early christian manuscripts

Early Christian Manuscripts

An Introduction to New Testament Greek Manuscripts


• The word “Manuscript” is derived from the Latin word “Manuscriptus” which literally means “written by hand.”• The printing press was not invented until ca. 1450 and not widely

used until several decades afterwards. Therefore all “books” produced before this time were written out by hand.• All early Christian productions of the Bible were written out entirely

by hand and are called “manuscripts.”• We will be examining early Christian manuscripts of the New

Testament and what they can tell us about the early Christians who produced them.


Manuscripts Are The Earliest Discernable Christian ArtifactsWhat Can Early Christian Manuscripts Tell Us?• How They Used the New Testament• How They Copied the New Testament• How They Valued the New Testament• Which Writings They Preferred• Possibly Their Socio-Economic Circumstances (?)• What Type of Text They Were Using• What They Believed About Jesus• What They Believed About Salvation And the Cross


1. Ancient Writing Materials2. The Rise of the Codex3. Examples of Early Christian

Manuscripts4. Publication and Circulation of

Manuscripts5. Public Reading and

Manuscripts


An Explanation on Dating Terms Used

Centuries CE/AD

1st Century 2nd Century 3rd Century 4th Century

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400


Ancient Writing Materials


1. Papyrus

2. Parchment

3. Wax Tablet, Notebook

4. Wood, Pottery Shards (Ostraca), Other Material


PapyrusGrew by the Nile River and for centuries was a large export product of ancient Egypt.“. . . we must make some mention of the nature of the papyrus, seeing that all the usages of civilized life depend in such a remarkable degree upon the employment of paper—at all events, the remembrance of past events.” (Pliny the Elder, Nat. 13.21, ca. 77-79 CE)


• Pliny the Elder writing around 77-79 CE• “All these various kinds of paper are made upon a table, moistened with

Nile water; a liquid which, when in a muddy state, has the peculiar qualities of glue. This table being first inclined, the leaves of papyrus are laid upon it lengthwise, as long, indeed, as the papyrus will admit of, the jagged edges being cut off at either end; after which a cross layer is placed over it, the same way, in fact, that hurdles are made. When this is done, the leaves are pressed close together, and then dried in the sun; after which they are united to one another, the best sheets being always taken first, and the inferior ones added afterwards. There are never more than twenty of these sheets to a roll.” (Pliny the Elder, Nat. 13.23)


Papyrus Roll• The Papyrus pages were glued

together to make a bookroll.• The bookroll would be from 20

to 30 feet long. It could be lengthened as the author needed by gluing extra pieces on to the end.


Parchment• It was made from animal hides,

either cattle, sheep, or goat.• The finest quality was made

from in-utero animals and was called vellum.


• Herodotus writing in the 5th century BCE• “The Ionians also call paper ‘skins’—a survival from long ago when paper

was hard to get, and they did actually use goat and sheep skins to write on.” (Herodotus, Hist. 5.58)• Pliny the Elder writing around 77-79 CE• “In later times, a rivalry having sprung up between King Ptolemy and

King Eumenes, in reference to their respective libraries, Ptolemy prohibited the export of papyrus; upon which, as Varro relates, parchment was invented for a similar purpose at Pergamus. After this, the use of that commodity, by which immortality is ensured to man, became universally known.” (Pliny the Elder, Nat. 13.20)


Wax Tablet• Formed from two or more flat

pieces of wood that held together at one end with cords wound through piercings in the wood.• The central area of each of the

tablet leaves was hollowed out to receive a coating of wax.• The wax could then be “written”

on by inscribing the wax with a stylus.


• Quintillian writing around 95 CE• “…. we can write best on waxen tablets from which there is the

greatest facility for erasing, unless, perchance, weakness of sight requires the use of parchment. Though it assists the sight, parchment causes delay and interrupts the current of thought from the frequent movement of the hand, backwards and forwards, while dipping the pen in the ink.”(Quintilian Inst. Or. X.III.31).• “And he asked for a writing tablet and wrote, “His name is John.” And

they all wondered” (Luke 1:63).


• Wood, Pottery Shards (Ostraca), Other Material• Wood was often used as a

writing material. Some early tablets were made that were absent of wax.• Broken pieces of pottery (Greek

ὄστρακον) were often used as cheap writing material. Athens used ostraka in voting.


What Can This Tell Us About the Early Christians?• The early Christians produced copies of the New Testament using the

technology and materials available at the time. They were not golden tablets dropped from heaven.• As we will see, early Christians adapted and innovated the materials

available to better disseminate the word of God.• The process of making a copy of the New Testament or one of its

books was very labor intensive.• It would have taken a scribe 2-3 days just to copy the letter of

Romans.


What Can This Tell Us About the Early Christians?• It would have cost over $2,000 in todays money to pay a scribe to

make a couple of copies, just of Romans!• A couple of copies of an early collection of Paul’s letters could have

easily cost upwards of $10,000 in todays money and 11-12 days to produce!• Because of the high cost, discovering any significant amount of

manuscripts from the early Christians reveals the high value they placed on studying, circulating, and producing the New Testament.


The Rise of the Codex


1. The Bookroll2. The Codex3. Christian Preference for the

Codex4. Ancient Writers on the Codex5. Paul and the Codex6. What can this tell us?


The Bookroll• The dominant book form of the

ancient world for centuries.• Made from leather, parchment,

or Papyrus.• Written only on the inside

surface in vertical columns of scriptio continua. The bookroll was then rolled up with the text on the inside.


• Isaiah 34:4• “All the host of heaven shall rot away, and the skies roll up like a

scroll.”• Luke 4:17• “And the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to him. He unrolled

the scroll and found the place where it was written. . . “• Luke 4:20• “And he rolled up the scroll and gave it back to the attendant and sat

down.”


The Codex• Began by being made from

parchment as a “notebook” for storing information.• Made by placing sheets of

parchment or papyrus on top of each other and folding down the middle and stitching.• Earliest manuscripts of the New

Testament are copied on papyrus bound in the codex format.

77%

1%6%

15%

Book Forms, First Century CE

BOOKROLL CODEX SHEET FRAGMENT

74%

5%

7%14%

Book Forms, Second Century CE


56%21%

9%

14%

Book Forms, Third Century CE


15%

56%

22%

7%

Book Forms, Fourth Century CE



Quintillian writing around 95 CE• “…. we can write best on waxen tablets from which there is the

greatest facility for erasing, unless, perchance, weakness of sight requires the use of parchment. Though it assists the sight, parchment (membranarum) causes delay and interrupts the current of thought from the frequent movement of the hand, backwards and forwards, while dipping the pen in the ink.”(Quintilian Inst. Or. X.III.31).


Martial writing at the end of the First Century CE• “You who are anxious that my books should be with you everywhere,

and desire to have them as companions on a long journey, buy a copy of which the parchment (membrane) leaves are compressed into a small compass.” (Epigrams 1.2)• “Virgil on Parchment (membranis). How small a quantity of

parchment holds the great Maro. His portrait ornaments the first page. (Epigrams 14.186)• “Ovid’s Metamorphoses on Parchment (membranis). This mass,

which, as you see, consists of a great number of leaves, contains fifteen books of the verses of Naso.” (Epigrams 14.192)


Paul on the Codex• “When you come, bring the

cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, also the books (biblion), and above all the parchments (membranas).” (1 Tim. 4:13)• Possibly the earliest

description of the parchment codex.


What Can This Tell Us About the Early Christians?

• The Christians used the codex format against the surrounding cultural norm—which was the bookroll.• This practice was widespread and early which would point to some

type of general agreement and/or unity amongst early Christians in regards to production and distribution of the New Testament.• The comments of Martial point to the practical aspects of the codex

format and may tell us something about the early Christian’s approach to the New Testament—it was meant to be practical.


Examples of Early Christian Manuscripts


1. Earliest New Testament Manuscripts

2. Features of the Manuscripts3. Non Biblical “Christian”

Manuscripts4. What can this tell us?


Earliest New Testament Manuscripts• Papyrus P52 — 125-175 CE• Papyrus P104 — 100-200 CE• Papyrus P45 — ca. 250 CE• Papyrus P46 — 175-250 CE• Papyrus P47 — ca. 250 CE• Papyrus P66 — 175-250 CE• Papyrus P72 — 250-350 CE• Papyrus P75 — 175-250 CE

• Papyrus P20 — 250-350 CE• Papyrus P30 — 175-250 CE• Papyrus P32 — 175-250 CE• Codex 0171 — 175-225 CE• Codex 0206 — 250-350 CE• Sinaiticus — ca. 350 CE• Vaticanus — ca. 350 CE• Bezae — ca. 450 CE

Papyrus 46• Oldest collection of Paul’s epistles 175-

250 CE (ca.200 CE).• This image shows the title to Galatians.• 86 leaves survive out of an original 104

leaves (over 200 pages). Each page is numbered at the top.

• The Codex originally measured around 6.5 inches wide and around 11 inches tall.

• Contains in the following order, Rom, Heb, 1st and 2nd Cor, Eph, Gal, Phil, Col, 1 Th.

Here ΘΕΟC is abbreviated to ΘC

Here ΥΙΟC is abbreviated to ΥΙC

Jesus, ΙΗCΟY is abbreviated to IHYAnd Christ, XPICTOY is abbreviated to XPY

God, ΘΕΟΝ is abbreviated to ΘΝ

Man, ΑΝΘΡΠΟΝ is abbreviated to ΑΝΩΝ

• Unique scribal feature occurs in the Greek word for “crucify.”

• The Greek “rho” is super imposed over the “tau.”

• A visual representation of Jesus on the Cross?

• Also used in P66 and P45.

P75 Luke 14:27

Staurogram

Codex 0171• Recently dated to 175-225 CE• Fragments of Matthew, and

Luke• Likely that this manuscript

was a four gospel codex.• Two Columns.

Codex Sinaiticus• Early 4th century CE.• Monastery of St. Catherine's

at Mount Sinai in Egypt• Complete New Testament as

well as the epistle of Barnabas and a portion of the Shepherd of Hermas• Four column formatting

Codex Vaticanus• Early 4th century CE.• Located at the Vatican

library• Entire New Testament,

except for 1st and 2nd Tim, Titus, Philemon and Revelation• Three column formatting


Non-Biblical “Christian” Manuscripts

• P. Oxy. 4706 — 175-250 CE• P. Iand 1.4 — 175-250 CE• P. Oxy. 405 — 175-250 CE• P. Dura 10 — 175-250 CE• P. Bon. 1.1 — ca. 250 CE• P. Amst. 1.25 — 250-350 CE


What Can This Tell Us About the Early Christians?• Despite the varied locations, dates, and quality of production, there

are common features that can be found in all of these Christian manuscripts.• Nomina Sacra (abbreviated names of God and Jesus) reveal a broad

agreement from a very early date in the Christian community of a visual reverence for God and Jesus (as God).• The ‘staurogram’ reveals an early, visual, and fairly broad agreement

(P45, P66 and P75), that Jesus’ death on the cross was important and revered.


What Can This Tell Us About the Early Christians?• The earliest manuscripts all have titles. They are the same titles we

use today (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. 1st and 2nd Timothy . . . etc.)• Finally, the large number of extra-biblical writings and commentaries

preserved in very early manuscripts, coupled with the number of Biblical manuscripts, tells us that the early Christians were a “bookish” community.• All of these features highlight a “catholic” community with (loosely)

agreed upon conventions and beliefs.


Publication And Circulation of Manuscripts

Publication And Circulation

1. Wide Distribution of Early Christian Manuscripts

2. Pliny and Cicero on publication and circulation

3. Polycarp and Hermas on circulation and copying

4. Paul on circulation and copying.5. The papyri on circulation6. Putting it all together


The Wide Distribution of Early Christian Manuscripts

• P. Oxy. 4706 — 175-250 CE• P. Iand 1.4 — 175-250 CE• P. Oxy. 405 — 175-250 CE• P. Dura 10 — 175-250 CE• P. Bon. 1.1 — ca. 250 CE• P. Amst. 1.25 — 250-350 CE

• Lugdunum


Pliny and Cicero on Publication and Circulation

• A work was first circulated amongst peers for correction and editing before it was released for “publication.”• There was no “copyright.” Once the

author relinquished control over a work it was freely copied.• Copies of a work were circulated by

friends, scholars, interested parties, and by the wider reading community.


Pliny the Younger on Correcting and Publishing (ca. 100CE)Writing to his friend Caecilius on preparing his speech for publication;“First of all, I go through my work myself; next, I read it to two or three friends and send it to others for comment. If I have any doubts about their criticisms, I go over them again with one or two people, and finally read the work to a larger audience; and that is the moment, believe me, when I make the severest corrections, for my anxiety makes me concentrate all the more carefully.” (Ep. 7.17)• Pliny illustrates the practice of reading-out a text among close

associates for corrections and constructive criticism.


Cicero on Circulation and CopyingWriting to his brother Quintus about a Book dealer/seller in Rome;“As to the Latin books, I don’t know which way to turn—they are copied and exposed for sale with such a quantity of errors!” Ad. Quint. 3.6 (54 BCE)• Cicero illustrates that there were some book-dealers in antiquity that

sold copies of his works. But book-dealers were not usually respected and sold poorly made copies riddled with errors. Also note that Cicero had no control over the quality of the copies that were made of his works.


Cicero on Circulation and CopyingWriting to his friend Atticus;“I have received the books from [by] Vibius: he is a miserable poet, but yet he is not without some knowledge nor wholly useless. I am going to copy the book out and send it back” Ad. Att. 2.20 (59 BCE)“Alexander’s books—a careless writer and a poorer poet, and yet not without some useful information—I have sent back to you.” Ad. Att. 2.22 (59 BCE)• Cicero illustrates the common practice of lending, borrowing and

copying out literary works as a means of procuring books.


Cicero on Circulation and CopyingWriting to his friend Atticus about an acquaintance who wants copies of Cicero’s works;“I am anxious for a letter from Nepos. Can he really want my books, when he thinks the subjects on which I plume myself not worth reading? . . . There is no collection of my letters in existence: but Tiro has something like seventy. Moreover, there are some to be got from you. I ought to look through and correct them. They shall not be published till I have done so.” Ad Att. 16.5 (44 BCE)• Cicero illustrates that as popularity rose for an author, requests were

made for his works and they began to be copied and circulated.

• Lugdunum

1,600 Miles


Polycarp and Hermas on Circulation and Copying

• When a work was ready for “publication,” it was sent to a central location or personality from which it was then copied and disseminated.• Writings were circulated through

the Christian community as the work was borrowed and lent and copies were made.


Shepherd of Hermas on Circulation and Copying (ca. 100-150 CE)The Shepherd of Hermas describes the publication and circulation process of the work;“Therefore you will write two little books, and you will send one to Clement and one to Grapte. Then Clement will send it to the cities abroad, because that is his job. But Grapte will instruct the widows and orphans. But you yourself will read it to this city, along with the elders who preside over the Church.” (Herm. Vis. 2.4)• Hermas illustrates nicely how a work was disseminated and “published”

in antiquity. It follows the practice described by Pliny and Cicero. Likely illustrates Gospel publication scenario.


Polycarp of Smyrna on Circulation and Copying (ca. 110 CE)• Polycarp was a disciple of John

the Apostle. He was later Bishop of Smryna in Asia Minor.• Ignatius, another disciple of John,

was a prisoner on his way to Rome and passed through several cities of Asia Minor writing seven letters.• The Philippian Church wrote to

Polycarp about Ignatius.

Smyrna


Polycarp of Smyrna on Circulation and Copying (ca. 110 CE)Polycarp writing to the Philippians in response to their request;“Both you and Ignatius have written me that if anyone is traveling to Syria, he should take your letter along also. This I will do, if I get an opportunity, either myself or the one whom I will send as my representative, on your behalf as well as ours. We are sending to you the letters of Ignatius that were sent to us by him together with any others that we have in our possession, just as you requested. They are appended to this letter. . . As for Ignatius himself and those with him, if you learn anything more definite, let us know.” Poly. Phil. 13.1-2

Philippi

Smyrna Philadelphia

TrallesEphesusMagnesia

Antioch


Paul on Circulation and Copying (ca. 60 CE)“Tychicus will tell you all about my activities. . . . I have sent him to you for this very purpose, that you may know how we are and that he may encourage your hearts. . . Give my greetings to the brothers at Laodicea, and to Nympha and the church in her house. And when this letter has been read among you, have it also read in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you also read the letter from Laodicea.” Col. 4:7-16• Paul expects a close knit Christian community that interacts and

exchanges letters. Similar to what we see 50 years later with Polycarp and Smryna. We can see the beginnings of the Pauline letter collection.


The Papyri on Circulation and Copying

P. Oxy XVIII 2192 • Dated to the 2nd Century CE from

Oxyrhychus in Egypt.• The body of the letter is mostly

missing but there are two large postscripts in two different hands requesting copies of books.

“Have a copy made of books six and seven of Hypsicrates’ Men Who Appear in Commedies and send it to me. Harpocration says that Pollio has them among his books, and probably others may have them too. And he also has prose epitomes of Thersagorus’s Myths of Tragedy.”

“Demetrius the bookseller has them, according to Harpocration. I have ordered Apollonides to send to me some of my books—which ones you’ll find out from him. And if you find any volumes of Seleucus’s work on Tenses/Metrics/Rhythms that I don’t own, have copies made and send them to me. Diodorus’s circle also has some that I don’t own.”


Putting it All Together

• There was no “publication” in antiquity as we understand it today. Works of literature (even collections of letters) were circulated by requests from acquaintances and social contacts.• Once a work was released for circulation, the author had no control

over the text. Therefore, a work of literature only gained wide circulation at the request of those who wished to read the work.• The early Christians were a close knit community that borrowed and

copied scripture and other Christian literature. This can be seen in the wide and very early distribution of early Christian manuscripts.


Public Reading and Manuscripts


1. Illiteracy in the Roman Empire2. Pliny on public reading3. Paul and John on public reading4. Justin Martyr on public reading5. Public reading and early Christian

manuscripts6. The bookroll and elitist reading

communities7. Putting it all together


• There was no organized public school system like our modern education system. Education was available only to those who could afford to pay for a tutor.• The result was that during the Roman

Empire only about 10-15% of the population could read.• Many of those who could read had a very

limited literacy.

Illiteracy in the Roman Empire


• Scribes were employed to compose personal letters, legal and business documents, and official government paperwork.• Publicly reading-out a text to a crowd

overcame many of the shortcomings of illiteracy. This allowed for an illiterate culture to become familiar with a text. It was common for poets and authors to read-out their work in the market places and other public venues.

Illiteracy in the Roman Empire


Pliny the Younger on Public Reading (ca. 100 CE)Describing his dinner party to a friend;“You would have heard a comic play, a reader or a singer, or all three if I felt generous.” Ep. 1.15Describing a public readings to friends;“This year has raised a fine crop of poets; there has scarcely been a day throughout the month of April when someone was not giving a public reading.” Ep. 1.13“I have come away from a public reading given by a friend of mine in such a sorry state of indignation. . . The work being read was highly finished in every way, but two or three clever persons—or so they seem to themselves and a few others—listened to it like deaf mutes.” Ep. 6.17


Paul and John on Public Reading“And when this letter has been read among you, have it also read in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you also read the letter from Laodicea.” Col. 4:7-16“Until I come, devote yourself to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation, to teaching.” 1 Tim 4:13“I put you under oath before the Lord to have this letter read to all the brothers.” 1 Thess. 5:27


Paul and John on Public Reading

John describes how Revelations would have been read in the first century Church;“Blessed is the one who reads (singular) aloud the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear (plural), and who keep what is written in it, for the time is near.” Rev. 1:3A solitary reader would have stood before the audience and read the text aloud as they Christians listened and hopefully took to heart what was being read to them.


Justin Martyr on Public Reading (ca. 150-160 CE)

Justin described the worship service of second century Christians;“And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things.” 1 Apol. 67It is striking how closely this follows Paul's commands to Timothy; public reading, exhortation, and teaching.


• All manuscripts had scriptio continua, that is, a continuous flow of letters.• There was no punctuation and

no reading aids to help in deciphering a text.• The ancient reader had much

more responsibility in interpreting a text than the modern reader.


INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDANDTHEWORDWASWITHGODANDTHEWORDWASGODHEWASINTHEBEGINNINGWITHGODALLTHINGSWEREMADETHROUGHHIMANDWITHOUTHISWASNOTANYTHINGMADETHATWASMADEINHIMWASLIFEANDTHELIFEWASTHELIGHTOFMENTHELIGHTSHINESINTHEDARKNESSANDTHEDARKNESSHASNOTOVERCOMEITTHEREWASAMANSENTFROMGODWHOSENAMEWASJOHNHECAMEASAWITNESSTOBEARWITNESSABOUTTHELIGHTTHATALLMIGHTBELIEVETHROUGHHIMHEWASNOTTHELIGHTBUTCAMETOBEARWITNESS

aboutthelightThe true lightwhichgiveslighttoeveryonewascomingintotheworldHewasintheworldandtheworldwasmadethroughhimyettheworlddidnotknowhimHecametohisownandhisownpeopledidnotreceivehimButtoallwhodidreceivehimwhobelievedinhisnamehegavetherighttobecomechildrenofGodwhowerebornnotofbloodnorofthewillofthefleshnorofthewillofmanbutofGod


• Christian manuscripts, on average, have fewer lines per page. And fewer words per line.• Christian manuscripts have

reader’s aids in the text, placed there by the scribe.• This reveals that these

manuscripts were designed to assist readers in reading out the text in public.

Public Reading and Early Christian Manuscripts

“Ekthesis,” marks the beginning of a new section or paragraph.These two mark the beginning of the two parables at Luke 15:8 & 11

A raised dot signals the end of a sentence at the end of Luke 15:4.A “space” that signals the end of a paragraph, the end of the parables at Luke 15:7 & 10.

A significant space with a raised dot that signals the end of John 1:4.Raised dots and spaces are used throughout this manuscript.


• The bookroll in contrast to Christian manuscripts had no view to practicality, lacked punctuation.• The bookroll represented high-

culture, an elitist mentality of learning and refinement.• The ability to decipher and

understand the bookroll was a mark of elitism and high culture.

The Bookroll and Elitist Reading Communities


Putting it All Together• Bookrolls in antiquity were written in scriptio continua with very little or

no punctuation or other para-linguistic reading aids. This is a reflection of the elitist reading culture of the Roman Empire.• Early Christian manuscripts exhibit punctuation, reading aids and other

reader assists. These manuscripts are practical in appearance and design.• Early Christian manuscripts reflect the Christian belief in the word of

God as an essential component of the Christian life. By designing manuscripts to facilitate greater ease in reading, they are working to disseminate the scriptures to a greater audience.


Putting it All Together


Putting it All Together• The common features found in all early Christian manuscripts of the

New Testament, nomina sacra, adoption of the codex, and reading aids, reveal community of Christians with established traditions and beliefs as well as a consensus on book format.• The adoption of the codex reveals an anti-cultural, practical approach

to the written text. The New Testament was practical.• Nomina Sacra and staurogram reveal a reverence for God and Jesus

and the staurogram visually expresses revence for Jesus on the cross.


Putting it All Together• Publication and circulation practices tell us that the early Christians

were an interconnected community that copied and distributed the New Testament widely and at a very early date.• Because there was no way for a central authority to control the

copying, publication, and circulation of the manuscripts. Books where copied and circulated by consensus. Early Christians were people of the book and placed a high importance on studying the scriptures.