 0.426 0.801 06.604 07.831

Rabdosia rugosa 50 1.10 02.011 2.132 2.520 02.935 07.587

Tulipa stellata 65 1.90 00.282 2.771 4.352 00.411 07.534

Carex species 80 1.55 00.282 3.411 3.550 00.411 07.372

Duchesnea indica 80 1.10 00.942 3.411 2.520 01.374 07.305

Arathraxn prionodes 50 0.90 02.011 2.132 2.061 02.935 07.128

Valeriana wallichii 60 0.90 01.539 2.558 2.061 02.246 06.865

Ranunculus arvense 80 1.15 00.502 3.411 2.634 00.732 06.777

Plantago ovata 70 0.90 01.131 2.985 2.061 01.650 06.696

Fumaria parviflora 80 1.35 00.031 3.411 3.092 00.045 06.548

Taraxacum officinale 65 1.40 00.282 2.771 3.207 00.411 06.389

Oxalis corniculata 70 1.40 00.031 2.985 3.207 00.045 06.237

Viola pilosa 70 1.35 00.028 2.985 3.092 00.040 06.117

Micromeria biflora 80 1.10 00.125 3.411 2.52 00.182 06.113

Fragaria vesca 75 1.25 00.031 3.198 2.863 00.045 06.106

Cannabis sativa 40 1.05 01.131 1.705 2.405 01.650 05.760

Ajuga parviflora 60 1.15 00.282 2.558 2.634 00.411 05.603

Thymus serpyllum 60 1.25 00.031 2.558 2.863 00.045 05.466

Cynodon dactylon 60 1.10 00.125 2.558 2.52 00.182 05.260

Artemisia species 45 0.70 01.131 1.918 1.603 01.650 05.171

Gentiana argentea 60 1.10 00.031 2.558 2.520 00.045 05.123

Polygala abyssinica 25 0.90 01.131 1.066 2.061 01.650 04.777

Ipomea purpurea 55 0.90 00.125 2.345 2.061 00.182 04.588

Astragalus grahamianus 60 0.80 00.125 2.558 1.832 00.182 04.572

Capsella bursa-pastoris 55 0.95 00.031 2.345 2.176 00.045 04.566

Mentha longifolia 40 1.05 00.282 1.705 2.405 00.411 04.521

Plantago lanceolata 40 1.05 00.785 1.705 2.405 00.114 04.224

Euphorbia pilosa 35 0.95 00.282 1.492 2.176 00.411 04.079

Medicago lupulina 40 0.8 00.282 1.705 1.832 00.411 03.948

Bistorta amplexicaulis 30 1.00 00.125 1.279 2.290 00.182 03.751

Bunium persicum 30 0.70 00.502 1.279 1.603 00.732 03.614

Galium elegans 20 0.80 00.125 0.852 1.832 00.182 02.866

Impatiens sulcata 20 0.35 00.785 0.852 0.801 01.145 02.798

Potentilla species 20 0.30 00.502 0.852 0.687 00.732 02.271

Primula denticulata 10 0.20 00.502 0.426 0.458 00.732 01.616

Aquilegia pubiflora 15 0.20 00.282 0.639 0.458 00.411 01.508

Phytosociological parameters during summer at site A for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Arisaema jacquemontii 20 0.30 3.142 0.894 0.829 12.966 14.689

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.80 2.011 1.789 2.213 08.298 12.300

Saussurea heteromalla 70 0.80 1.539 3.131 2.213 06.351 11.695

Datura stramonium 35 0.60 2.011 1.565 1.659 08.298 11.522

Urtica dioica 60 1.00 1.131 2.684 2.766 04.667 10.117

Carex sp. 100 1.20 0.502 4.474 3.319 02.071 09.864

Desmodium podocarpum 10 0.25 2.011 0.447 0.691 08.298 09.436

Lespedeza cuneata 65 1.15 0.785 2.908 3.181 03.239 09.328

Girardinia heterophylla 20 0.60 1.539 0.894 1.659 06.351 08.904

Cannabis sativa 70 1.15 0.502 3.131 3.181 02.071 08.383

Myriactis wallichii 50 1.05 0.785 2.237 2.904 03.239 08.380

Plantago ovata 90 1.15 0.282 4.026 3.181 01.163 08.370

Ranunculus arvensis 65 1.25 0.384 2.908 3.457 01.584 07.949

Achillea millefolium 60 1.35 0.282 2.684 3.734 01.163 07.581

Indigofera heterantha 40 0.60 0.950 1.789 1.659 03.920 07.368

Youngia japonica 55 1.00 0.502 2.460 2.766 02.071 07.297

Geranium wallichianum 85 1.05 0.125 3.803 2.904 00.515 07.222

Galium elegans 90 1.00 0.070 4.026 2.766 00.288 07.080

Dioscorea deltoidea 80 1.15 0.070 3.579 3.181 00.288 07.048

Fragaria vesca 65 1.00 0.282 2.908 2.766 01.163 06.837

Cynodon dactylon 85 1.05 0.031 3.803 2.904 00.127 06.834

Medicago lupulina 40 0.95 0.502 1.789 2.627 02.071 06.487

Duchesnea indica 70 1.00 0.125 3.131 2.766 00.515 06.412

Cardamine vesca 55 1.10 0.196 2.460 3.042 00.808 06.310

Androsace rotundifolia 40 0.60 0.636 1.789 1.659 02.624 06.072

Colismenus compositus 25 0.60 0.785 1.118 1.659 03.239 06.016

Hedera nepalensis 60 0.75 0.282 2.684 2.074 01.163 05.921

Bupleurum marginatum 55 0.75 0.282 2.460 2.074 01.163 05.697

Clinopodium vulgare 55 0.90 0.125 2.460 2.489 00.515 05.464

Plantago lanceolata 60 0.85 0.070 2.684 2.351 00.288 05.323

Oxalis corniculata 60 0.90 0.031 2.684 2.489 00.127 05.300

Torilis japonica 45 1.00 0.125 2.013 2.766 00.515 05.294

Veronica polita 55 0.90 0.031 2.460 2.489 00.127 05.076

Rumex hastatus 55 0.75 0.125 2.460 2.074 00.515 05.049

Commelina benghalensis 50 0.55 0.282 2.237 1.521 01.163 04.921

Valeriana wallichii 25 0.60 0.502 1.118 1.659 02.071 04.848

Micromeria biflora 55 0.80 0.031 2.460 2.213 00.127 04.800

Rabdosia rugosa 25 0.50 0.502 1.118 1.383 02.071 04.572

Anagallis arvensis 25 1.00 0.031 1.118 2.766 00.127 04.011

Taraxacum officinale 40 0.50 0.125 1.789 1.383 00.515 03.687

Mentha longifolia 20 0.50 0.196 0.894 1.383 00.808 03.085

Ainsliaea latifolia 25 0.35 0.125 1.118 0.968 00.515 02.601

Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.50 0.031 0.894 1.383 00.127 02.404

Goodyera repens 10 0.15 0.125 0.447 0.414 00.515 01.376

Gentiana argentea 10 0.15 0.031 0.447 0.414 00.127 00.988

Phytosociological parameters during summer at site B for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Sonchus arvense 30 0.40 3.142 1.643 1.309 9.837 12.789

Torilis japonica 75 1.00 1.539 4.109 3.273 4.818 12.200

Piptatherum munorei 40 0.65 2.011 2.191 2.127 6.296 10.614

Indigofera heterantha 35 0.55 2.011 1.917 1.800 6.296 10.013

Arisalina sp. 40 0.70 1.539 2.191 2.291 4.818 9.300

Fumaria parviflora 85 1.20 0.125 4.657 3.927 0.391 08.975

Youngia japonica 40 0.80 1.327 2.191 2.618 4.154 08.963

Duchesnea indica 55 1.20 0.636 3.013 3.927 1.991 08.931

Plantago ovata 65 1.20 0.384 3.561 3.927 1.202 08.690

Galium asperifolium 85 1.15 0.031 4.657 3.764 0.097 08.518

Cynoglossum wallichii 10 0.40 2.011 0.547 1.309 6.296 08.152

Gentiana argentea 30 0.70 1.327 1.643 2.291 4.154 08.088

Androsace rotundifolia 45 0.75 0.985 2.465 2.454 3.084 08.003

Polygonium hydropiper 40 0.80 0.985 2.191 2.618 3.084 07.893

Stipa brandisii 80 1.00 0.070 4.383 3.273 0.219 07.875

Ranunculus arvensis 60 0.90 0.502 3.287 2.945 1.571 07.803

Cannabis sativa 40 1.05 0.636 2.191 3.436 1.991 07.618

Cynodon dactylon 70 0.90 0.196 3.835 2.945 0.613 07.393

Fragaria vesca 60 1.10 0.125 3.287 3.600 0.391 07.278

Oxalis corniculata 65 0.90 0.196 3.561 2.945 0.613 07.119

Veronica polita 20 0.35 1.539 1.095 1.145 4.818 07.058

Plantago lanceolata 50 1.05 0.196 2.739 3.436 0.613 06.788

Micromeria biflora 60 0.70 0.384 3.287 2.291 1.202 06.780

Thymus serpyllum 50 1.10 0.125 2.739 3.600 0.391 06.730

Brachypodium sp. 40 0.60 0.785 2.191 1.963 2.457 06.611

Bupleurum marginatum 30 0.40 1.131 1.643 1.309 3.541 06.493

Bistorta amplexicaulis 60 0.70 0.282 3.287 2.291 0.882 06.460

Galium elegans 60 0.90 0.070 3.287 2.945 0.219 06.451

Lysimachia chenopodioides 10 0.25 1.539 0.547 0.818 4.818 06.183

Erigeron canadensis 40 0.60 0.636 2.191 1.963 1.991 06.145

Mentha longifolia 20 0.60 0.950 1.095 1.963 2.974 06.032

Ajuga parviflora 45 0.55 0.502 2.465 1.800 1.571 05.836

Cichorium intybus 25 0.75 0.636 1.369 2.454 1.991 05.814

Carpesium cernuum 35 0.50 0.636 1.917 1.636 1.991 05.544

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.70 0.318 2.191 2.291 0.995 05.477

Poa annua 50 0.70 0.125 2.739 2.291 0.391 05.421

Rumex hastatus 30 0.60 0.384 1.643 1.963 1.202 04.808

Salvia sp. 20 0.45 0.636 1.095 1.472 1.991 04.558

Viola pilosa 30 0.50 0.196 1.643 1.636 0.613 03.892

Capsella bursa-pastoris 20 0.40 0.196 1.095 1.309 0.613 03.017

Erigeron multicaulis 15 0.15 0.502 0.821 0.490 1.571 02.882

Euphorbia sp. 15 0.35 0.196 0.821 1.145 0.613 02.579

Taraxacum officinale 10 0.30 0.196 0.547 0.981 0.613 02.141

Phytosociological parameters during summer at site C for herbs:

NAME OF PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Rabdosia rugosa 60 1.15 1.539 4.562 4.007 05.700 14.269

Phytolacca acinosa 10 0.35 3.142 0.760 1.230 11.637 13.627

Arisaema jacquemontii 35 0.65 2.011 2.661 2.284 07.448 12.393

Calanthe tricarinata 15 1.05 2.011 1.140 3.690 07.448 12.278

Valeriana wallichii 35 0.95 1.539 2.661 3.339 05.700 11.700

Cynodon dactylon 80 1.45 0.031 6.083 5.096 00.114 11.293

Carex species 90 1.15 0.031 6.844 4.042 00.114 11.000

Thymus serpyllum 70 1.45 0.125 5.323 5.096 00.462 10.881

Cichorium intybus 15 1.00 1.539 1.140 3.514 05.700 10.354

Verbascum thapsus 45 0.85 0.950 3.420 2.991 03.518 09.929

Cannabis sativa 15 0.35 2.011 1.140 1.230 07.448 09.818

Plantago ovata 65 1.05 0.282 4.942 3.690 01.044 09.676

Ranunculus arvensis 40 1.00 0.785 3.041 3.514 02.907 09.462

Hedera nepalensis 60 0.80 0.502 4.562 2.811 01.859 09.232

Achyranthes bidentata 30 0.75 1.131 2.281 2.636 04.188 09.105

Galium elegans 60 1.25 0.031 4.562 4.393 00.114 09.069

Dioscorea deltoidea 55 1.00 0.282 4.182 3.514 01.044 08.740

Xanthium strumarium 40 0.60 0.785 3.041 2.108 02.907 08.056

Fragaria vesca 40 0.90 0.502 3.031 3.163 01.859 08.053

Euphorbia helioscopia 20 1.00 0.785 1.520 3.514 02.907 07.941

Torilis japonica 20 0.35 1.327 1.520 1.230 04.914 07.664

Oxalis corniculata 50 1.05 0.031 3.802 3.690 00.011 07.503

Urtica dioica 20 0.50 1.131 1.520 1.757 04.188 07.465

Gentiana argentea 40 1.10 0.070 3.031 3.866 00.259 07.156

Myriactis wallichii 20 0.65 0.785 1.520 2.284 02.907 06.711

Capsella bursa-pastoris 35 0.80 0.318 2.661 2.811 01.177 06.649

Lespedeza cuneata 35 0.60 0.502 2.661 2.108 01.859 06.628

Geranium wallichianum 35 0.90 0.070 2.661 3.163 00.259 06.083

Cardamine impatiens 35 0.40 0.502 2.661 1.000 01.859 05.925

Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.80 0.384 1.520 2.811 01.422 05.753

Aquilegia pubiflora 15 0.20 0.785 1.140 0.702 02.907 04.749

Androsace rotundifolia 25 0.60 0.196 1.901 2.108 00.725 04.734

Viola patrinii 25 0.60 0.125 1.901 2.108 00.462 04.471

Veronica polita 25 0.40 0.282 1.901 1.405 01.044 04.350

Malvastrum sp. 15 0.40 0.282 1.140 1.405 01.044 03.589

Agrostis pilosula 20 0.35 0.196 1.520 1.230 00.725 03.475

Phytosociological parameters during summer at site D for herbs:

NAME OF PLANT FREQUENCY DENSITY BASAL RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE IVI

SPECIES (%age) (m-2

) AREA FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(%age)

DOMINANCE

(%age)

Sonchus arvense 85 1.30 3.142 4.857 4.924 08.113 17.894

Salvia nubicola 40 0.50 4.525 2.285 1.893 11.684 15.862

Xanthium strumarium 35 0.50 3.802 2.000 1.893 09.817 13.710

Datura stramonium 50 0.60 3.142 2.857 2.272 08.113 13.242

Verbascum thapsus 60 1.10 1.539 3.428 4.166 03.974 11.568

Arisaema jacquemontii 35 0.70 2.545 2.000 2.651 06.571 11.222

Rabdosia rugosa 40 0.85 2.011 2.285 3.219 05.192 10.696

Lespedeza cuneata 60 1.00 1.131 3.428 3.787 02.920 10.135

Plantago ovata 80 1.20 0.384 4.571 4.545 00.991 10.107

Carex sp. 90 1.05 0.282 5.142 3.977 00.728 09.847

Saussurea heteromalla 65 0.40 1.539 3.714 1.515 03.974 09.203

Cynodon dactylon 80 1.10 0.125 4.571 4.166 00.322 09.059

Euphorbia helioscopia 60 0.90 0.785 3.428 3.409 02.027 08.864

Oxalis corniculata 80 0.70 0.502 4.571 2.651 01.296 08.518

Galium aparine 70 1.10 0.125 4.000 4.166 00.317 08.483

Urtica dioica 35 0.60 1.539 2.000 2.272 03.974 08.246

Cardamine impatiens 60 1.15 0.125 3.428 4.356 00.322 08.106

Girardinia heterophylla 30 0.30 2.011 1.714 1.136 05.192 08.042

Achillea millefolium 65 0.80 0.502 3.714 3.030 01.296 08.040

Thymus serpyllum 60 1.05 0.070 3.428 3.977 00.180 07.585

Duchesnea indica 40 0.85 0.785 2.285 3.219 02.027 07.531

Malvastrum 40 0.60 1.131 2.285 2.272 02.920 07.477

Impatiens sp. 35 0.90 0.785 2.000 3.409 02.027 07.436

Achyranthes bidentata 50 0.80 0.282 2.857 3.030 00.728 06.615

Taraxacum officinale 60 0.75 0.125 3.428 2.840 00.322 06.590

Androsace rotundifolia 55 0.65 0.282 3.142 2.462 00.728 06.332

Cichorium intybus 35 0.35 1.131 2.000 1.325 02.920 06.245

Oplismenus compositus 55 0.70 0.125 3.142 2.651 00.322 06.115

Hedera nepalensis 25 0.35 1.131 1.428 1.325 02.920 05.673

Cannabis sativa 40 0.50 0.502 2.285 1.893 01.296 05.474

Bistorta amplexicaulis 40 0.60 0.282 2.285 2.272 00.728 05.285

Rumex hastatus 35 0.60 0.196 2.000 2.272 00.506 04.778

Myriactis wallichii 10 0.50 0.785 0.571 1.893 02.027 04.491

Ranunculus arvense 20 0.60 0.196 1.142 2.272 00.506 03.920

Commelina benghalensis 10 0.10 1.131 0.571 0.378 02.920 03.869

Anagallis arvensis 20 0.65 0.031 1.142 2.462 00.080 03.684

Phytosociological parameters during summer at site E for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Phytolacca acinosa 40 0.50 7.071 2.025 1.464 15.763 19.252

Potentilla species 35 0.85 5.028 1.772 2.489 11.209 15.470

Calanthe tricarinata 40 0.60 4.525 2.025 1.756 10.087 13.868

Desmodium podocarpum 70 1.00 2.011 3.544 2.928 04.483 10.955

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.60 3.142 2.025 1.756 07.004 10.785

Digitalis purpurea 35 0.90 2.545 1.772 2.635 05.673 10.080

Commelina benghalensis 50 0.60 2.545 2.531 1.756 05.673 09.960

Arisaema jacquemontii 60 0.75 2.011 3.037 2.196 04.483 09.716

Stipa brandisii 90 1.00 0.502 4.556 2.928 01.119 08.603

Cannabis sativa 20 1.00 1.767 1.012 2.928 03.939 07.879

Micromeria biflora 80 1.20 0.070 4.050 3.513 00.156 07.719

Plantago major 55 1.40 0.282 2.784 4.099 00.628 07.511

Artemisia vestita 40 0.70 1.539 2.025 2.049 03.430 07.504

Thymus serpyllum 60 1.20 0.384 3.037 3.513 00.856 07.406

Carex sp. 80 1.05 0.125 4.050 3.074 00.278 07.402

Cynodon dactylon 70 1.20 0.031 3.544 3.513 00.069 07.126

Ajuga parviflora 60 1.05 0.384 3.037 3.074 00.856 06.967

Achyranthes bidentata 50 0.90 0.785 2.531 2.635 01.750 06.916

Plantago lanceolata 60 1.00 0.384 3.037 2.928 00.856 06.821

Mentha longifolia 70 0.90 0.196 3.544 2.635 00.436 06.615

Cichorium intybus 40 1.05 0.636 2.025 3.074 01.417 06.516

Urtica dioica 20 0.30 2.011 1.012 0.878 04.483 06.373

Oxalis corniculata 65 0.90 0.196 3.291 2.635 00.436 06.362

Poa annua 60 1.05 0.031 3.037 3.074 00.069 06.180

Galium asperifolium 65 0.90 0.031 3.291 2.635 00.069 05.995

Rumex nepalensis 60 0.90 0.125 3.037 2.633 00.278 05.948

Ipomea purpurea 55 0.90 0.125 2.784 2.636 00.278 05.698

Silene conoidea 40 0.65 0.502 2.025 1.903 01.119 05.047

Hedera nepalensis 35 0.50 0.785 1.772 1.464 01.750 04.986

Hypericum perforatum 40 0.60 0.502 2.025 1.756 01.119 04.900

Gentiana argentea 45 0.60 0.282 2.278 1.756 00.628 04.662

Myriactis wallichii 35 0.70 0.282 1.772 2.049 00.628 04.449

Youngia japonica 35 0.90 0.070 1.772 2.635 00.031 04.438

Euphorbia hirta 20 0.50 0.785 1.012 1.464 01.750 04.226

Bupleurum marginatum 40 0.60 0.196 2.025 1.756 00.436 04.217

Geranium nepalense 40 0.60 0.125 2.025 1.756 00.278 04.059

Arthraxon prionodes 35 0.60 0.196 1.772 1.756 00.436 03.964

Wulfenia amherstiana 15 0.75 0.282 0.759 2.196 00.628 03.583

Ainsliaea latifolia 20 0.35 0.502 1.012 1.024 01.119 03.155

Senecio arvense 20 0.35 0.502 1.012 1.024 01.119 03.155

Valeriana wallichii 20 0.45 0.282 1.012 1.317 00.628 02.957

Parnassia nubicola 10 0.60 0.282 0.506 1.756 00.628 02.890

Aquilegia pubiflora 20 0.35 0.282 1.012 1.024 00.628 02.664

Viola canescens 20 0.35 0.196 1.012 1.024 00.436 02.472

Spiranthes australis 10 0.15 0.125 0.506 0.439 00.278 01.223

Corydalis rutifolia 05 0.15 0.196 0.253 0.439 00.436 01.128

Phytosociological parameters during spring at site F for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

RELATIVE

DENSITY

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

IVI

(%age) (%age) (%age)

Verbascum thapsus 60 0.70 7.071 3.234 1.978 14.340 19.552

Carex species 90 1.35 1.131 4.851 3.816 02.293 10.960

Taraxacum officinale 20 1.00 3.142 1.078 2.826 06.372 10.276

Urtica dioica 20 0.65 3.142 1.078 1.837 06.372 09.287

Tegetus minuta 40 1.00 2.011 2.156 2.826 04.078 09.060

Ajuga parviflora 55 1.00 1.539 2.964 2.826 03.121 08.911

Bergenia ciliata 20 0.50 3.142 1.078 1.413 06.372 08.863

Myriactis wallichii 50 1.05 1.539 2.695 2.968 03.121 08.784

Valeriana wallichii 40 0.85 2.011 2.156 2.402 04.078 08.636

Cardamine impatiens 55 1.70 0.282 2.964 4.805 00.571 08.340

Saussurea heteromalla 60 0.65 1.539 3.234 1.837 03.121 08.192

Rabdosia rugosa 60 1.20 0.502 3.234 3.392 01.018 07.644

Bistorta amplexicaulis 60 1.00 0.636 3.234 2.826 01.289 07.349

Cynoglossum microanthum 30 0.55 2.011 1.617 1.554 04.078 07.249

Arisaema jacquemontii 75 0.90 0.318 4.043 2.544 00.644 07.231

Sonchus arvense 35 0.90 1.327 1.886 2.544 02.691 07.121

Cannabis sativa 60 1.05 0.318 3.234 2.968 00.644 06.846

Artemisia sp. 50 1.10 0.502 2.695 3.109 01.018 06.822

Thymus serpyllum 60 1.10 0.196 3.234 3.109 00.397 06.740

Torilis japonica 10 0.35 2.545 0.539 0.909 05.161 06.609

Astragalus grahamianus 25 0.40 2.011 1.347 1.130 04.078 06.555

Bupleurum marginatum 45 0.65 1.131 2.425 1.837 02.293 06.555

Galium elegans 60 1.00 0.196 3.234 2.826 00.397 06.457

Impatiens sulcata 35 0.90 0.950 1.886 2.544 01.926 06.356

Gentiana argentea 60 0.90 0.196 3.234 2.544 00.397 06.175

Ranunculus arvensis 25 0.85 1.131 1.347 2.402 02.293 06.042

Polygala abyssinica 50 1.05 0.125 2.695 2.968 00.253 05.916

Fragaria vesca 35 0.60 1.131 1.886 1.696 02.293 05.875

Veronica polita 40 0.70 0.636 2.156 1.978 01.289 05.423

Ipomea purpurea 35 0.65 0.785 1.886 1.837 01.592 05.315

Bunium persicum 35 1.00 0.196 1.886 2.826 00.397 05.109

Poa annua 40 0.90 0.196 2.156 2.544 00.397 05.097

Brachypodium species 20 0.30 1.539 1.078 0.848 03.121 05.047

Galium asperifolium 35 0.95 0.196 1.886 2.685 00.397 04.968

Dioscorea deltoidea 45 0.65 0.282 2.425 1.837 00.571 04.833

Euphorbia helioscopia 40 0.70 0.282 2.156 1.978 00.571 04.705

Potentilla species 20 0.70 0.785 1.078 1.978 01.592 04.648

Hedera nepalensis 45 0.40 0.502 2.425 1.130 01.018 04.573

Plantago ovata 70 0.12 0.125 3.773 0.353 00.253 04.379

Medicago lupulina 35 0.65 0.196 1.886 1.837 00.397 04.120

Artemisia species 35 0.45 0.229 1.886 1.272 00.464 03.622

Phleum himalaicum 15 0.40 0.785 0.808 1.130 01.592 03.530

Primula species 20 0.60 0.282 1.078 1.696 00.571 03.345

Oxalis parviflora 15 0.70 0.196 0.808 1.978 00.397 03.183

Capsella bursa-pastoris 15 0.40 0.196 0.808 1.130 00.397 02.335

Arabidopsis wallichii 10 0.15 0.125 0.539 0.424 00.253 01.216

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site A for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Commelina benghalensis 20 0.65 7.071 1.777 3.117 14.801 19.695

Ricinus communis 20 0.20 7.071 1.777 0.959 14.801 17.537

Girardinia heterophylla 25 0.25 5.311 2.222 1.199 11.117 14.538

Cynodon dactylon 75 1.50 0.282 6.666 7.194 00.590 14.450

Cannabis sativa 55 1.40 1.131 4.888 6.714 02.367 13.969

Dioscorea deltoidea 60 0.70 1.539 5.333 3.357 03.221 11.911

Carex sp. 70 1.00 0.282 6.222 4.796 00.590 11.608

Brachypodium species 50 0.90 1.131 4.444 4.316 02.367 11.127

Urtica dioica 30 0.65 2.545 2.666 3.117 05.327 11.110

Ajuga parviflora 55 0.70 0.502 4.888 3.357 01.050 09.295

Saussurea heteromalla 40 0.70 1.131 3.555 3.357 02.367 09.279

Myriactis wallichii 40 0.85 0.785 3.555 4.076 01.643 09.274

Veronica polita 45 0.60 1.131 4.000 2.877 02.367 09.244

Achillea millefolium 50 0.85 0.282 4.444 4.076 00.590 09.110

Desmodium podocarpum 35 0.35 2.011 3.111 1.678 04.209 08.998

Rumex hastatus 25 1.20 0.282 2.222 5.755 00.590 08.567

Datura stramonium 35 0.40 1.539 3.111 1.918 03.221 08.250

Medicago lupulina 45 0.50 0.785 4.000 2.398 01.643 08.041

Carpesium cernuum 35 0.80 0.502 3.111 3.836 01.050 07.997

Arisaema jacquemontii 15 0.20 2.545 1.333 0.959 05.327 07.619

Verbascum thapsus 15 0.40 2.011 1.333 1.918 04.209 07.460

Valeriana wallichii 35 0.60 0.502 3.111 2.877 01.050 07.038

Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.60 0.950 1.777 2.877 01.988 06.642

Rabdosia rugosa 20 0.50 1.131 1.777 2.398 02.367 06.542

Duchesnea indica 40 0.45 0.282 3.555 2.158 00.590 06.303

Epipactis royleana 20 0.20 1.697 1.777 0.959 03.552 06.288

Hedera nepalensis 30 0.40 0.785 2.666 1.918 01.643 06.227

Erigeron multicaulis 20 0.70 0.502 1.777 3.357 01.050 06.184

Mentha longifolia 15 0.40 1.131 1.333 1.918 02.367 05.618

Plantago ovata 20 0.45 0.196 1.777 2.158 00.410 04.345

Oplismenus compositus 15 0.50 0.282 1.333 2.398 00.590 04.321

Galium elegans 25 0.40 0.031 2.222 1.918 00.064 04.204

Ranunculus arvensis 10 0.50 0.384 0.888 2.398 00.803 04.089

Micromeria biflora 15 0.35 0.031 1.333 1.678 00.064 03.075

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site B for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Verbascum thapsus 55 0.70 4.525 4.867 03.070 17.531 25.468

Capsella bursa –pastoris 35 3.75 0.125 3.097 16.440 00.484 20.021

Stipa brandisii 65 1.00 2.011 5.752 04.385 07.791 17.928

Duchesnea indica 35 0.60 2.545 3.097 02.631 09.860 15.588

Sonchus arvensis 40 0.85 2.011 3.539 03.728 07.791 15.058

Carex sp. 75 1.15 0.785 6.637 05.043 03.041 14.721

Cichorium intybus 20 0.45 2.545 1.769 01.973 09.860 13.602

Cynoglossum wallichii 55 0.90 1.131 4.867 03.947 04.382 13.196

Arthraxon prionodes 50 0.90 1.131 4.424 03.947 04.382 12.753

Veronica polita 65 1.05 0.070 5.752 04.605 00.271 10.628

Youngia japonica 50 0.70 0.785 4.424 03.070 03.041 10.535

Salvia sp. 20 0.45 1.539 1.769 01.973 05.962 09.704

Ranunculus arvensis 20 1.05 0.785 1.769 04.605 03.041 09.415

Lysimachia chenopodioides 55 0.80 0.125 4.867 03.508 00.484 08.859

Torilis japonica 30 0.40 1.131 2.654 01.754 04.382 08.790

Bupleurum marginatum 50 0.55 0.502 4.424 02.412 01.944 08.780

Erigeron multicaulis 45 0.60 0.502 3.982 02.631 01.944 08.557

Cannabis sativa 25 0.70 0.785 2.212 03.070 03.041 08.323

Polygonium hydropiper 40 0.80 0.282 3.539 03.508 01.092 08.139

Galium asperifolium 50 0.80 0.031 4.424 03.508 00.120 08.052

Thlaspi arvense 40 0.60 0.384 3.539 02.631 01.487 07.657

Bistorta amplexicaulis 35 0.95 0.125 2.857 04.166 00.484 07.507

Plantago ovata 40 0.70 0.129 3.539 03.070 00.499 07.108

Poa annua 45 0.60 0.125 3.982 02.631 00.484 07.097

Androsace rotundifolia 40 0.45 0.384 3.539 01.973 01.487 06.999

Euphorbia helioscopia 10 0.25 0.785 0.884 01.096 03.041 05.021

Ajuga parviflora 20 0.45 0.125 1.769 01.973 00.484 04.226

Oxalis corniculata 10 0.35 0.282 0.884 01.535 01.092 03.511

Micromeria biflora 10 0.25 0.125 0.884 01.096 00.484 02.464

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site C for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

RELATIVE

DENSITY

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

IVI

(%age) (%age) (%age)

Carex sp. 80 1.25 1.131 7.272 6.983 05.252 19.507

Veronica polita 55 0.80 1.539 5.000 4.469 07.146 16.615

Stipa brandisii 75 1.05 0.636 6.818 5.865 02.953 15.636

Phytolacca acinosa 20 0.35 2.545 1.818 1.955 11.818 15.591

Cannabis sativa 60 1.00 0.502 5.454 5.586 02.331 13.371

Dioscorea deltoidea 60 0.75 0.785 5.454 4.189 03.645 13.288

Galium aparine 70 1.15 0.031 6.363 6.424 00.143 12.930

Lespedeza cuneata 35 0.80 1.131 3.181 4.469 05.252 12.902

Cichorium intybus 55 0.75 0.785 5.000 4.189 03.645 12.834

Erigeron multicaulis 55 0.60 0.950 5.000 3.351 04.411 12.762

Carpesium cernuum 55 0.70 0.785 5.000 3.910 03.645 12.555

Piptatherum munro 35 0.35 1.539 3.181 1.955 07.146 12.282

Hedera nepalensis 60 0.65 0.502 5.454 3.631 02.331 11.416

Valeriana wallichii 35 0.50 1.131 3.181 2.793 05.252 11.226

Desmodium podocarpum 20 0.50 1.327 1.818 2.793 06.163 10.774

Epipactis royleana 20 0.30 1.539 1.818 1.675 07.146 10.639

Torilis japonica 45 0.60 0.502 4.090 3.351 02.331 09.772

Galium asperifolium 45 0.85 0.125 4.090 4.748 00.580 09.418

Achyranthes bidentata 35 0.90 0.196 3.181 5.027 00.910 09.118

Rabdosia rugosa 25 0.85 0.384 2.272 4.748 01.783 08.803

Agrostis pilosula 40 0.50 0.502 3.636 2.793 02.331 08.760

Xanthium strumarium 20 0.30 1.131 1.818 1.675 05.252 08.745

Capsella bursa pastoris 30 0.80 0.125 2.727 4.469 00.580 07.776

Euphorbia helioscopia 35 0.45 0.282 3.181 2.513 01.309 07.003

Calanthe tricarinata 15 0.55 0.409 1.363 3.072 01.899 06.334

Medicago lupulina 10 0.25 0.636 0.909 1.396 02.953 05.258

Bistorta amplexicaulis 10 0.35 0.384 0.909 1.955 01.783 04.647

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site D for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Xanthium stramonium 40 0.45 4.525 3.361 2.284 13.689 19.334

Stipa brandisii 90 1.15 1.539 7.563 5.837 4.656 18.056

Myristica wallichii 35 0.60 3.142 2.941 3.045 9.505 15.491

Urtica dioica 50 0.75 2.011 4.201 3.807 6.083 14.091

Carex species 60 1.00 1.131 5.042 5.076 3.421 13.539

Achillea millefolium 60 0.80 1.131 5.042 4.060 3.421 12.523

Verbascum thapsus 40 0.50 2.011 3.361 2.530 6.083 11.974

Cynodon dactylon 60 1.25 0.125 5.042 6.345 0.378 11.765

Plantago ovata 60 0.90 0.384 5.042 4.568 1.161 10.771

Arthraxon serpyllifolia 40 0.60 1.327 3.361 3.045 4.014 10.420

Sonchus arvense 40 0.45 1.539 3.361 2.284 4.656 10.301

Datura stramonium 15 0.20 2.545 1.260 1.015 7.699 9.974

Cannabis sativa 35 1.00 0.502 2.941 5.076 1.518 9.535

Rabdosia rugosa 35 0.65 0.950 2.941 3.299 2.874 9.114

Oplismenus compositus 40 0.40 1.131 3.361 2.030 3.421 8.812

Ajuga parviflora 50 0.60 0.502 4.201 3.045 1.518 8.764

Lespedeza cuneata 40 0.70 0.502 3.361 3.553 1.518 8.432

Arisaema jacquemontii 20 0.30 1.539 1.680 1.522 4.656 7.858

Oplismenus compositus 35 0.50 0.785 2.941 2.530 2.374 7.845

Clematis buchananiana 50 0.60 0.125 4.201 3.045 0.378 7.624

Brachypodium species 35 0.60 0.502 2.941 3.045 1.518 7.504

Ranunculus arvense 40 0.60 0.282 3.361 3.045 0.853 7.259

Brunella vulgaris 15 0.70 0.785 1.260 3.553 2.374 7.187

Achyranthes bidentata 20 0.35 1.131 1.680 1.776 3.421 6.877

Plantago lanceolata 35 0.60 0.282 2.941 3.045 0.853 6.839

Ranunculus species 20 0.65 0.384 1.680 3.299 1.161 6.140

Valeriana wallichii 25 0.40 0.502 2.100 2.030 1.518 5.648

Cichorium intybus 20 0.65 0.196 1.680 3.299 0.592 5.571

Arenaria serpyllifolia 20 0.50 0.282 1.680 2.538 0.853 5.071

Hedera nepalensis 15 0.25 0.785 1.260 1.269 2.374 4.903

Bistorta amplexicaulis 20 0.35 0.125 1.680 1.776 0.378 3.834

Dioscorea deltoidea 20 0.35 0.070 1.680 1.776 0.211 3.667

Desmodium podocarpum 10 0.30 0.282 0.840 1.522 0.853 3.215

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site E for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Digitalis purpurea 20 0.80 4.525 1.941 4.494 12.719 19.154

Phytolacca acinosa 10 0.35 5.311 0.970 1.966 14.929 17.865

Stipa brandisii 65 0.75 1.327 6.310 4.213 03.730 14.253

Salvia nubicola 35 0.65 2.545 3.398 3.651 07.153 14.202

Artemisia vestita 60 0.70 1.539 5.825 3.932 04.326 14.083

Arthraxon perionodes 60 0.90 1.131 5.825 5.056 03.179 14.060

Cichorium intybus 45 0.60 2.011 4.368 3.370 05.652 13.390

Mentha longifolia 40 1.05 1.131 3.883 5.898 03.179 12.960

Carex species 70 0.90 0.384 6.796 5.056 01.079 12.931

Verbascum thapsus 35 0.70 1.539 3.398 3.932 04.326 11.656

Cannabis sativa 35 0.55 1.767 3.398 3.089 04.966 11.453

Senecio arvense 20 0.55 2.270 1.941 3.089 06.380 11.410

Plantago lanceolata 55 0.90 0.282 5.339 5.056 00.792 11.187

Duchesnea indica 35 0.60 1.131 3.398 3.370 03.179 09.947

Achyranthes bidentata 20 0.60 1.539 1.941 3.370 04.326 09.637

Myriactis wallichii 40 0.50 0.950 3.883 2.808 02.670 09.361

Ajuga parviflora 35 0.70 0.636 3.398 3.932 01.787 09.117

Plantago major 40 0.60 0.636 3.883 3.37 01.787 09.040

Bupleurum marginatum 35 0.55 0.785 3.398 3.089 02.206 08.693

Desmodium podocarpum 25 0.65 0.785 2.427 3.651 02.206 08.284

Valeriana wallichii 30 0.55 0.780 2.912 3.089 02.196 08.197

Bistorta amplexicaulis 40 0.60 0.196 3.883 3.370 00.550 07.803

Youngia japonica 35 0.50 0.125 3.398 2.808 00.351 06.557

Hedera nepalensis 35 0.40 0.282 3.398 2.247 00.792 06.437

Silene conoidea 20 0.35 0.785 1.941 1.966 02.206 06.113

Wulfenia amherstiana 25 0.60 0.070 2.427 3.370 00.196 05.993

Brunella vulgaris 20 0.35 0.636 1.941 1.966 01.787 05.694

Clinopodium vulgare 20 0.35 0.282 1.941 1.966 00.792 04.699

Ainsliaea latifolia 15 0.35 0.125 1.456 1.966 00.351 03.773

Lespedeza cuneata 10 0.15 0.070 0.970 0.842 00.196 02.008

Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site F for herbs:

NAME OF THE PLANT

SPECIES

FREQUENCY

(%age)

DENSITY

(m-2

)

BASAL

AREA

RELATIVE

FREQUENCY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DENSITY

(%age)

RELATIVE

DOMINANCE

(%age)

IVI

Verbascum thapsus 35 0.25 7.071 4.216 3.906 22.025 30.147

Artemisia vestita 60 0.45 2.820 7.228 7.031 08.784 23.043

Carex species 80 0.45 1.131 9.638 7.031 03.523 20.192

Saussurea heteromalla 40 0.35 3.142 4.819 5.468 09.787 20.074

Plantago major 50 0.45 1.539 6.024 7.031 04.793 17.848

Bupleurum marginatum 40 0.40 1.131 4.819 6.250 03.523 14.592

Bergenia ciliata 20 0.10 3.142 2.409 1.562 09.787 13.758

Arisaema jacquemontii 50 0.35 0.636 6.024 5.468 01.981 13.473

Hedera nepalensis 45 0.35 0.785 5.421 5.468 02.445 13.334

Urtica dioica 15 0.10 3.142 1.807 1.562 09.787 13.156

Galium elegans 50 0.40 0.196 6.024 6.250 00.610 12.884

Dioscorea deltoidea 35 0.25 1.327 4.216 3.906 04.133 12.255

Rabdosia rugosa 40 0.30 0.502 4.819 4.687 01.563 11.069

Astragalus grahamianus 20 0.15 2.011 2.409 2.343 06.264 11.016

Poa annua 35 0.35 0.125 4.216 5.468 00.389 10.073

Euphorbia helioscopia 30 0.25 0.785 3.614 3.906 02.445 09.965

Veronica politra 35 0.30 0.282 4.216 4.687 00.878 09.781

Fragaria vesca 30 0.20 0.785 3.614 3.125 02.445 09.184

Cannabis sativa 35 0.15 0.502 4.216 2.343 01.563 08.122

Galium asperifolium 25 0.25 0.196 3.012 3.906 00.610 07.528

Ipomea purpurea 20 0.20 0.125 2.409 3.125 00.389 05.923

Torilis japonica 10 0.10 0.282 1.204 1.562 00.878 03.644

Oxalis corniculata 10 0.10 0.196 1.204 1.562 00.610 03.376

Capsella bursa-pastoris 10 0.10 0.125 1.204 1.562 00.389 03.155

Arabidopsis wallichii 10 0.05 0.125 1.204 0.781 00.389 02.374