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Early Civilizations of Early Civilizations of India and PakistanIndia and Pakistan

Focus Question Focus Question How have scholars learned about How have scholars learned about

India’s first two civilizations, the Indus India’s first two civilizations, the Indus and the Aryan?and the Aryan?

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In the early 1900s, archaeologists digging in the Indus River valley of In the early 1900s, archaeologists digging in the Indus River valley of Pakistan made some startling discoveries. They unearthed bricks, small Pakistan made some startling discoveries. They unearthed bricks, small clay seals, figurines, and other artifacts dissimilar in style to any they had clay seals, figurines, and other artifacts dissimilar in style to any they had seen before. The archaeologists soon realized they had uncovered a seen before. The archaeologists soon realized they had uncovered a civilization that had flourished 4,500 years earlier. It had been unknown to civilization that had flourished 4,500 years earlier. It had been unknown to the world ever since.the world ever since.

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Geography of the Indian Geography of the Indian Subcontinent Subcontinent

The Indus Valley The Indus Valley is located in the is located in the region known as region known as South Asia, or South Asia, or the Indian the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent. A subcontinentsubcontinent is is a large landmass a large landmass that juts out from that juts out from a continent. The a continent. The Indian Indian subcontinent is a subcontinent is a huge peninsula huge peninsula extending into extending into the Indian Ocean the Indian Ocean

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Today, it includes Today, it includes three of the three of the world’s ten most world’s ten most populous populous countries—India, countries—India, Pakistan, and Pakistan, and Bangladesh—as Bangladesh—as well as the island well as the island nation of Sri Lanka nation of Sri Lanka (sree (sree lahnglahng kuh) kuh) and the mountain and the mountain nations of Nepal nations of Nepal and Bhutan and Bhutan

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Towering, snow-covered mountain ranges mark the northern border of the Towering, snow-covered mountain ranges mark the northern border of the subcontinent, including the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. These mountains limited subcontinent, including the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. These mountains limited contacts with other lands, leaving India’s distinct culture to develop on its own. contacts with other lands, leaving India’s distinct culture to develop on its own. However, the mountains were not a complete barrier. Steep passes through the Hindu However, the mountains were not a complete barrier. Steep passes through the Hindu Kush served as gateways to migrating and invading peoples for thousands of years.Kush served as gateways to migrating and invading peoples for thousands of years.

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The Indian subcontinent is divided into three major zones: the The Indian subcontinent is divided into three major zones: the fertile Gangetic Plain in the north, the dry Deccan plateau, and fertile Gangetic Plain in the north, the dry Deccan plateau, and the coastal plains on either side of the Deccan the coastal plains on either side of the Deccan

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The Gangetic Plain lies just south of the Himalayas. This fertile region is The Gangetic Plain lies just south of the Himalayas. This fertile region is watered by mighty rivers: the Indus, which gives India its name, the Ganges watered by mighty rivers: the Indus, which gives India its name, the Ganges ((gangan jeez), and the Brahmaputra (brah muh jeez), and the Brahmaputra (brah muh poopoo truh). These rivers and truh). These rivers and their tributaries carry melting snow from the mountains to the plains, making their tributaries carry melting snow from the mountains to the plains, making agriculture possible.agriculture possible.

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The Deccan is a The Deccan is a plateauplateau, or raised area of level land, , or raised area of level land, that juts into the Indian Ocean. Much of it lacks the that juts into the Indian Ocean. Much of it lacks the melting snows that feed the rivers of the north and melting snows that feed the rivers of the north and provide water for irrigation. As a result, parts are arid, provide water for irrigation. As a result, parts are arid, agriculturally unproductive, and sparsely populated agriculturally unproductive, and sparsely populated

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The coastal plains are separated from the Deccan by low-lying mountain The coastal plains are separated from the Deccan by low-lying mountain ranges, the Eastern and Western Ghats. Rivers and heavy seasonal rains ranges, the Eastern and Western Ghats. Rivers and heavy seasonal rains provide water for farmers. Also, from very early times, people in this region provide water for farmers. Also, from very early times, people in this region used the seas for fishing and as highways for trade.used the seas for fishing and as highways for trade.

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Monsoons Affect Climate Monsoons Affect Climate

A defining feature of life in the Indian subcontinent is the A defining feature of life in the Indian subcontinent is the monsoonsmonsoons, or seasonal , or seasonal winds that regularly blow from a certain direction for part of the year. In October, the winds that regularly blow from a certain direction for part of the year. In October, the winter monsoons blow from the northeast, bringing hot, dry air that withers crops. In winter monsoons blow from the northeast, bringing hot, dry air that withers crops. In mid-June, the summer monsoons blow from the southwest. They pick up moisture mid-June, the summer monsoons blow from the southwest. They pick up moisture over the Indian Ocean and drench the land with downpours over the Indian Ocean and drench the land with downpours

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The monsoons have shaped Indian life. Each The monsoons have shaped Indian life. Each year, people welcome the rains that are year, people welcome the rains that are desperately needed to water the crops. If the desperately needed to water the crops. If the rains are late, famine and starvation may rains are late, famine and starvation may occur. However, if the rains are too heavy, occur. However, if the rains are too heavy, rushing rivers will unleash deadly floods.rushing rivers will unleash deadly floods.

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How has geography How has geography affected where affected where people live in the people live in the Indian Indian subcontinent?subcontinent?

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Indus Indus Civilization Civilization

Rises and Falls Rises and Falls About 2600 B.C., the About 2600 B.C., the

earliest South Asian earliest South Asian civilization emerged in the civilization emerged in the

Indus River valley, in Indus River valley, in present-day Pakistan. present-day Pakistan. The Indus civilization The Indus civilization

flourished for about 700 flourished for about 700 years. However, only years. However, only

since the 1920s have its since the 1920s have its once-prosperous cities once-prosperous cities emerged beneath the emerged beneath the

archaeologists’ picks and archaeologists’ picks and shovels shovels

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Archaeologists have investigated numerous Indus sites. Unfortunately, Archaeologists have investigated numerous Indus sites. Unfortunately, they have not yet turned up any names of kings or queens, tax records, they have not yet turned up any names of kings or queens, tax records, literature, or accounts of famous victories. The written remains of Indus literature, or accounts of famous victories. The written remains of Indus civilization are found only rarely, usually on small clay seals that do not civilization are found only rarely, usually on small clay seals that do not include any long passages include any long passages

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Still, we do know that the Still, we do know that the Indus Valley civilization Indus Valley civilization covered the largest area covered the largest area of any civilization until the of any civilization until the rise of Persia more than rise of Persia more than 1,000 years later. We 1,000 years later. We know, too, that its cities know, too, that its cities rivaled those of Sumer. rivaled those of Sumer.

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Well-Planned Cities Reveal Organized GovernmentWell-Planned Cities Reveal Organized Government

Archaeologists’ investigations in recent years have led them to believe that at least Archaeologists’ investigations in recent years have led them to believe that at least five large cities may have been prominent during the course of the civilization’s five large cities may have been prominent during the course of the civilization’s history. A few hundred smaller sites have also been studied. Since their discovery history. A few hundred smaller sites have also been studied. Since their discovery in the 1920s, the Indus cities of in the 1920s, the Indus cities of HarappaHarappa and and Mohenjo-DaroMohenjo-Daro (moh (moh henhen joh joh dahdah roh) have been considered possible twin capitals of the civilization or cities that roh) have been considered possible twin capitals of the civilization or cities that ruled the area one after the otherruled the area one after the other

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Both were large, some three miles in circumference. Each was dominated Both were large, some three miles in circumference. Each was dominated by a massive hilltop structure whose exact purpose is unknown. Each city by a massive hilltop structure whose exact purpose is unknown. Each city also included a huge warehouse used for storage. also included a huge warehouse used for storage.

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A notable feature of A notable feature of Mohenjo-Daro and Mohenjo-Daro and a few smaller sites a few smaller sites is how carefully is how carefully planned they were. planned they were. Mohenjo-Daro was Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in an laid out in an organized pattern, organized pattern, with long, wide with long, wide main streets and main streets and large rectangular large rectangular blocks. Most of its blocks. Most of its houses were built houses were built with baked clay with baked clay bricks of a standard bricks of a standard size size

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At Harappa and other Indus sites, mud and unbaked bricks were also At Harappa and other Indus sites, mud and unbaked bricks were also common building materials. In addition, Indus houses had complex plumbing common building materials. In addition, Indus houses had complex plumbing systems, with baths, drains, and water chutes that led into sewers beneath systems, with baths, drains, and water chutes that led into sewers beneath the streets. Indus merchants used a uniform system of weights and the streets. Indus merchants used a uniform system of weights and measures. From such evidence, archaeologists have concluded that these measures. From such evidence, archaeologists have concluded that these Indus cities had a well-organized government. Indus cities had a well-organized government.

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Making a Living Making a Living by Farming and by Farming and

Trading Trading As in other early As in other early

civilizations, most people civilizations, most people living in the Indus living in the Indus civilization were farmers. civilization were farmers. They grew a wide variety They grew a wide variety of crops, including wheat, of crops, including wheat, barley, melons, and barley, melons, and dates. They also may dates. They also may have been the first people have been the first people to cultivate cotton and to cultivate cotton and weave its fibers into cloth.weave its fibers into cloth.

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Some people were merchants Some people were merchants and traders. Their ships and traders. Their ships carried cargoes of cotton cloth, carried cargoes of cotton cloth, grain, copper, pearls, and ivory grain, copper, pearls, and ivory combs to distant lands. By combs to distant lands. By hugging the coast of the hugging the coast of the Arabian Sea and sailing up the Arabian Sea and sailing up the Persian Gulf, Indus vessels Persian Gulf, Indus vessels reached the cities of Sumer. reached the cities of Sumer.

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Scholars think that this contact with Sumer may have prompted Scholars think that this contact with Sumer may have prompted the people of the Indus Valley to develop their own system of the people of the Indus Valley to develop their own system of writing; however, the Indus writing system is unique, showing writing; however, the Indus writing system is unique, showing no relationship to Sumerian cuneiform no relationship to Sumerian cuneiform

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Religious Beliefs Develop Religious Beliefs Develop From clues such as statues and images on small clay seals, From clues such as statues and images on small clay seals,

archaeologists have speculated about the religious beliefs of archaeologists have speculated about the religious beliefs of Indus Valley people. Many think that, like other ancient peoples, Indus Valley people. Many think that, like other ancient peoples, the people of the Indus were polytheistic. A mother goddess, the people of the Indus were polytheistic. A mother goddess, the source of creation, seems to have been widely honored, as the source of creation, seems to have been widely honored, as perhaps was a leading male god. perhaps was a leading male god.

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Indus people also seem to have viewed certain animals as Indus people also seem to have viewed certain animals as sacred, including the buffalo and the bull. Some scholars think sacred, including the buffalo and the bull. Some scholars think these early practices influenced later Indian beliefs, especially these early practices influenced later Indian beliefs, especially the the venerationveneration of, or special regard for, cattle. of, or special regard for, cattle.

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Indus Indus Civilization Civilization Declines Declines

By 1900 B.C., the quality By 1900 B.C., the quality of life in the Indus Valley of life in the Indus Valley was declining. Crude was declining. Crude pottery replaced the finer pottery replaced the finer works of earlier days. The works of earlier days. The use of writing halted. use of writing halted. Mohenjo-Daro was Mohenjo-Daro was entirely abandoned. The entirely abandoned. The populations of the other populations of the other Indus cities and towns Indus cities and towns also dwindled to small also dwindled to small numbers numbers

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Scholars do not know for sure what happened to the Indus Scholars do not know for sure what happened to the Indus civilization, but they have offered several explanations for its civilization, but they have offered several explanations for its decline. They once thought that invaders attacked and overran decline. They once thought that invaders attacked and overran the cities of the Indus, but this now seems unlikely. Some the cities of the Indus, but this now seems unlikely. Some suggest that damage to the local environment was a factor suggest that damage to the local environment was a factor

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Possibly too many trees were cut down to fuel the ovens of brick makers. Possibly too many trees were cut down to fuel the ovens of brick makers. Tons of river mud found in the streets of Mohenjo-Daro suggest a major Tons of river mud found in the streets of Mohenjo-Daro suggest a major flood. Other evidence points to a devastating earthquake. Today scholars flood. Other evidence points to a devastating earthquake. Today scholars think that some of these events may have worked together to bring an end think that some of these events may have worked together to bring an end to Indus civilization. to Indus civilization.

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What evidence What evidence shows that Indus shows that Indus civilization included civilization included a well-organized a well-organized government?government?

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Aryan Civilization Develops During Aryan Civilization Develops During the Vedic Age the Vedic Age

Possibly before 2000 B.C. and certainly by 1500 B.C., a nomadic people Possibly before 2000 B.C. and certainly by 1500 B.C., a nomadic people called the Aryans arrived in the Indian subcontinent. Over many centuries, called the Aryans arrived in the Indian subcontinent. Over many centuries, waves of Aryans had been migrating slowly with their herds of cattle and waves of Aryans had been migrating slowly with their herds of cattle and

horses from what is now southern Russia. They traveled through the mountain horses from what is now southern Russia. They traveled through the mountain passes into northwestern India and became the founders of a new civilization passes into northwestern India and became the founders of a new civilization

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Aryans Migrate Into India Aryans Migrate Into India The Aryans were one of The Aryans were one of

many groups of many groups of speakers of Indo-speakers of Indo-European languages European languages who migrated across who migrated across Europe and Asia. The Europe and Asia. The early Aryans who early Aryans who settled in India built no settled in India built no cities and left behind cities and left behind very little archaeological very little archaeological evidence. Most of what evidence. Most of what we know about them we know about them comes from the comes from the VedasVedas, , a collection of hymns, a collection of hymns, chants, ritual chants, ritual instructions, and other instructions, and other religious teachings. religious teachings.

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Aryan priests Aryan priests memorized and memorized and recited the Vedas for recited the Vedas for a thousand years a thousand years before they ever before they ever wrote down these wrote down these sacred teachings. As sacred teachings. As a result, the period a result, the period from 1500 B.C. to 500 from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. is often called B.C. is often called the Vedic Age. the Vedic Age.

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In the Vedas, the Aryans appear as warriors who fought in chariots with In the Vedas, the Aryans appear as warriors who fought in chariots with bows and arrows. They loved food, drink, music, chariot races, and dice bows and arrows. They loved food, drink, music, chariot races, and dice games. These nomadic herders valued cattle, which provided them with games. These nomadic herders valued cattle, which provided them with food and clothing. Later, when they became settled farmers, families food and clothing. Later, when they became settled farmers, families continued to measure their wealth in cows and bulls continued to measure their wealth in cows and bulls

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From Nomadic Life to Farming From Nomadic Life to Farming As time passed, the Aryans mingled with the people they conquered. As time passed, the Aryans mingled with the people they conquered.

Gradually, they gave up their nomadic ways and settled into villages Gradually, they gave up their nomadic ways and settled into villages to cultivate crops and breed cattle. From the local people, the Aryans to cultivate crops and breed cattle. From the local people, the Aryans learned farming and other skills as well as new crafts learned farming and other skills as well as new crafts

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In time, the Aryans spread eastward to colonize the In time, the Aryans spread eastward to colonize the heavily forested Ganges basin. By about 800 B.C., heavily forested Ganges basin. By about 800 B.C., they learned to make tools out of iron. Equipped with they learned to make tools out of iron. Equipped with iron axes and weapons, restless pioneers carved iron axes and weapons, restless pioneers carved farms and villages out of the rain forests of the farms and villages out of the rain forests of the northeast.northeast.

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Aryan tribes were led Aryan tribes were led by chiefs who were by chiefs who were called called rajahsrajahs. A rajah . A rajah who was often the who was often the most skilled war most skilled war leader, had been leader, had been elected to his position elected to his position by an assembly of by an assembly of warriors. As he ruled, warriors. As he ruled, he considered the he considered the advice of a council of advice of a council of elders made up of the elders made up of the heads of familiesheads of families

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Rajahs often fought Rajahs often fought with one another to with one another to control trade and control trade and territory across the territory across the Gangetic Plain. Some Gangetic Plain. Some rajahs became rajahs became powerful hereditary powerful hereditary rulers, extending their rulers, extending their influence over many influence over many villages. villages.

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Aryans Structure Society Aryans Structure Society From the Vedas, we learn that the Aryans divided their society From the Vedas, we learn that the Aryans divided their society

into ranked groups based on occupation. The highest group into ranked groups based on occupation. The highest group was made up of the Brahmins, or priests. Next came the was made up of the Brahmins, or priests. Next came the Kshatriyas (kuh Kshatriyas (kuh shatshat ree yuhz), or warriors. The third group, the ree yuhz), or warriors. The third group, the Vaisyas (Vaisyas (vysvys yuz), included herders, farmers, artisans, and yuz), included herders, farmers, artisans, and merchants. merchants.

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The Aryans separated The Aryans separated people who had little or people who had little or no Aryan heritage into a no Aryan heritage into a fourth group, the Sudras fourth group, the Sudras ((soosoo druz). This group druz). This group included farmworkers, included farmworkers, servants, and other servants, and other laborers who occupied laborers who occupied the lowest level of the lowest level of society. Many of them society. Many of them were Dravidians, the were Dravidians, the Indian people whom the Indian people whom the Aryans had conquered. Aryans had conquered.

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Aryan Religious Beliefs Develop Aryan Religious Beliefs Develop The Aryans were The Aryans were

polytheistic. They polytheistic. They worshiped gods and worshiped gods and goddesses who goddesses who embodiedembodied natural forces natural forces such as sky, sun, storm, such as sky, sun, storm, and fire. The chief Aryan and fire. The chief Aryan deity was fierce deity was fierce IndraIndra, the , the god of war. Indra’s god of war. Indra’s weapon was the weapon was the thunderbolt, which he thunderbolt, which he used not only to destroy used not only to destroy demons but also to demons but also to announce the arrival of announce the arrival of rain, so vital to Indian life. rain, so vital to Indian life.

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Other major gods Other major gods included Varuna, the god included Varuna, the god of order and creation, of order and creation, and Agni, the god of fire and Agni, the god of fire and the messenger who and the messenger who communicated human communicated human wishes to the gods. The wishes to the gods. The Aryans also honored Aryans also honored animal deities, such as animal deities, such as monkey and snake gods monkey and snake gods

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Brahmins offered Brahmins offered sacrifices of food sacrifices of food and drink to the and drink to the gods. Through gods. Through the correct rituals the correct rituals and prayers, the and prayers, the Aryans believed, Aryans believed, they could call on they could call on the gods for the gods for health, wealth, health, wealth, and victory in and victory in war.war.

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As the lives of the As the lives of the Aryans changed, Aryans changed, so, too, did their so, too, did their beliefs. Some beliefs. Some religious thinkers religious thinkers were moving were moving toward the notion toward the notion of of brahmanbrahman, a , a single spiritual single spiritual power that existed power that existed beyond the many beyond the many gods of the Vedas gods of the Vedas and that resided in and that resided in all things. There all things. There was also a move was also a move toward mysticism. toward mysticism.

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MysticsMystics are people who are people who seek direct communion seek direct communion with divine forces. Aryan with divine forces. Aryan mystics practiced mystics practiced meditation and yoga, meditation and yoga, spiritual and bodily spiritual and bodily disciplines designed to disciplines designed to enhance the attempt to enhance the attempt to achieve direct contact achieve direct contact with the divine. The with the divine. The religions that emerged in religions that emerged in India after the Vedic Age India after the Vedic Age were influenced by both were influenced by both mysticism and the notion mysticism and the notion of brahman. of brahman.

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How were Aryan society and How were Aryan society and government structured?government structured?

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Epic Literature Epic Literature Tells About Tells About Aryan LifeAryan Life

The Aryans maintained The Aryans maintained a strong oral tradition. a strong oral tradition. They continued to They continued to memorize and recite memorize and recite ancient hymns, as well ancient hymns, as well as two long epic as two long epic poems, the poems, the MahabharataMahabharata (muh (muh hah hah bahbah rah tuh) and rah tuh) and the the RamayanaRamayana (rah (rah mahmah yuh nuh). Like yuh nuh). Like the Sumerian the Sumerian Epic of Epic of GilgameshGilgamesh, the Indian , the Indian epics mix history, epics mix history, mythology, adventure, mythology, adventure, and religion.and religion.

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MahabharataMahabharata Tells of Warfare and Tells of Warfare and Religion Religion

The The MahabharataMahabharata is India’s is India’s greatest epic. Through its greatest epic. Through its nearly 100,000 verses, we hear nearly 100,000 verses, we hear echoes of the battles that rival echoes of the battles that rival Aryan tribes fought to gain Aryan tribes fought to gain control of the Ganges region. control of the Ganges region. Five royal brothers, the Five royal brothers, the Pandavas, lose their kingdom to Pandavas, lose their kingdom to their cousins. After a great their cousins. After a great battle that lasts 18 days, the battle that lasts 18 days, the Pandavas regain their kingdom Pandavas regain their kingdom and restore peace to India and restore peace to India

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One episode, a lengthy One episode, a lengthy poem known as the poem known as the Bhagavad-GitaBhagavad-Gita ( (bugbug uh uh vud vud geegee tuh), reflects tuh), reflects important Indian religious important Indian religious beliefs about the beliefs about the immortality of the soul immortality of the soul and the value of and the value of performing one’s duty. In performing one’s duty. In its verses, the god its verses, the god Krishna instructs Prince Krishna instructs Prince Arjuna on the importance Arjuna on the importance of duty over personal of duty over personal desires and ambitions. desires and ambitions.

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RamayanaRamayana Teaches Values of Teaches Values of Behavior Behavior

The The RamayanaRamayana is much is much shorter but equally shorter but equally memorable. It recounts memorable. It recounts the fantastic deeds of the the fantastic deeds of the daring hero Rama and his daring hero Rama and his beautiful bride Sita. Early beautiful bride Sita. Early on, Sita is kidnapped by on, Sita is kidnapped by the demon-king Ravana. the demon-king Ravana. The rest of the story tells The rest of the story tells how Rama finally rescues how Rama finally rescues Sita with the aid of the Sita with the aid of the monkey general monkey general Hanuman.Hanuman.