ecocriticism - diff sources

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Ecocriticism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ecocriticism is the study of literature and environment from

an interdisciplinary point of view where all sciences come together to

analyze the environment and brainstorm possible solutions for the

correction of the contemporary environmental situation. Ecocriticism was

o cially heralded by the publication of two seminal works, both published

in the mid- !!"s# The Ecocriticism Reader , edited by $heryll %lotfelty and

&arold Fromm, and The Environmental Imagination , by 'awrence (uell .

)n the *nited +tates, ecocriticism is often associated with

the ssociation for the +tudy of 'iterature and Environment +'E ,

/ 0 which hosts biennial meetings for scholars who deal with environmental

matters in literature. +'E publishes a 1ournal2 Interdisciplinary Studies in

Literature and Environment ISLE 2in which current merican scholarshipcan be found.

Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a

number of other designations, including 3green cultural

studies3, 3ecopoetics3 , and 3environmental literary criticism3.

Evolution of ecocriticism in literary studies

Ecocritics investigate such things as the

underlying ecological values, what, precisely, is meant by the word

nature, and whether the e4amination of 3place3 should be a distinctive

category, much like class, gender or race. Ecocritics e4amine human

perception of wilderness , and how it has changed throughout history and

whether or not current environmental issues are accurately represented or

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even mentioned in popular culture and modern literature. 5ther

disciplines, such as history, philosophy, ethics, and psychology, are also

considered by ecocritics to be possible contributors to ecocriticism.

William 6ueckert may have been the 7rst person to use the term

ecocriticism (arry 89" . )n !:;, 6ueckert published an essay

titled Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism. &is intent

was to focus on environmental side of

literature, these important works were scattered and categorized under a

litany of di?erent sub1ect headings# pastoralism , human ecology,regionalism, merican +tudies etc. (ritish mar4ist critic 6aymond

Williams , for e4ample, wrote a seminal criti@ue of pastoral literature in

!:A, The Country and the City .

nother early ecocritical te4t, Boseph CeekerDs The Comedy of

Survival !:9 , proposed a version of an argument that was later to

dominate ecocriticism and environmental philosophy that environmental

crisis is caused primarily by a cultural tradition in the West of separation

of culture from nature, and elevation of the former to moral

predominance. +uch anthropocentrism is identi7ed in the tragic

conception of a hero whose moral struggles are more important than mere

biological survival, whereas the science of animal ethology, Ceeker

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asserts, shows that a 3comic mode3 of muddling through and 3making

love not war3 has superior ecological value. )n the later, 3second wave3

ecocriticism, CeekerDs adoption of an ecophilosophical position with

apparent scienti7c sanction as a measure of literary value tended to

prevail over WilliamsDs ideological and historical criti@ue of the shifts in a

literary genreDs representation of nature.

s %lotfelty noted in The Ecocriticism Reader ,


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)n comparison with other DpoliticalD forms of criticism, there has been

relatively little dispute about the moral and philosophical aims of

ecocriticism, although its scope has broadened rapidly from nature

writing, 6omantic poetry, and canonical literature to take in 7lm,

television, theatre, animal stories, architectures, scienti7c narratives and

an e4traordinary range of literary te4ts. t the same time, ecocriticism has

borrowed methodologies and theoretically informed approaches liberally

from other 7elds of literary, social and scienti7c study.

%lotfeltyDs working de7nition in The Ecocriticism Reader is that

3ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the

physical environment3, /90 and one of the implicit goals of the approach is

to recoup professional dignity for what %lotfelty calls the 3undervalued

genre of nature writing3. /N0 'awrence (uell de7nes


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the natural environment, or aspects of it, represented in documents

literary or other that contribute to material practices in material worldsH.

/;0 Lhis echoes the functional approach of the cultural ecology branch of

ecocriticism, which analyzes the analogies between ecosystems and

imaginative te4ts and posits that such te4ts potentially have an ecological

regenerative, revitalizing function in the cultural system. /!0

s Cichael Q. $ohen has observed,


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)n response to the @uestion of what ecocriticism is or should be,

$amilo %omides has o?ered an operational de7nition that is both broad

and discriminating# 3Lhe 7eld of en@uiry that analyzes and promotes

works of art which raise moral @uestions about human interactions with

nature, while also motivating audiences to live within a limit that will be

binding over generations3 = . &e tests it for a 7lm mal adaptation about

mazonian deforestation. )mplementing the %omides de7nition, Boseph

&enry Rogel makes the case that ecocriticism constitutes an 3economic

school of thought3 as it engages audiences to debate issues of resource

allocation that have no technical solution.

6eferences

. Jump up^ %lotfelty S Fromm !!=, p. 4viii

8. Jump up^ %lotfelty S Fromm !!=, p. ":

A. Jump up^ %lotfelty S Fromm !!=, p. vii9. Jump up^ %lotfelty S Fromm !!=, p. 4viii

N. Jump up^ %lotfelty S Fromm !!=, p. 444i

=. Jump up^ 9A", n.8"

:. Jump up^ Estok 8"" , p. 88"

;. Jump up^ Estok 8""N, pp. =- :

!. Jump up^ Kapf 8"";

". Jump up^ Jate +oper , 3What is IatureT3, !!;

. Jump up^ (arry 8""!, pp. N=-N;

8. Jump up^ (uell !!;

+ources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Soperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Soperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism#cite_ref-12


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(arry, Qeter. 3Ecocriticism3. eginning Theory: An Introduction to

Literary and Cultural Theory . Ard ed. Canchester# Canchester *Q, 8""!.

(uell, 'awrence . The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau! "ature

#riting! and the $ormation of American Culture . $ambridge, C and

'ondon, England# &arvard *niversity Qress, !!N.

(uell, 'awrence. 3Lo4ic Miscourse.3 Critical In%uiry 89.A !!; # =A!-

==N .

(uell, 'awrence. #riting for an Endangered #orld: Literature!

Culture! and Environment in the &.S. and eyond . $ambridge, C and

'ondon, England# Lhe (elknap Qress of &arvard *niversity Qress, 8"" .

$ohen, Cichael Q. = 8"": # A:=-A!9. (Spanish)

Frederick, +uresh. Contemporary Contemplations on Ecoliterature .

Iew Melhi# uthorpress, 8" 8.

%arrard, %reg, Ecocriticism . Iew Uork# 6outledge, 8""9.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Buellhttp://www.asle.umn.edu/archive/intro/estok.htmlhttp://www.paginadepoesia.com.ar/escritos_pdf/Fornix_5_6_tercera_parte.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Buellhttp://www.asle.umn.edu/archive/intro/estok.htmlhttp://www.paginadepoesia.com.ar/escritos_pdf/Fornix_5_6_tercera_parte.pdf


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%lotfelty, $heryll and &arold Fromm Eds . The Ecocriticism Reader:

Landmar+s in Literary Ecology . thens and 'ondon# *niversity of %eorgia,

!!=.

%omides, $amilo. DQutting a Iew Me7nition of Ecocriticism to the

Lest# Lhe $ase of Lhe (urning +eason, a 7lm mal daptation3. ISLE A.

8""= # A-8A.

&eise, *rsula J.


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6ueckert, William. 3'iterature and Ecology# n E4periment in

Ecocriticism.3 Io a Revie !. !:; # : -;=.

6o1as QVrez, Walter. La ecocr1tica hoy . +an BosV, $osta 6ica# ire

Coderno, 8""9.

+elvamony, Iirmal, Iirmaldasan S 6ayson J. le4. Essays in

Ecocriticism . Melhi# +arup and +ons and 5+'E-)ndia, 8"";.

+lovic, +cott. See+ing A areness in American "ature #riting: 'enry

Thoreau! Annie 0illard! Ed ard A22ey! #endell erry! arry Lope3. +alt

'ake $ity, *L# *niversity of *tah Qress, !!8.

Rogel, Boseph &enry. 3Ecocriticism as an Economic +chool of

Lhought# Woody llenDs Catch Qoint as E4emplary.3 4)ETECA: Science

and 'umanities 8 8""; # "N- !.

Williams, 6aymond. The Country and the City. 'ondon# $hatto and

Windus, !:A.Kapf, &ubert. 3'iterary Ecology and the Ethics of Le4ts.3 "e

Literary 'istory A!.9 8""; # ;9:-;=;.

http#>>en.wikipedia.org>wiki>Ecocriticism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocriticism


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Ecological humanities

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lhe ecological humanities also, environmental humanities

are an interdisciplinary area of research, drawing on the many

environmental sub-disciplines that have emerged in the humanities over

the past several decades in particular environmental philosophy,

environmental history and environmental anthropology .

Lhe ecological humanities aim to help bridge traditional divides between

the sciences and the humanities, and

between Western , Eastern and )ndigenous ways of knowing the natural

world and the place of humans in it 6ose 8""9.

Lhe ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivityontology and a commitment to two fundamental a4ioms relating to the

need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger

living system.

$onnectivity ontology

5ne of the fundamental ontological presuppositions of ecological

humanities is that the organic world and its inorganic parts are seen as a

single system whereby each part is linked to each other part. Lhis world

view in turn shares an intimate connection with 'otka Ds physiological

philosophy and the associated concept of the 3World Engine3. / 0 When we

see everything as connected, then the traditional @uestions of the

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humanities concerning economic and political 1ustice

become enlarged! into a consideration of how 1ustice is connected with

our transformation of our environment and ecosystems . Lhe conse@uence

of such a connectivity ontology is, as proponents of the ecological

humanities argue, that we begin to seek out a more inclusive concept of

1ustice that includes non-humans within the domain of those to whom

rights are owing. Lhis broadened conception of 1ustice involves 3enlarged3

or 3ecological thinking3, which presupposes the enhancement of

knowledge sharing within 7elds of plural and diverse Oknowledges . Lhis

kind of knowledge sharing is called transdisciplinarity. )t has links with the

political philosophy of &annah rendt and the works of )talo $alvino . s

$alvino put it, 3enlarge/s0 the sphere of what we can imagine3. )t also has

connections with 'eibnizDs Enlightenment pro1ect where, the sciences are

simultaneously abridged while also being enlarged./80

Lhe situation is complicated however by the recognition of the fact

that connections are both non/linear and linear . Lhe ecological humanities

therefore, re@uire both linear and non-linear modes of language through

which reasoning about 1ustice can be done. Lhus there is a motivation to

7nd linguistic modes which can ade@uately e4press both linear and non-

linear connectivities.

4ioms of ecological humanities/ edit 0

Lhere are three a4ioms of ecological humanities#

. Lhe a4iom of submission to ecosystem laws

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8. Lhe a4iom of ecological kinship, which situates humanity as

participant in a larger living system and

A. Lhe a4iom of the social construction of ecosystems and ecological

unity, which states that ecosystems and nature may be merely convenient

conceptual entities Carshall, 8""8 .

Qutting the 7rst and second a4ioms another way, the connections

between and among living things are the basis for how ecosystems are

understood to work, and thus constitute laws of e4istence and guidelines

for behaviour 6ose 8""9

Lhe 7rst of these a4ioms has a tradition in social sciences see Car4,

!=;# A . From the second a4iom the notions of < ecological embodiment>

embededness H and


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+ome theorists have suggested that the inclusion of non-humans in

the consideration of 1ustice links ecocentric philosophy with political

economics. Lhis is because the theorising of 1ustice is a central activity of

political economic philosophy. )f in accordance with the a4ioms of

ecological humanities, theories of 1ustice are enlarged to include

ecological values then the necessary result is the synthesis of the

concerns of ecology with that of political economy# i.e. Qolitical Economic

Ecology.

Energy systems language

Lhe @uestion of what language can best depict the linear and non-

linear causal connections of ecological systems appears to have been

taken up by the school of ecology known as systems ecology . Lo depict

the linear and non-linear internal relatedness of ecosystems where thelaws of thermodynamics hold signi7cant conse@uences &annon et al.

!! # ;" , +ystems Ecologist &.L. 5dum !!9 predicated the Energy

+ystems 'anguage on the principles of ecological energetics . )n ecological

energetics, 1ust as in ecological humanities, the causal bond between

connections is considered an ontic category see Qatten et al. !:=# 9=" .

Coreover as a result of simulating ecological systems with the energy

systems language &.L.5dum make the controversial suggestion that

embodied energy could be understood as value , which in itself is a step

into the 7eld of Qolitical Economic Ecology noted above.

Iotes

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. ^ +. Jingsland !;N . )odeling "ature . Lhe *niversity of $hicago

Qress. $hapter 8.

8. ^ '.$ourtart translated by M.6utherford, 6.L. Conroe 8""8 . The

Logic of Lei2ni3 . $hapter N.

6eferences/ edit 0

• )talo $alvino, 4n $ourier! III: A &topia of $ine 0ust! Lhe 'iterature

Cachine, Qicador, 'ondon.

• 6. Eckersley !!= O%reening 'iberal Memocracy , in Moherty, (.

and de %eus, C. ed. 0emocracy 5 (reen ,olitical Thought: Sustaina2ility!

Rights and Citi3enship , 6outledge, 'ondon, pp. 8 8P8A=.

• 6. Eckersley !!; OLhe Meath of Iature and the (irth of Ecological

&umanities , 4rgani3ation and Environment , Rol , Io. 8, pp. ;AP ;N.

• 6. Eckersley 8"" D+ymposium %reen Lhinking P from

ustraliaD, Environmental ,olitics , Rol. ", Io.9, pp. ;NP "8.

• B.(. Foster and Q.(urkett 8""9 OEcological Economics nd $lassical

Car4ism , 4rgani3ation 5 Environment , Rol. :, Io. , pp. A8P=".

• (. &annon, 6.$ostanza and 6.*lanowicz !! O %eneral

ccounting Framework for Ecological +ystems# Functional La4onomy for

$onnectivist Ecology , Theoretical ,opulation iology , Rol. 9", :;- "9.

• . Carshall 8""8 The &nity of "ature: #holeness and

0isintegration in Ecology and Science . 'ondon# )mperial $ollege Qress.

• B. Cartinez- lier !;: Ecological Economics , (asil (lackwell.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanities#ref_Kingsland1985http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanities#ref_Rutherford2002http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/ch5.htmhttp://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/ch5.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_humanities&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanities#ref_Kingsland1985http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanities#ref_Rutherford2002http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/ch5.htmhttp://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/ch5.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_humanities&action=edit&section=8


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• J. Car4 !=; , in 6arl )arx: 787897 ;8! a collection of essays , )nter

Iationes, (ad %odesberg.

• &.L. 5dum !!9 Ecological and (eneral Systems: An Introduction

to Systems Ecology , $olorado *niversity Qress, (oulder, $olorado.

• (.$. Qatten, 6.W.(osserman, B.L.Finn and W.(.$ale !:=

OQropagation of $ause in Ecosystems , in Qatten, (.$. ed. Systems Analysis

and Systems Simulation in Ecology , cademic Qress inc. Iew Uork.

• +. Qodolinsky 8""9 O+ocialism nd Lhe *nity 5f Qhysical

Forces , 4rgani3ation 5 Environment , Rol. :, Io. , pp. = P:N.

• M. 6ose and '. 6obin 8""9 DLhe Ecological &umanities in ction# n

)nvitationD, ustralian &umanities 6eview, A -8

• M.6. Weiner 8""" )odels of "ature: Ecology! Conservation and

Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia , *niversity of Qittsburgh Qress, *.+. .

http#>>en.wikipedia.org>wiki>EcologicalXhumanities

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_humanities


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MEF)I)I% E$5$6)L)$ ' L&E56U IM Q6 $L)$E

1994 Western Literature Association eeting

Salt La!e "ity# $tah%%& 'cto er 1994

Introduction

Lhe word 3ecocriticism3 traces back to William 6ueckertDs !:;

essay 3'iterature and Ecology# n E4periment in Ecocriticism3 and

apparently lay dormant in critical vocabulary until the !;! Western

'iterature ssociation meeting in $oeur dD lene , when $heryll %lotfelty

at the time a graduate student at $ornell, now ssistant Qrofessor of

'iterature and the Environment at the *niversity of Ievada, 6eno not

only revived the term but urged its adoption to refer to the di?use critical

7eld that heretofore had been known as 3the study of nature writing.3

$heryllDs call for an 3ecocriticism3 was immediately seconded at that same

W' meeting by %len 'ove Qrofessor of English at the *niversity of

5regon in his Qast QresidentDs speech, entitled 36evaluing Iature# Loward

an Ecological 'iterary $riticism.3 +ince that meeting in !;!, the term

3ecocriticism3 has bloomed in usage, so that now one 7nds it appearing

with some fre@uency in calls for papers, critical articles, and indeed

academic 1ob descriptions. )ndications are that acceptance of the term is

imminent.

(ut thereDs a problem, which came to the fore at the !!A W'

meeting in Wichita. Lrouble arose on the last day of the conference, at the

end of a session entitled, 3Ecocriticism# 6eimagining the Way We Write


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Position Papers

6alph W. (lack, What We Lalk bout When We Lalk bout

Ecocriticism

$hristopher $okinos, What )s EcocriticismT

Iancy $ook, What )s EcocriticismT

&arry $rockett, What )s EcocriticismT

Lhomas J. Mean, What )s Eco-$riticismT

$heryll %lotfelty, What )s EcocriticismT

)an Carshall, Lhe Ecocritical &eritage

Jent 6yden, What )s EcocriticismT

+tephanie +arver, What )s EcocriticismT

Mon +cheese, +ome Qrinciples of Ecocriticism

Cark +chlenz, +urvival +tories# Loward an Ecology of 'iterary $riticism

+cott +lovic, Ecocriticism# +torytelling, Ralues, $ommunication, $ontact

+tan Lag, Four Ways of 'ooking at Ecocriticism

Mavid Laylor, What )s EcocriticismT

Mavid W. League, What )s EcocriticismT

llison (. Wallace, What )s EcocriticismT

http#>>www.asle.org>site>resources>ecocritical-library>intro>de7ning>

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W A* +S E"'",+*+"+S -

by Cheryll Glotfelty

+imply de7ned, ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between

literature and the physical environment. Bust as feminist criticism

e4amines language and literature from a gender-conscious perspective,

and Car4ist criticism brings an awareness of modes of production and

economic class to its reading of te4ts, ecocriticism takes an earth-

centered approach to literary studies.

Ecocritics and theorists ask @uestions like the following# &ow is

nature represented in this sonnetT What role does the physical setting

play in the plot of this novelT re the values e4pressed in this play

consistent with ecological wisdomT &ow do our metaphors of the land

in uence the way we treat itT &ow can we characterize nature writing as a

genreT )n addition to race, class, and gender, should place become a newcritical categoryT Mo men write about nature di?erently than women doT

)n what ways has literacy itself a?ected humankindDs relationship to the

natural worldT &ow has the concept of wilderness changed over timeT )n

what ways and to what e?ect is the environmental crisis seeping into

contemporary literature and popular cultureT What view of nature informs

*.+. government reports, and what rhetoric enforces this viewT What

bearing might the science of ecology have on literary studiesT &ow is

science itself open to literary analysisT What cross-fertilization is possible

between literary studies and environmental discourse in related

disciplines such as history, philosophy, psychology, art history, and

ethicsT


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Mespite the broad scope of in@uiry and disparate levels of

sophistication, all ecological criticism shares the fundamental premise that

human culture is connected to the physical world, a?ecting it and a?ected

by it. Ecocriticism takes as its sub1ect the interconnections between

nature and culture, speci7cally the cultural artifacts language and

literature. s a critical stance, it has one foot in literature and the other on

land as a theoretical discourse, it negotiates between the human and the

nonhuman.

Ecocriticism can be further characterized by distinguishing it from

other critical approaches. 'iterary theory, in general, e4amines the

relations between writers, te4ts, and the world. )n most literary theory

3the world3 is synonymous with society--the social sphere. Ecocriticism

e4pands the notion of 3the world3 to include the entire ecosphere. )f we

agree with (arry $ommonerDs 7rst law of ecology, that 3Everything isconnected to everything else,3 we must conclude that literature does not

oat above the material world in some aesthetic ether, but, rather, plays a

part in an immensely comple4 global system, in which energy, matter,

and ideas interact.

Cost ecocritical work shares a common motivation# the troubling

awareness that we have reached the age of environmental limits, a time

when the conse@uences of human actions are damaging the planetDs basic

life support systems. Lhis awareness sparks a sincere desire to contribute

to environmental restoration, not 1ust in our spare time, but from within

our capacity as professors of literature. &istorian Monald Worster argues

that humanities scholars have an important role to play#


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We are facing a global crisis today, not because of how ecosystems

function but rather because of how our ethical systems function. %etting

through the crisis re@uires understanding our impact on nature as

precisely as possible, but even more, it re@uires understanding those

ethical systems and using that understanding to reform them. &istorians,

along with literary scholars, anthropologists, and philosophers, cannot do

the reforming, of course, but they can help with the understanding. Lhe

Wealth of Iature# Environmental &istory and the Ecological )magination

/Iew Uork# 54ford *Q, !!A0 8: my emphasis

'iterary scholars specialize in @uestions of value, meaning, tradition, point

of view, and language, and it is in these areas that we are making a

substantial contribution to environmental thinking.

)n my view, an ecologically focussed criticism is a worthy enterprise

primarily because it directs our attention to matters about which we needto be thinking. $onsciousness raising is its most important task. Ecocritics

encourage others to think seriously about the relationship of humans to

nature, about the ethical and aesthetic dilemmas posed by the

environmental crisis, and about how language and literature transmit

values with profound ecological implications.

Cheryll (lotfelty! &niversity of "evada! Reno

http#>>www.asle.org>site>resources>ecocritical-

library>intro>de7ning>glotfelty>


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Ecocriticism

Ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and

the environment. Rarious schools of literary criticism e4amine language

and literature from speci7c perspectives. Feminist criticism, for instance,

e4amines literature from the perspective of feminine gender, whereas

Car4ist criticism e4amines literature from the standpoint of class structure

and production. Ecocriticism looks at literature from the perspective of the

ecology.

)t is believed that William 6ueckert was the 7rst to use the term

ecocriticism. 6ueckert published an essay in !:; entitled 3'iterature

and Ecology# n E4periment in Ecocriticism.3 Lhis essay o?ered an outline

for the new discipline# 3the application of ecology and ecological concepts

to the study of literature3.

While environmentalism became a popular issue in the late !="s

and !:"s, ecocriticism was not established as a genre until the mid-

!;"s. Lhis initiative was actualized through the work of the Western

'iterature ssociation. )n !!", $heryll %lotfelty of the *niversity of

Ievada in 6eno was the 7rst to assume an academic position as professor

of 'iterature and the Environment. Lhis institution is still considered the

primary bastion for ecocritical thought.

Ecocriticism is represented in the *nited +tates by the ssociation

for the +tudy of 'iterature and Environment +'E . Lhis organization


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holds biennial meetings for ecocritics. Lhe o cial 1ournal of the +'E,

)nterdisciplinary +tudies in 'iterature and Environment )+'E , represents

the latest in scholarship on ecocritism. s an ecocritic or theorist reads

particular te4ts, he or she will think about speci7c issues relating to the

ecology. Zuestions will arise# &ow is nature e4pressed in this pieceT &ow

important is physical plant to the plotT re the values represented in the

te4t consonant with 3green3 thinkingT Mo literary metaphors for land have

an impact on how we treat the landT What constitutes nature writingT )f

class, race and gender are critical categories, shall place become another

such categoryT re there di?erences in the way men and women write

about natureT &as literacy changed manDs bond to natureT )s the crisis

with the environment represented in literature, and how has this a?ected

manDs relationship to the ecologyT re *nited +tates government reports

in uenced by a particular ecological viewT &ow has ecology impacted thestudy of literatureT

Lhough these @uestions hint at a very wide area of in@uiry on

di?erent levels, there is a single basic premise in ecological criticism# that

all of human culture is linked to the physical world and is a?ected by and

has an e?ect on the natural world. Lhe ecocriticDs 1ob is to negotiate

between that which is human and that which is nonhuman.

nother way to understand ecocriticism is by comparing it to other

literary criticism. 'iterary criticism looks at the relationships among

authors, writings and the world. Lhe literary critic takes 3the world3 to

mean 3society.3 Ecocritics e4pand on this notion so that 3the world3 comes


24/176

to include all of the ecosphere. ccording to (arry $ommoner,

an merican environmental scientist, the 7rst law of ecology states,

3Everything is connected to everything else.3 pplying this concept to

literature, the ecocritic believes that literature is not an esoteric or

ethereal presence but one capable of playing a role in a complicated

global pattern where everything -- matter, energy and ideas -- can

interact.

Cost ecocritics are driven by the idea that humans are nearing the

end of their environmental resources. Lhey see everything as a

conse@uence of how humans have damaged the basic life-support system

of the planet. With this awareness at the forefront, the ecocritic yearns to

take part in restoring the environment not 1ust from time to time but at all

times, in every discipline, including the study of literature.

&istorian Monald Worster believes that scholars in the humanities

can play a signi7cant role in this work. 3%etting through the crisis re@uires

understanding our impact on nature as precisely as possible, but even

more, it re@uires understanding those ethical systems and using that

understanding to reform them,3 he says. 3&istorians, along with literary

scholars, anthropologists, and philosophers, cannot do the reforming, of

course, but they can help with the understanding3.

Lhose immersed in the study of literature have the habit of delving

into point of view, language, tradition, meaning and value. Lhrough

these perspectives, the literary scholar may use ecocriticism to further


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awareness of the environment and the ecology. Ecocriticism focuses

attention on a matter that is acknowledged by most to be of critical

importance in the modern world.

+elected full-te4t books and articles on this topic

Ecocriticism

.reg .arrar/0

6outledge, 8""9

6ead preview 5verview

ature in Literary an/ "ultural Stu/ies2 *ransatlantic

"onversations on Ecocriticism

"atrin .ers/or3 Sylvia ayer0

6odopi, 8""=


*he *ruth o3 Ecology2 ature# $ulture # an/ Literature in

America

5ana Phillips0

54ford *niversity Qress, 8""A


Literary 5ar6inism2 Evolution# uman ature# an/

Literature

http://www.questia.com/read/108284116/ecocriticismhttp://www.questia.com/library/108284085/ecocriticismhttp://www.questia.com/read/119732971/nature-in-literary-and-cultural-studies-transatlantichttp://www.questia.com/library/119732921/nature-in-literary-and-cultural-studies-transatlantichttp://www.questia.com/read/104523949/the-truth-of-ecology-nature-culture-and-literaturehttp://www.questia.com/library/104523931/the-truth-of-ecology-nature-culture-and-literaturehttp://www.questia.com/read/108284116/ecocriticismhttp://www.questia.com/library/108284085/ecocriticismhttp://www.questia.com/read/119732971/nature-in-literary-and-cultural-studies-transatlantichttp://www.questia.com/library/119732921/nature-in-literary-and-cultural-studies-transatlantichttp://www.questia.com/read/104523949/the-truth-of-ecology-nature-culture-and-literaturehttp://www.questia.com/library/104523931/the-truth-of-ecology-nature-culture-and-literature


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Joseph "arroll0

6outledge, 8""9

Librarian’s tip: $hap. ; 3Ecocriticism, $ognitive Ethology, and the

Environments of Rictorian Fiction3


*heory 3rom the 7ringes2 Animals# Ecocriticism#

Sha!espeare

Esto!# Simon "0

Cosaic Winnipeg , Rol. 9", Io. , Carch 8"":


8Loving 'urselves est o3 All82 Ecocriticism an/ the A/apte/

in/

Easterlin# ancy0

Cosaic Winnipeg , Rol. A:, Io. A, +eptember 8""9


*he .reening o3 A3rican%American Lan/scapes2 Where

Ecocriticism eets Post%"olonial *heory

.erhar/t# "hristine0

Lhe Cississippi Zuarterly, Rol. NN, Io. 9, Fall 8""8


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+nter/isciplinarity

Joe oran0

6outledge, 8""

Librarian’s tip: 3Ecocriticism and +cience3 begins on p. :"


:ey "oncepts in Literary *heory

Julian Wol3reys ,uth ,o ins :enneth Womac!0

Edinburgh *niversity Qress, 8""=

Librarian’s tip: 3Ecocriticism3 begins on p. 8


http#>>[email protected]>library>literature>literary-theory>ecocriticism

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Ecocriticism an/ ineteenth%"entury Literature

Ecocriticism and Iineteenth-$entury 'iterature Essay - Ecocriticism

and Iineteenth-$entury 'iterature

Ecocriticism and Iineteenth-$entury 'iterature

)ntroduction

Ecocriticism an/ ineteenth%"entury Literature

Ecocriticism is the study of representations of nature in literary

works and of the relationship between literature and the environment.

Ecocriticism as an academic discipline began in earnest in the

!!"s, although its roots go back to the late !:"s. (ecause it is a new

area of study, scholars are still engaged in de7ning the scope and aims of

the sub1ect. $heryll %lotfelty, one of the pioneers in the 7eld, has de7ned

ecocriticism as


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studies, Iative merican studies, and history, among other academic

7elds. Lhe term


30/176

encounters in the natural world and discussing the meaning of living in

harmony with nature and oneDs soul. +ome critics have argued that the

merican tradition of nature writing stems from LhoreauDs masterpiece.

nother landmark merican non7ction work about nature was 6alph

Waldo EmersonDs "ature ;A= . Lhis essay is the writerDs statement on

the principles of the philosophy of Lranscendentalism, which he describes

as


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as many critics have shown, their writings are imbued with a poetic spirit

that makes their ideas accessible to lay readers. Lhe two great nineteenth

century merican naturalists, most critics agree, are Bohn (urroughs and

Bohn Cuir. (urroughsDs early work was in uenced by Whitman, particularly

the essays collected in #a+e Ro2in ;: and irds and ,oets. ;:: .

fter reading $harles Marwin and Bohn Fiske, (urroughs turned to scienti7c

speculation about nature and then later in life took a more spiritual view.

Cuir, a native of +cotland, traveled e4tensively around the *nited +tates

and documented his observations in hundreds of articles and ten ma1or

books. &e also worked to prevent the destruction of the environment, and

he is credited with being primarily responsible for preserving the Uosemite

Ralley in $alifornia, which became the second national park in the *nited

+tates.

)n (ritain, in the nineteenth century, the 6omantic poets reacted

strongly against the eighteenth century emphasis on reason and sought

new ways of e4pressing their thoughts and feelings. William Wordsworth,

considered by many to be the spokesman of the movement, celebrates

the beauty and mystery of nature in some of his most famous lyrics,

including


32/176

includes emotional descriptions of the natural world and features some of

the best-known nature verse in English. +helleyDs


33/176

nineteenth century merican culture and is considered a classic te4t in

merican studies. +uch pioneering works show that ecologically

oriented criticism is not a new phenomenon but, like the literature it

analyzes, is a response to the urgent issues of the day. s critics have

pointed out, one of the reasons that ecocriticism continues to grow as a

discipline is the continued global environmental crisis. Ecocriticism aims to

show how the work of writers concerned about the environment can play

some part in solving real and pressing ecological concerns.

6epresentative Works

Bohn Bames udubon

4rnithological iography non7ction ;A 9"

Catthew rnold


34/176

#a+e Ro2in essays ;:

irds and ,oets essays ;::

%eorge %ordon, 'ord (yron


35/176

Frederick Mouglass

The "arrative of the Life of $rederic+ 0ouglass! An American Slave

autobiography ;9N

6alph Waldo Emerson

"ature non7ction ;A=

< Lhe Uoung mericanH lecture ;99

Lhomas &ardy

$ar from the )adding Cro d novel ;:9

The Return of the "ative novel ;:;

The )ayor of Caster2ridge novel ;;=

Tess of the 0?&r2ervilles novel ;!

=ude the 42scure novel ;!

Iathaniel &awthorne

The Scarlet Letter novel ;N"

The lithedale Romance novel ;N8

Bohn Jeats


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Bohn Cuir

The )ountains of California non7ction ;!9

Bames Jirke Qaulding

The ac+ oodsman novel ; ;

Bohn 6uskin

)odern ,ainters criticism ;9A

The Eagle?s "est: Ten Lectures on "atural Science to Art: (iven at 4xford

in 78@ lectures ;:8

The Storm Cloud of the "ineteenth Century non7ction ;;9

Qercy +helley


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Cark Lwain

Roughing It novel ;:8

The Adventures of 'uc+le2erry $inn novel ;;N

%ilbert White

"atural 'istory of Sel2orne non7ction :;!

Walt Whitman

Specimen 0ays non7ction ;;8

le4ander Wilson

American 4rnithologyB or The "atural 'istory of irds of the &nited

States. ! vols. non7ction ;"; 9

William Wordsworth

Lyrical allads poetry :!;The Excursion poetry ; 9

The ,relude poetry ;N"

$riticism# 5verviews

Jarl Jroeber essay date !!9

+cott 6ussell +anders essay date !!=

Mavid Cazel essay date 8""

$riticism# merican 'iterature# 6omantics nd 6ealists

Bames 6ussell 'owell essay date ;=N

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Fannie Eckstorm essay date !";

'ewis Cumford essay date !8=

&enry Iash +mith essay date !N"

Qerry Ciller lecture date !NA

'eo Car4 essay date !=9

Wilson 5. $lough essay date !=9

6oderick Iash essay date !=:

Banice (. Maniel essay date Mecember !!A

Maniel B. Qhilippon essay date !!;

Cichael (ennett essay date 8""

$riticism# merican E4plorers nd Iaturalists

Qaul (rooks essay date !;"

Cichael (ranch essay date !!=

$hris (eyers essay date !!;

Mavid Cazel essay date 8"""

6ick Ran Ioy essay date 8""8

$riticism# English 'iterature# 6omantics nd Rictorians

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Bonathan (ate essay date !!

6obert Qogue &arrison essay date !!8

Jarl Jroeber essay date !!9

6ichard Jerridge essay date 8""

6alph Qite essay date 8""8

Bohn Qarham essay date 8""8

Further 6eading

",+*+"+S

pplewhite, Bames. Seas and Inland =ourneys: Landscape and

Consciousness from #ords orth to Roeth+e. thens# *niversity of %eorgiaQress, !;N, 8A= p.

Attempts to evaluate the relationship 2et een nineteenth century

Romantic texts and important literary or+s of the t entieth century!

focusing on the su2 ective experience of landscape.

rd, Qatricia C.


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http#>>www.enotes.com>topics>ecocriticism-and-nineteenth-century-

literature

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W A* +S E"'%",+*+"+S -

by Thomas K. Dean

Eco-criticism is a study of culture and cultural products art works,

writings, scienti7c theories, etc. that is in some way connected with the

human relationship to the natural world. Eco-criticism is also a response to

needs, problems, or crises, depending on oneDs perception of urgency.

First, eco-criticism is a response to the need for humanistic understanding

of our relationships with the natural world in an age of environmental

destruction. )n large part, environmental crises are a result of humanityDs

disconnection from the natural world, brought about not only by

increasing technology but also by particularization that is, a mentality of

specialization that fails to recognize the interconnectedness of all things.

)n terms of the academy, eco-criticism is thus a response to scholarly

specialization that has gone out of control eco-criticism seeks to reattachscholars to each other and scholarship to the real concerns of the world.

)nherently, then, eco-criticism is interdisciplinary. )n order to

understand the connectedness of all things--including the life of the mind

and the life of the earth--one must reconnect the disciplines that have

become sundered through over-specialization. )nherent in the idea of

interdisciplinarity is the wholistic ideal. Lherefore, eco-criticism must

remain 3a big tent3--comprehensiveness of perspectives must be

encouraged and honored. ll eco-critical e?orts are pieces of a

comprehensive continuum. Eco-critical approaches, thus, can be

theoretical, historical, pedagogical, analytical, psychological, rhetorical,

and on and on, including combinations of the above.


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s a response to felt needs and real crises, and as an inherently

wholistic practice, eco-criticism also has an inherent ideological if

not moral component. wholistic view of the universe is a value-centered

one that honors the interconnectedness of things. s the

interconnectedness of things is valued, so too is the integrity of all things,

be they creatures of the earth, critical practices, spiritual beliefs, or ethnic

backgrounds. For e4ample, as eco-criticism invites all perspectives into its

tent in order to understand thehuman relationship to the universe, the

philosophies and understandings of di?erent ethnic groups will be shared

by all. Eco-criticism can be, for individuals who choose to make it so,

socially activist or even spiritual. While some may criticize eco-criticism

for being undisciplined because of such comprehensiveness, it is that very

wholistic view that marks it o? from the particularized critical approaches

of the past that have led to the types of disconnections that eco-criticismseeks to heal.

lthough eco-criticism can touch virtually any discipline, when it

translates into action, it generally comes back to its home ground--the

human relationship with the earth. Eco-criticism, then, can be, but need

not be, politically active, as it advocates for an understanding of the world

that works to heal the environmental wounds humans have in icted upon

it.

Thomas 6. 0ean! Cardinal Stritch College Dno at &niversity of Io a

http#>>www.asle.org>site>resources>ecocritical-

library>intro>de7ning>dean

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Ecocriticism

)ntroduction

Ecocriticism, also known as ecological or environmental literary

criticism, is an emerging sub7eld of English literature with merican

origins. )t is a diverse, interdisciplinary 7eld, drawing on disciplines such

as environmental studies, ecology and biology, philosophy, history,

sociology, and cultural studies. lthough most other humanities began to

develop environmental sub7elds in the !:"s, ecocriticism did not

become a recognized 7eld until the !!"s.

Mespite ecocriticism s relatively late establishment, literary scholars

have long maintained an interest in nature. Early work now associated

with ecocriticism was initially categorized under headings such asmerican studies, regionalism, pastoralism, the frontier, human ecology,

science and literature, and landscape in literature %lotfelty, !!= . Early

critics were generally unaware of others working on similar topics and

created their own environmental approaches to the study of literature

%lotfelty, !!= . &owever, in !;!, licia Iitecki founded the merican

Iature Writing Iewsletter, an initial e?ort to unite the 7eld %lotfelty,

!!= . *niversity English departments soon began to o?er programs in

environmental literature, and in !!", the 7rst academic position in

literature and the environment was created at the *niversity of Ievada,

6eno %lotfelty, !!= . )n !!8, the ssociation for the +tudy of 'iterature

and Environment +'E was founded, with +cott +lovic as its 7rst


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president. )n !!A, the 1ournal )nterdisciplinary +tudies in 'iterature and

Environment )+'E was founded by Qatrick Curphy and is now the main

1ournal for ecocritical publications. Ecocriticism soon began to be

recognized as a critical approach to the study of English literature

%lotfelty, !!=.

http#>>ecolit.pbworks.com>w>page> ;9!;;!=>)ntroduction

Me7ning the Field

Lhe most widely @uoted de7nition of ecocriticism was written by

$heryl %lotfelty in !!=. )t is intentionally broad and inclusive, de7ning

ecocriticism as


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)n The Comedy of Survival , written in !:8, Boseph Ceeker used the

term literary ecology, meaning


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concerns with ecocentric ones 'ove, !!" 6osendale, 8""8 . &e

advocates for three radical shifts in literary criticism# replacing the human-

centred canon with more nature-oriented te4ts using realism instead of

poststructuralism to evaluate nature in literature and replacing nationalist

perspectives with global, ecological perspectives 6osendale, 8""8 .

Furthermore, 'ove !!" argues that ecocriticism may be the best way to

counteract the growing obscurity of English literary study. 'ove s ideas are

still used in ecocritical studies today.

Lhese early works, and many others, have formed a foundation for

ecocritical study while also inspiring contemporary work. Loday,

ecocriticism asks basic @uestions such as#

• &ow is nature represented in this sonnetT

• What role does the physical setting play in the plot of this novelT

• re the values e4pressed in this play consistent with ecological

wisdomT

• &ow do our metaphors of the land in uence the way we treat itT

%lotfelty, !!=, p. 4viii-4i4

nd more environmentally-focused @uestions such as#

• )n what ways do highly evolved and self-aware beings relate to

natureT

• What roles do language, literature, and art play in this relationT


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• &ow have modernization and globalization processes transformed

itT

• )s it possible to return to more ecologically attuned ways of

inhabiting nature, and what would be the cultural prere@uisites for such a

changeT &eise, 8""=, p. N"9 .

+uch @uestions re ect only a small portion of the variety of in@uiry

taking place in ecocriticism. Mue to the diversity of the 7eld, it can often

be di cult to de7ne ecocritical work. Ecocritics have been careful to usebroad de7nitions, inclusive of many forms of work, so the 7eld has

become heterogeneous Estok, 8"": . Estok 8"": e4plains that some of

the meaning of the term ecocriticism may have been lost in this

e4pansion, as the 7eld has had trouble in de7ning its scope and goals and

is still seeking a central paradigm. Ecocriticism does not yet bring new

critical methods to the study of literature, but is instead united by a

common domain of in@uiry and often an activist approach (uell, 8""N

&eise, 8""= . Ecocritics draw on a variety of critical methods in literary

study, such as realism, constructivism, poststructuralism, and narrative

scholarship. +ome critics work in related areas such as ecofeminism, the

ecosublime, ecocomposition, ecopoetics, and deep ecology.

Cany scholars agree that a broad range of work can be included in

the 7eld, incorporating theory from diverse disciplines. Cost also agree

that an activist approach is important to ecocriticism. From simple

de7nitions such as


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science has a more indirect impact on ecocriticism, providing values and

ethics against which to evaluate te4ts but generally not providing critical

models (uell, 8""N &eise, 8""= . Ecocriticism now faces the challenge of

rede7ning the relationship between ecology and literature in the 7eld

&eise, 8""=.

t 7rst, the term environment represented only the natural

environment (uell, 8""N . Iature was viewed as separate from and

victim to humanity &eise, 8""= . Loday, however, the natural and urban

environments blend together as ecocritics consider the interplay of

anthropocentric and ecocentric issues (uell, 8""N . *rban environments

have increasingly become sub1ects of study in literature and ecocriticism

is now seen as both a product of modernization and a movement against

environmental degradation &eise, 8""= . Lhese trends are e4empli7ed in

the recent ecocritical interest in topics of environmental 1ustice, social and

racial ine@uality, globalization, and human e4posure to technological or

ecological risk &eise, 8""= . Furthermore, a poststructuralist approach to

ecocriticism has emerged, where the environment is e4amined as a

cultural construct &eise, 8""=.

Finally, (uell 8""N highlights four challenges for the future of

ecocriticism. Lhese include the


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'$ sections# Q+ NA

Ecocriticism 2 creating sel3 an/ place in environmental an/

American +n/ian literatures Q+ NA .)N8 M:9 8""8

Mreese, Monelle I. Monelle Iicole , !=;-

American +n/ian literature# environmental


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*he nature o3 cities 2 ecocriticism an/ ur an environments

Q+ =A .IA; !!!\

(ennett, Cichael, !=8-

,ea/ing the earth 2 ne6 /irections in the stu/y o3 literature

an/ environment Q+ =! .E8N 69A !!;\

(ranch, Cichael Q.

Writing the environment 2 ecocriticism an/ literature Q9;

.W:N !!;

Jerridge, 6ichard.

http#>>ecolit.pbworks.com>w>page> ;9!;;;!>(ooks

Encyclopedias

Cilne, . 8""N . Ecocriticism. )n C. %roden, C. Jreiswirth, S ).

+zeman Eds. , =ohns 'op+ins (uide to Literary Theory and Criticism .

6etrieved February 8;, 8"";,

from http#>>simplelink.library.utoronto.ca>url.cfm>="!=.

http#>>ecolit.pbworks.com>w>page> ;9!;;!A>Encyclopedias

Foundational Le4ts

Qage history last edited by 'isa Iowak N years ago

http://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page/18498889/Bookshttp://simplelink.library.utoronto.ca/url.cfm/6096http://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page/18498893/Encyclopediashttp://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page-revisions/18498894/Foundational%20Textshttp://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page/18498889/Bookshttp://simplelink.library.utoronto.ca/url.cfm/6096http://simplelink.library.utoronto.ca/url.cfm/6096http://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page/18498893/Encyclopediashttp://ecolit.pbworks.com/w/page-revisions/18498894/Foundational%20Texts


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Jolodny, . !:N . The lay of the land: )etaphor as experience and

history in American life and letters . $hapel &ill# *niversity of Iorth

$arolina Qress.

Jroeber, J. !!9 . Ecological literary criticism: Romantic imagining

and the 2iology of mind . Iew Uork# $olumbia *Q.

Car4, '. !=9 . The machine in the garden: Technology and the

pastoral ideal in America . Iew Uork# 54ford *Q.

Iash, 6. !:" . #ilderness and the American mind . Iew &aven, $L#

Uale *Q.

+mith, &. I. !:8 .


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(uell, '. !!= . The environmental imagination: Thoreau! nature

riting! and the formation of American culture . $ambridge, C # (elknap

Qress of &arvard *niversity Qress.

(uell, '. 8""N . The future of environmental criticism:

Environmental crisis and literary imagination . Calden, C # (lackwell.

Estok, +. $. 8"": . Lheory from the fringes# nimals, ecocriticism,

+hakespeare. )osaic! >G , = -:;.

%lotfelty, $. !!= . 'iterary studies in an age of environmental

crisis. )n $. %lotfelty S &. Fromm Eds. , The ecocriticism reader:

Landmar+s in literary ecology pp. 4v-444vii . thens, % # *niversity of

%eorgia Qress.

&eise, *. J. 8""= . Lhe hitchhiker s guide to ecocriticism. ,)LA!7 7 8 , N"A-N =.

'ove, %. . !!" . 6evaluing nature# Loward an ecological

criticism. #estern American Literature! H A , 8" -8 N.

Car4, '. !=9 . The machine in the garden: Technology and the

pastoral ideal in America . Iew Uork# 54ford *niversity Qress.

Cazel, M. Ed. . 8"" . A century of early ecocriticism . thens, % #

*niversity of %eorgia Qress.

Ceeker, B. W. !:8 . The comedy of survival: Studies in literary

ecology . Iew Uork# +cribner.


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6osendale, +. Ed. . 8""8 . The greening of literary scholarship:

Literature! theory! and the environment . )owa $ity# *niversity of )owa

Qress.

6ueckert, W. !!= . 'iterature and ecology# n e4periment in

ecocriticism. )n $. %lotfelty S &. Fromm Eds. , The ecocriticism reader:

Landmar+s in literary ecology pp. "N- 8A . thens, % # *niversity of

%eorgia Qress.

Williams, 6. !:A . The country and the city . Iew Uork# 54ford

*niversity Qress.

dditional Works $onsulted

rmbruster, J., S Wallace, J. 6. Eds. . 8"" . eyond nature

riting: Expanding the 2oundaries of ecocriticism . $harlottesville#

*niversity Qress of Rirginia.

Estok, +. $. 8""N . (ridging the great divide# Ecocritical theory and

the great unwashed. English Studies in Canada! F7 9 , !:-8"!.

Qarham, B. Ed. . 8""8 . The environmental tradition in English

literature . &ampshire, *J# shgate.


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6ozelle, '. 8""= . Ecosu2lime: Environmental a e and terror from

ne orld to odd orld . Luscaloosa, '# *niversity of labama Qress.

Lallmadge, B. S &arrington, &. Eds. . 8""" . Reading under the sign

of nature: "e essays in ecocriticism . +alt 'ake $ity# *niversity of *tah

Qress.

http#>>ecolit.pbworks.com>w>page> ;9!;!"9>Works[8"$ited

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frican literature has responded to the views e4pressed by $onradDs

male characters, from whose perspective $onrad presents the story in

order to mock imperialists.

frican te4ts, ranging from $hinua chebeDs Lhings Fall part to

Kakes CdaDs &eart of 6edness, have attempted to valorise the 3forest3 as

a possible site of development which didnDt hear about civilisation for the

7rst time from the urbanised West.

+ince the publication of William 6ueckertDs !:; essay 3'iterature

and Ecology3, eco-criticism has emerged as one of the fresh ways of

e4plaining the nature and function of art. lso called the 3green theory3,

eco-criticism entered rural universities in merica in the !;"s and in

(ritain in the !!"s. (ut it remains, like forests, in the margins of

mainstream literary theory. )t is rarely practised consciously in the frican

academy, although e4pressions like 3manDs struggle with theenvironment3 are often heard in literary essays.

)n the West, eco-criticism focuses mainly on the !th century

literature which celebrated nature and wildness. )n frica, it would be

more energetic because most of the literature has a rural setting or a

degenerate urban background that e4presses a longing for the lost rural

peace.

)t is no accident that the most widely read frican te4t, chebeDs

Lhings Fall part, is set in a village called *muo7a which is the )gbo word

for 3children of the forest3.

36eversing $onradDs male charactersD view of the frican forest as a

site of death,3 Lhings Fall part typi7es frican village life and its richness


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as an organic self-sustaining forest which has almost everything that the

West - in its arrogance - claims to have come to introduce.

)n the forests of *muo7a, there is a system of education, a rich

philosophy, and sophisticated art, not to mention a comple4 religion

and medical practice.

+imilarly, the clarity of symbolism around which the main con ict is

built in Igugi wa LhiongDoDs Lhe 6iver (etween, another frican classic,

resides in the way the author opens the narrative with a meticulous

observation of the topography as he painstakingly describes Cakuyu and

Jameno ridges and valleys.

)ncidentally, even the most 1ocular of frican art e4presses this

deep interaction between literary imagination and the natural world. Lo

give but one simple e4ample, despite the vulgarity in WakimbiziDs song

3Bohn3, the playful panegyric praise song to male genitals that seem tohave run away from duty indicates frican respect for forests. )n the song,

the enigmatic 3Bohn3 is pre7gured as the toast of womenfolk who hides in

a mysterious 3msitu3 forest>bush .

Lhrough se4ual overtones, the Wakimbizi trio of Cr Filter &enry

Casheti , Cariko Corris Casheti and ndre ndrew Cbogo present the

forest as the 7gurative site upon which self-protection, human

regeneration and most intense bodily pleasures are likely to occur.

Core profound than WakimbiziDs e4ercise in se4ual references is a

richer body of frican verse that weaves the natural environment into its

themes to enhance the cognitive and political value of images of frican

natural environment.


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)n her writing, Kimbabwean poet Jristina 6ungano invokes the

environment in the form of grass, trees, butter ies, and the weather to

comment on political and social issues facing her nation and underline the

possibilities of the end of the prevailing confusion.

Written from a womanDs perspective unlike WakimbiziDs male-

centred 3Bohn3, 6unganoDs verse is loaded with images of the life-giving

powers of nature which intersect with the resilience of the frican woman

to widen human possibilities. Lhe poet comple4ly con ates the beauties of

nature and the @ualities of male and female love, to underline nature as

regenerative.

)n a collection of poetry entitled +torm is (rewing, 6ungano

deploys images of turmoil succeeded by serenity and bounties from

nature to underline that the frican environment wouldnDt harm us despite

the enigma that it generates.)n the poem 3 fter the 6ain3, 6ungano captures a moment of

triumph in the afternoon sun after a storm. We see the ourish of nature

as 3leaves bristled in the woods3 the earlier deaths are replaced by

peace, and images of 3virgin clouds3 replace the gloom that ruled life 1ust

hours earlier. &uman life still seems to fear the world because of the

tumult of the past, but the poem foresees absolute peace as people

anticipate 3the same familiar beautiful Kimbabwe3 where nature

symbolised by lightning is tame and friendly.

)n the poem 3Lhis Corning3, 6ungano presents a female persona

recalling a moment of love with the cosmos Mynamo, the ruler of the

night who is personi7ed as a potent man. Lhe speaker longs for that


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moment when she is interlocked with the life-giving forces of the

environment in complete harmony. s presented in the poem, nature is

caring in this act of the coupleDs bodily pleasure. 35 gentle breeze> o

7re ies that hovered over our nest in protective harmony.3 Lhe whole

universe re1oices their love, as 3 owers, the grass, even the little shrubs

bloom3 to mark the union of the persona with the enchanting powers of

the environment.

(eyond love and romance, the frican environment is political. )f

forests served as the sanctuaries for freedom 7ghters, nature itself

seemed to presage and support armed struggle. 'iberation frican poetry

invokes nature to foreshadow the revolution that would rock the continent

when the oppressed rise up in arms against the oppressor. Caria Canuela

Cargarido from +ao Lome, where the Qortuguese army and a band of

white settlers massacred innocent people in February !NA, uses sharpimages drawn from nature to show the environment as sympathetic with

the 7ght for human rights. Lhe land 1oins in the passionate condemnation

of colonial atrocities. )n the poem 3'andscape3, she presents parrots that

3e4plode3 as they y. We e4perience 7gures of 3tornados3 3ploughing the

sky with mad>plumes3. Lhese symbols drawn from the environment

e4press the anguish of the people struggling against colonialism.

Uet, frican literature doesnDt blindly celebrate the forests. Lhe

forests can be a source of death and impotence if used inappropriately.

When 'awino choli for 3woman3 in 5kot pD(itekDs +ong of 'awino

laments that her husbandDs house is 3a dark forest of books3, the

metaphor of the forest is un attering because the books, symbols of


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('*E+ )I L&E %6EEI# E$5$6)L)$)+C *IME6 $6)L)Z*E

2y )ichael ,. Cohen

Environmental 'istory !. Ban. 8""9 # !-A=.

+tandinD at the crossroads, risinD sun goinD down

. . .got the crossroad blues this morninD, 'ord, baby )Dm sinkinD down

--6obert Bohnson

EIR)65ICEIL ' &)+L56) I+ and ecocritics2scholars who combine

literary and historical criticism of te4ts about nature2share common

roots. Cany writers who later would call themselves environmental

historians or ecocritics began by reading a few books after World War ))

that opened both of these traditions of in@uiry. Mirected toward historians

and literary critics, these books pursued, simultaneously, a history and

criti@ue of merican ideas of the West.

Environmental historian Bohn 5pie traces his academic interest to

the intellectual historian, Qerry Ciller. ) trace my interest in ecocriticism

also to intellectual historians. 5ut of &enry Iash +mithDs Rirgin 'and

!N" , came an awareness of the disparity between the imagined,

symbolic West and the actualities, the limits of environmental factors. 5ut

of 'eo Car4Ds Lhe Cachine in the %arden !=9 , came the premise that

a culture sees its land according to its desires, and this is worked out by

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6ather than de7ning ecocriticism at the 7rst meeting of English :9N#

+eminar in Ecocriticism and Lheory2the re@uired methods course for

students concentrating on literature and environment at the *niversity of

Ievada, 6eno2) ask several very basic @uestions#

What do ecocritics readT

&ow do ecocritics readT

What are the grounds of their methodsT

Where do they ac@uire authorityT

&ow do they writeT

What contributions do they hope to makeT

&ow do they accept criti@ues of their methodsT

) belabor these basics because entering into critical controversy

re@uires understanding where positions come from. %erald %ra? calls thistechni@ue 3learning by controversy3 and says it may o?er a partial

solution to the 3angrily polarized debates of our time.3 &e hopes this

strategy may become 3a model of how the @uality of cultural debate in our

society might be improved.3 N ) am hoping that ecocriticism will learn by

controversy.

+o ) claim that ecocriticism is not immune from the contemporary

arguments about culture. ) gloss ethical in@uiry with the work of %eo?rey

%alt &arpham. = Ethics does not give answers easily, as &arpham points

out we must build an ethical criticism as a site where we think. 3Ethics is,

rather, the point at which literature intersects with theory, the point at


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which literature becomes conceptually interesting and theory becomes

humanized.3 $onse@uently, 3Ethics does not solve problems, it structures

them.3 : (y de7nition, or at least by etymology, ecocritical theory

structures discussions of environmental literature, drawing upon science,

history, and philosophy, while criti@uing these sources. 5therwise,

ecocriticism would become a place where literature meets popular

pre1udice and would have little more than sociological interest as the

une4amined views of literature professors who are also amateur

environmentalists.

Personal ,oots2 *he E;ample o3 .len Love

W&EI %'EI '5RE, professor of English at the *niversity of 5regon,

considers how he became a professional ecocritic, he recalls two books

that in uenced him in the early !="s# 'eo Car4Ds Lhe Cachine in the%arden !=9 and 6achel $arsonDs best selling +ilent +pring !=8 . 'ove

was frightened by the prophetic parable $arson introduced, that 3Lhe

Qeople had done it to themselves,3 but he also was dismayed by Car4,

who sounded 3a decidedly premature epitaph for the place of nature in

merican thought and culture ... )n the dying fall with which Car4Ds book

closes, the old pastoral idea is described as Dstripped ... of most, if not all,

of its meaning,D a victim of the ine4orable Dreality of history.D3 ;

'ove thought Car4 3surely correct in delineating so memorably the

increasing domination of machine civilization in merica.3 (ut Car4

announced the end of nature $arson caught something deeper, 3the


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biologist $arson or ecologist ldo 'eopold, but by a tradition of merican

literary studies that includes Car4, &enry Iash +mith, and 6oderick Iash.

Car4 himself inherited the pastoral as part of a discourse where there are

poles along a linear array of possible landscapes, from wilderness to

garden. Car4 pro1ected these as ideological positions from which speakers

emerged. For us these have become speakers from wilderness to

civilization, or alternately from nature to culture as understood in political

terms, from preservation to conservation or in philosophical terms, from

biocentric or ecocentric to anthropocentric or as inherited from Frederick

Backson Lurner, from the West to the East.

Ecocriticism has been de7ned as the work of scholars who 3would

rather be hiking.3 )t grasped the language of Lhoreau, especially as

invented in 3Walking,3 to speak for nature, wildness, and the West, while

con ating these terms. 8 Ecocriticism found its position by con ating

languages near the wild, natural, biocentric, and western pole. 'ike the

voice in 3Walking,3 it found a position and a relation to an urban audience.

Lopical considerations of gender, race, class, and ethnicity have 74ed

themselves as positions within the design space, or, dare ) say,

ecocriticismDs inherited cultural construction. A *ntil recently, ecocriticism

did not consider that other lines of reasoning would cross, and confront,

its inherited interests.

Cany ecocritics have imagined also the evolution of the landscapes

they represent as having gone from nature to culture on a one-way path,

3to hell in a hand basket,3 as Mave Foreman, chief founder of Earth FirstY


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would put it. Cind you, this tra1ectory may or may not be the true path of

historyY Cy point is that it is an in uential position within ecocriticism. Lo

dismiss it as declensionist or apocalyptic may be simplistic, given the

state of the world. Ecocriticism certainly sings something like the blues#

3Cy baby left me and run all over town ... 5h come back please3...

%len 'oveDs reminiscence reveals a ma1or challenge for ecocriticism,

its ability to adhere to a social and political program while accepting

a criti@ue of the way it structures ethical issues. point ) take from his

recognition of the importance of Car4 is the simultaneity of the

appearance of modern even if nostalgic preservation proposals, for wild

and>or pastoral landscapes, with criti@ues of the ideologies behind these

proposals, and vice-ver

ecocriticism - diff sources

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