ealÁt. reindeer herders voice: reindeer herding, traditional knowledge and adaptation to climate...

Reindeer herding, traditional

knowledge and adaptation to climate

change and loss of grazing land




EDITORS: Anders Oskal, Johan Mathis Turi,

Svein D. Mathiesen and Philip Burgess

AK

EALÁT

Reindeer Herders’ Voice:

Reindeer herding, traditional knowledge and adaptation

to climate change and loss of grazing land

ISBN 978-82-998051-0-0

Editors: Anders Oskal, Johan Mathis Turi, Svein D. Mathiesen and Philip Burgess

Cover Picture: Nikolai M. Osenin, EALÁT Information workshop, Topoline, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), SDM.

Photographer List: AK - Alexander Kutskiy, AX - Anders Oskal, EIT - Ellen Inga Turi, GNN - Gavril N. Nakhodkin,

JMG - Johan Mathis Gaup, IMGE - Inger Marie Gaup Eira, KEH - Klemet Erland Heatta, KMU - Kari Mákreda Utsi,

KU - Kristen Ulstein, MAP - Mikhail A. Pogodaev, MAS - Monica Alterskjær Sundset, MCE - Mia Carina Eira,

OIE - Ole Isak Eira, PB - Philip Burgess, RBME - Rávdná Biret Márja Eira, SDM - Svein D. Mathiesen

Graphic Design/Print:

Fagtrykk Idé as, Alta

SDM

By Anders Oskal, Director of International Centre for

Reindeer Husbandry and Project Leader of EALÁT-

Information

This book is a two years middle term reportfrom a Norwegian information project in theArctic Council entitled EALÁT. The term «ealát»is from the language of the indigenous Sámipeople of Fennoscandia, and means «goodpasture». This word is related to the term «eallu», which means «herd» and the origin ofthese terms derives from the word «eallin», or «life». In other words, pastures are thefoundation for the reindeer herd, and reindeerherds are the foundation for the lives of rein-deer herding peoples.

Reindeer herding is the primary livelihoodfor over 20 indigenous peoples throughout thecircumpolar North, with a remarkably similarorganisation wherever it is found. In all, nearly100,000 people are involved in herding approx-imately 2,5 million domesticated reindeer in 9national states. Reindeer herding can be seen asa human-coupled ecosystem with a historicallyhigh resilience to climate variability and change,and a circumpolar model for sustainable management of the marginal areas of the North.

Indigenous peoples in the Arctic now facemajor challenges related to changes in theirsocieties, globalisation and a changing climate.

EALÁT has therefore been initiated by theAssociation of World Reindeer Herders (WRH)to address the challenges of climate change andloss of pastures, in order to maintain and develop robust reindeer herding societies forthe future.

The project is endorsed by the SustainableDevelopment Working Group (SDWG) of theArctic Council, with the full title «SDWG EALÁT-Information: Reindeer herding, traditionalknowledge and adaptation to climate changeand loss of pastures». This is an informationproject focusing on climate change, loss ofpastures and how the traditional knowledge ofreindeer herders themselves can be utilizedto adapt to these changes. The aim is to buildcapacity and competence for adaptation inlocal reindeer herding communities, as wellas to increase knowledge on these issues fornational authorities, the Arctic Council system,industrial developers, and mainstream societiesin the North. EALÁT-Information is also a partof the IPY EALÁT-Network Study1, a broaderconsortium endorsed by the International PolarYear which focuses on the vulnerability of rein-deer herding to climate change.

EALÁT-Information is initiated, planned andimplemented by the Association of World Reindeer Herders and the International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry2. Other partner

Foreword

1 www.ealat.org2 www.reindeerportal.org

5

AK.

6 FOREWORD

Anders Oskal in Chukotka.

organisations and institutions that are involvedin the project include the Saami Council, theReindeer Herders’ Union of Russia, the SámiReindeer Herders’ Associations of Norway andFinland, the Reindeer Herders’ Union of Yamal,the Reindeer Herders’ Union of the Republic ofSakha (Yakutia), the Reindeer Herders’ Unionof Chukotka, RAIPON, the Norwegian Mete-orological Institute, the Arctic and AntarcticResearch Institute in St. Petersburg, the RussianScience Academy, NASA, the Norwegian Schoolof Veterinary Science, the Sámi UniversityCollege, the University of the Arctic, the ArcticPortal and others. There have also been important contributions from various nationaland local authorities, both in Norway, Finland,the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, theRepublic of Sakha (Yakutia) and the ChukotkaAutonomous Okrug. The project has beenfinanced by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Nordic Council of Ministers,the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, theResearch Council of Norway, the NorwegianMinistry of Labour and Social Inclusion, and theInternational Centre for Reindeer Husbandry.

The project will continue through the Norwegian and Danish chairmanships of theArctic Council, with a timeframe from 2007to 2011. This book is to be presented as a middleterm report at the 6th Ministerial Meeting ofthe Arctic Council, while the final report will bepresented under the Danish chairmanship.

The EALÁT-Information project is arranginga series of community-based workshops inlocal reindeer herding societies across the Arctic, where reindeer herders from differentareas, scientists and local authorities are

brought together to address the challenges ofclimate change and land use change whilefocusing on adaptation and traditional know-ledge. Seven such workshops have been heldin 2007 and 2008 in local reindeer herdingcommunities in Norway, Finland and Russia.This book is exclusively based on materialsand pictures from the community based work-shops and EALÁT activities. The goal of EALÁT-Information is to bring the voice of reindeerherders to the Arctic Council.

In terms of pastures, local climate and topo-graphic conditions the diversity is high in theregions investigated in this project spanningFennoscandia, the Yamal tundra, the Verkho-yansky mountains, the Aldan taiga and the tundra of Chukotka. This indicates that theadaptive capacity of reindeer herding may behigh. The challenge of SDWG EALÁT-Informationis to take reindeer herders’ knowledge intoaction for sustainable development of the Arctic and, in particular, to actively involve circumpolar reindeer herders in this process.This book intends to offer a small snapshot ofhow indigenous reindeer herders and theirsocieties look upon the challenges of adaptationto climate change and development of the Arctic.

7FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION8

Johan Mathis Turi in Aldan. AX.

9

3 Sustainable Reindeer Husbandry(2002). Family-Based Reindeer Herdingand Hunting Economies, and the Statusand Management of Wild Reindeer/Caribou Populations (2004).

By Johan Mathis Turi, Founding President and current

Secretary General of Association of World Reindeer

Herders (WRH) and initiator of EALÁT.

Reindeer herding peoples have lived andworked across wide areas of the north sincetime immemorial. In doing so, they have accumulated unique knowledge about the natural environment in which they live. Today,reindeer herding communities everywhere arefacing profound changes in their societies. Thechallenges of climate change, increased devel-opment and globalization are of such propor-tions that we need to use the best availableknowledge in order to adapt for the future. Obviously, scientific research has been and will continue to be very important. But often thebest available knowledge is actually the know-ledge embedded within reindeer herding communities: Traditional knowledge developedby centuries of close observation of reindeerand nature which has been handed down fromgeneration to generation. Reindeer herdingpeoples have always known that they mustwork in collaboration with nature, not against it.

This project is a follow up to two earlier Arctic Council projects3, though this endeavourhas an even stronger ownership and leadership byindigenous peoples themselves. The Associationof World Reindeer Herders see this project as

an important long-term contribution towardscapacity building in reindeer herding societieswith a special focus on adaptation to the chal-lenges of climate change and loss of pastures.

The EALÁT consortium is a unique researchand documentation project, where traditionalknowledge and scientific knowledge are treatedon an equal footing and traditional knowledgeis seen as more than just a supplement to scientific knowledge. The EALÁT project will contribute to the sustainable future manage-ment of reindeer husbandry by documentingArctic reindeer herding peoples´ traditionalknowledge, but also intends to illuminate adaptation tools for a changing climate that isalready impacting northern communities.EALÁT is also a project that acts as a venuewhere reindeer peoples can cooperate amongthemselves and with international researchand educational institutions in bringing forthnew knowledge.

Traditional Knowledge (and local know-ledge) is based on experience and is knowledgethat is accumulated in people's memory andactions over multiple generations. Therefore, itis knowledge that is actually validated in thesame way that scientific knowledge is foundvalid through trial and error. The crucial differencebetween them lies in how knowledge is obtained.

From the beginning, human societies have

EALÁT – a model for local competence

building in the North

4 Rio Declaration 1992, Convention onProtection of Biological Diversity,1992. Arctic Council Arctic ClimateImpact assessment (ACIA) report, 2005.

INTRODUCTION10

been built on the application of traditionalknowledge – from the first settlements, to earlybarter systems and to the establishment oftrading networks. As scientific knowledgedeveloped and brought extraordinary results inalmost all fields, a shift in people's attitudestowards traditional knowledge occurred and itgradually became devalued.

Today, views regarding traditional know-ledge have evolved. The global community hasagain begun to demand the implementationof local and traditional knowledge, and institutions such as the United Nations requireand encourage that traditional knowledge beembedded into the management of the naturalenvironment4. This change in attitudes has aclear connection to the challenges that ourworld is facing. Both leaders and citizens havebegun to realize that we need more compre-hensive perspectives regarding the manage-ment of our natural environment. This is a fieldwhere traditional knowledge and scientificknowledge have the potential to complementeach other. Together they provide us all with afuller and more comprehensive insight intoour living world.

Because herding peoples have a uniqueknowledge of the climate and natural environ-ment of their regions and they inhabit placeswhere climate change is expected to be mostdramatic, their knowledge is of particular valuetoday. The world’s demand for precisely thekind of knowledge that reindeer people pos-sess – holistic and long term – has dramaticallyincreased in recent years.

Traditional knowledge is characterized bythe fact that it has not been written down. As

a result, people often perceive it to be some-thing very diffuse and difficult to use. Therefore,one of the project’s main tasks is to make traditional knowledge available to more people.Another major task we face is to see the imple-mentation of traditional knowledge alongsidescientific knowledge in governance, publicplans, industrial development projects and soon. Of course, there are a great number ofspecific challenges that have to be met in thisprocess. There are issues of ownership, intel-lectual property rights, documentation issues,ethics, storage questions, and the need for anenhanced understanding from the academicand professional community on the handlingand understanding of traditional knowledge.As a result, we have sought collaboration with all levels of research and other academicinstitutions.

Traditional knowledge needs to remainwhere it is developed. This ensures that tradi-tional skills are developed locally and not farfrom the communities that brought them forth.This is a guarantee that knowledge remainswhere it is needed, and that local communitiesget the benefits from the knowledge developed.Another benefit is that «meeting places» forpeople and relevant professionals are createdand nurtured. By creating «communities»where local knowledge meets theory-basedknowledge in an active manner, one can buildup local expertise, strengthen the robustness oflocal communities and enhance the efficacyof local adaptation strategies. The aim is toempower reindeer herders and the communitiesin which they live with the best technologiesavailable, combined with traditional skills and

Dignitaries at the opening of the Indigenous Peoples International Polar Year

opening. From the left: former Sámi University College Rector, Mai-Britt Utsi,

Mayor Klemet Erland Heatta, former Minister for the Environment Helen Bjørnøy

and former President of the Norwegian Sámi Parliament, Aili Keskitalo. KU.

INTRODUCTION 11

knowledge to further enhance the develop-ment of sustainable reindeer husbandry. This isthe essence of the EALÁT project.

Traditional areas of reindeer husbandryhave only recently become interesting for other interests such as the oil and gas industry.Even though it can severely disrupt the liveli-hoods of reindeer herders, oil and gas develop-ment may not be the worst thing that can happen to reindeer husbandry: In contrast toalternative sources for energy that affect ouranimals such as windmills and hydro-electricpower plants, oil and gas development canprove to be profitable. Such development canprovide a financial foundation for the positivedevelopment of reindeer herding societies.This opening up of the Arctic as a source ofenergy truly represents a «tidal wave» for theindigenous peoples of the Arctic. There is a saying that «the tide lifts all boats». However this wave will only lift those boats that areseaworthy. Small, ill prepared indigenous communities risk being swamped by this waveso it is important that they are equipped withthe tools they need to adapt to these changes.That way they may continue to thrive when thiswave of petroleum development recedes. Rein-deer husbandry has been an important liveli-hood for people in these areas from time imme-morial, and must continue to exist also after theresources have been exploited. To this end,local capacity building in indigenous reindeerherding societies is essential.

It is important to remember that know-ledge grow roots where it is developed andused. Indigenous peoples should thereforehave the right to develop their own strategies

for adapting to climate change and this goeshand in hand with the right to develop theirown knowledge and research institutions.Therefore, as a continuation of these efforts,the Association of World Reindeer Herdersand the International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry has taken the initiative to establish aUniversity of the Arctic Institute for CircumpolarReindeer Husbandry (UArctic EALÁT Institute)as a legacy of the International Polar Year.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

KAUTOKEINO: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model

Downscaled IPCC−models (SRES A1b)

shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

SALEKHARD: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

ANADYR: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

TOMPO: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

Kautokeino: December–February Salekhard: December–February

Anadyr: December–February Tompo: December–February

INTRODUCTION12

The red line is expected mean winter tempera-tures (December, January, February) over thenext 100 years, in Kautokeino, Salekhard,

Tompo and Anadyr. The dotted grey lines areobserved temperatures past 100 years. Thethin red line plots the mean of these observations.

Statistical downscaling of climate data – projecting the future in circumpolar reindeer pastures:

INTRODUCTION 13

These graphs are created by downscaling(downscaled IPCC-models, SRES A1b) which isa term for detailed examination of how themaximum/minimum winter temperature haschanged in the past (symbols shaded in red).Also shown are predictions made with globalclimate models (GCMs), subject to statisticaldownscaling. Predictions are made both forthe past (1900–2000) and the future (2000–2100). Since the GCMs need to make a num-ber of approximations and the precise initialstarting conditions are somewhat uncertain,the models only give an approximate descrip-tion of what the local temperature will be (thisis referred to as «uncertainty»). However, statistics derived from a number of differentGCM predictions can provide a good descrip-tion of the lower and upper bounds of what the temperature will be. This data suggests that by2050, for example, a warm winter in Yamalwill be similar to a cold winter in Finnmark. This

will possibly affect snow conditions and snowcover, which can also affect the growth ofplants and lichens.

Source: Benestad, 2008

Arctic development scenarios,human impact in 2050Human activities influence the environmentand reduce the value of forests, tundra andplains in terms of original biodiversity and habitat. Primarily larger mammals are hit by thefragmentation caused by roads and pipelines.The GLOBIO methdology has modeled thefuture impact of human activities in the Arctic,as seen in this map. Infrastructure and settle-ments are used as proxies for human activities,using the GLOBIO model from the Global Environment Outlook 3.

Source: Modified from analysis published in GEO3

Global Environment Outlook (2002)

Cartographer: Hugo Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal

14 RECOMMENDATIONS

SDM.

15

Based on the work of the SDWG EALÁT-Infor-mation project in 2007–2008 including the 7community-based workshops held so far, andbased on a vision of a future sustainable andresilient circumpolar reindeer husbandry, thefollowing preliminary recommendations to theSDWG has been made:

• It is important to support knowledge sharingon impacts and adaptation measures connected to climate change and loss ofgrazing land, while also recognizing the value of traditional knowledge as a founda-tion for adaptation.

• It is important to support capacity buildingfor indigenous societies facing climatechange and loss of grazing land, both in

terms of supporting recruitment of youngscientists from reindeer herding communities,and in terms of supporting institution buildingin local reindeer herding communities forlocal competence building.

• We are concerned about the explosion ofhuman activity linked to climate change andloss of grazing land for reindeer and caribou.Grazing land used for reindeer has to beprotected as an adaptive measure to climatechange and sustainable Arctic societies.

• It is important to define institutional mech-anisms which constrain indigenous peoples’original resilience and ability to adapt toclimate change.

Recommendations

Preliminary recommendations of Arctic Council Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) EALÁT-Information

17

Table of content

Introduction/Foreword/Recommendations

Regional chapters

Sápmi – The Sámi Region; Kautokeino, Norway and Inari, Finland

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia; Nadym and Yar-Sale

Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, Russia; Topolinoe and Khatystyr

Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia; Anadyr and Kanchalan

Appendix

Editors/Authors

References and Resources

18 SÁPMI: KAUTOKEINO, NORWAY AND INARI, FINLAND

The Sámi village of Kautokeino. KEH.

19

Inger Marie G. Eira, Ole Isak Eira, Rávdná Biret Márja

Eira, Anne-Maria Magga, Nils Jonas Ketola, Elen Anne

Sara.

Sápmi refers to the traditional area inhabited bythe Sámi people before the creation of thenational borders of what is today called Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. Therehave been two EALÁT-Information workshopsin Sápmi. The first workshop coincided with theopening of the Indigenous Peoples Interna-tional Polar Year in Kautokeino (Feb 16–17,2007) and had approximately 70 participants.The second was held near the village of Inari(22–3 September, 2008) and nearly 40 peopleattended. Reindeer herders, scientists, students,administrators and politicians were all in atten-dance. So far, EALÁT-Information workshopshave been held in Norway and Finland whichwill be the focus of this chapter.

Reindeer and people have a connectionthat is thousands of years old in Fennoscandia.Archaeological sources such as hunting pits,stone carvings and settlement excavationsspeak to this connection. Stone carvings atthe coast of Northern Norway also connectreindeer and humans more than 6.000 yearsago. First by hunting, then domestication andherding. In 98 AD, the Roman historian Tacituswrote about a people – Fenni – in Thule, who

used fur clothes, hunted reindeer and travelledwith skis. In 870 AD King Alfred the Great ofEngland received the chief Ottar who lived inpresent day Norway, who, wrote Alfred, kepta herd of 600 «tame» reindeer and 6 decoyreindeer for hunting wild reindeer which hehad received in tribute from the Sámi.

The traditional areas of Sámi reindeer hus-bandry were divided between the borders offour nation states – Norway, Sweden, Finlandand Russia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, the

SÁPMI:

Kautokeino, Norway and Inari, Finland

EALÁT-Information workshop in Inari, Finland. SDM.

SámiFinns

Sámi Sámi

Sámi

Nenets

Nenets

Nenets

Enets

Eveny

Yakut

EvenyEveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Evenki

Eveny

Dolgan

Dolgan

Mansi

Komi

Khanty

Chukchi

Chukchi

Koryak

Yukagir

Yukagir

SoyotTofalar

Selkup

KetsEvenki

Evenki EvenkiEvenki

Evenki

Evenki

Negidals

Nganasan

Chuvans

Uil’ta

Inupiaq-Yupik

Dukha

Scotland

Todzh Tuvan

SÁPMI: KAUTOKEINO, NORWAY AND INARI, FINLAND20

Reindeer herding in Kautokeino, Bádašjohka. JMG.

effect of which has meant changes in traditionalherding practices. The traditional unit of organ-isation in Sámi reindeer husbandry is the «siida».This is basically a grouping of one or morefamilies, where the practical work related toreindeer herding is shared. Today, reindeerhusbandry in the Sámi region is characterisedby relatively large herds and a high degree ofmechanisation in all regions. Reindeer are primarily used for meat production, while hides,bones and antlers are important for clothingand handicrafts. Recruitment to reindeer hus-bandry has been limited in Norway by variousfactors, a lack of available pastures amongthem. All animals in the Sámi area excludingRussia are privately owned, although manyaspects of herding are practiced collectively inthe siida system.

Reindeer husbandry in Norway todayinvolves nearly 3,000 people and about240,000 domesticated reindeer, the majority ofwhich are in the county of Finnmark. Reindeerare herded over an area of approximately 146thousand km2 in the counties of Finnmark, Troms,Nordland, North-Trøndelag, South-Trøndelagand Hedmark. According to Norwegian law,only Sámi people may herd reindeer in theseareas. There are also some minor concessionareas outside the Sámi herding area, whereNorwegians also herd reindeer. The total pastures are equivalent to 40% of the mainlandarea of Norway. Reindeer husbandry is admin-istered by the Reindeer Husbandry Adminis-tration, a State body which is beneath the Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture.

In Finland, reindeer husbandry is not ethnically restricted to Sámi and the livelihood

is open to any citizen of the European Union.In total there are approximately 5,600 peopleconnected to reindeer husbandry, the vastmajority of whom are Finns. The reindeer husbandry area in Finland lies in the mostnortherly parts of the country and coversalmost the entire area of the Province of Lapland and part of the Province of Oulu. Thereindeer husbandry area covers 114,000 km²,which is 36% of the surface area of Finland.The northernmost part of the Finnish reindeerhusbandry region is classified as the Sámi rein-deer herding area, where Sámi reindeer hus-bandry is concentrated. Reindeer herding isadministered by a cooperative system of whichall owners of reindeer are members. Eachcooperative represents an economic unit and

Traditional Sámi halter for reindeer. MAS.

SÁPMI: KAUTOKEINO, NORWAY AND INARI, FINLAND 21

Development scenarios for the

Barents Region, assuming varying

levels of petroleum development

towards 2030. In 2000, 15% of the

region was significantly disturbed as

grazing land for reindeer. With

continued infrastructure develop-

ment using current growth rates,

this figure will increase to 25% by

2030 (figure 6a), or with 30%

assuming increased petroleum

development (figure 6b).

Scenario b) means that an additional

21.000 km2 will be significantly

reduced in value as reindeer grazing

grounds compared to scenario a).

Source:

Vistnes et al 2009


2030

2030with oil and gasdevelopmenthotspots

Globio scenarios

a geographical area. There are 56 such coop-eratives in Finland today. The current numberof reindeer in Finland is about 200,000, whichare all privately owned. An individual can ownno more that between 3–500 reindeer depend-ing on location5.

Climate Change and Variability Temperature projections for Kautokeino signala dramatic change in mean seasonal tempera-tures over the next 100 years. Data for Kautokeinocomes from a weather station just outside thevillage. The mean seasonal temperatures forKautokeino (1961–1990) were winter (-16.0oC),spring (-5.2oC) summer (+10.0oC) and autumn(-1.0oC)6. By 2070–2099, winter and springtemperatures are projected to have risen to -5.2oC and +1.5oC respectively. Summer andautumn temperatures are projected to haverisen to 14.6oC and +3.8oC. In addition, by theend of the century, it is projected that there willbe a 10% increase in precipitation in the Kautokeino area. This is not surprising giventhat the projected winter and spring tempera-tures in Kautokeino will closely track currentmean winter and spring average temperaturesin Hammerfest, on the Norwegian coast. Thisrepresents a significant shift and it is likelythat rapid and variable fluctuation betweenfreezing and thawing will increase with theseranges. If so, it will certainly provide consid-erable challenges to the practice of reindeerhusbandry, particularly on the winter pastures.

Climate change was a concern for Sámireindeer herders participation in the work-shops. Herders worried that temperature variability coupled with loss of pastures could

reduce their ability to respond to changing con-ditions. Several herders are noticing changesthat reflect weather and climate variability:

The areas of the far North are historicalareas for settlement of indigenous peoplesthat have developed and adapted their culturesand livelihoods to these marginal Arctic areas.There is a great danger that climate change inthe Arctic and increasing economic activity inthe North will especially impact indigenouspeoples that carry out their nature- andresource-dependent livelihood here.

23SÁPMI: KAUTOKEINO, NORWAY AND INARI, FINLAND

5 Paliskuntain Yhdistys 6 Benestad, 2008

Observing reindeer in the corral. PB.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

KAUTOKEINO: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

Kautokeino: December–February

Those who are most dependent on naturewill also be most vulnerable.

Berit Oskal Eira, Reindeer Herder and

(former) Norwegian Vice Minister

Reindeer herding is probably the industrywhere the weather is discussed the most.When a reindeer herding Sámi speaks of theweather, he talks about what consequencesthe weather will bring, while simultaneouslyconnecting the weather with the reindeer. […]It is a fact that cold weather in winter withstrong winds packs the snow, and this snowreduces the pastures because the reindeercan’t access the food. But wind isn’t alwaysharmful to reindeer husbandry. Strong windduring mild weather brings the opposite effect;strong wind softens the snow so that the rein-

deer can access the food. If we now look atthis last year and the weather in NorthernNorway throughout the year, the mild weathercame by the end of April causing the snow tobecome wet...By May the mild weatherreturned, and then came summer which wasvery rainy. The snow came late in the autumnwhich had consequences for reindeer hus-bandry in these areas. Now the winter hascome, and with it also the cold, simultane-ously a rather large amount of snow camethat also affected the reindeer pastures. Inaddition ice-layers have been formed in thesnow. We have noticed that the mainstreamsociety around reindeer husbandry does notknow our traditional way of thinking, values,language and ways of working. For the reindeerherding Sámi the reindeer is a free animal, it

Herding in springtime can be hazardous. Snowmobile track on a thawing river. SDM.


Students from the Reindeer Herding Secondary School of Kautokeino, driving reindeer during the Indigenous

Peoples’ International Polar Year opening, February 2007. MAS.


wanders without being attached to anything.Reindeer is the animal that naturally belongsto those areas where reindeer herding is prac-ticed.

Nils Henrik Sara, Reindeer Herder, President of

Norwegian Sámi Reindeer Herders’ Association

I am not too concerned about climatechange if it is due to nature itself. But if it is dueto people, that people have been destroyingnature, then I am worried.

Karen Anna Logje Gaup,

Reindeer Herder

In my summer pasture areas, there is abig glacier. This glacier divides the area intotwo parts. Today reindeer can cross the glacier.But the recent years, the glacier has shrunk somuch that it has become difficult for reindeerto cross it. I fear that when the glacier dis-appears, my summer pasture area will be divid-ed into two separate parts.

Nils Henrik Sara

We have some knowledge about how tolive in a changing environment. The term «sta-bility» is a foreign word in our language. Our

The Sámi lavvu – a traditional tent designed for life in the North. PB.

«We have some knowledge

about how to live in a changing

environment.»


search for adaptation strategies is thereforenot connected to «stability» in any form, butis instead focused on constant adaptation tochanging conditions.

Johan Mathis Turi

We usually check the snow with a stick, ifit goes easily through [the snow] it’s usuallygood. But here there is a couple of centimetresof ice-cover in between. But this one is quitehigh up, so the reindeer will manage to punchthrough it. This year it is not so bad, quitegood pastures. The bottom part here is sea∫aš[a granular snow that resembles sugar], it isquite soft.

Isak Mathis O. Eira, Senior Reindeer Herder,

explaining snow dynamics in the field,

Kautokeino 2009.

Reindeer herders can also have a lot of know-ledge about weather, not just snow,

I don’t forecast the weather. I use infor-mation from the reindeer, the moon and thesea. I compare these factors, and make myown system to explain the weather. I havetried to ask for help from those who knowmathematics better than me, but nobodyseems to understand my explanations on howto see what kind of weather is coming.

The late Mathis Aslaksen Sara, Reindeer Herder.

Loss of PasturesReindeer herding represents a highly extensiveform of land use. Loss of pastures representsa major challenge to the maintenance of Sámi

reindeer husbandry. Infrastructural develop-ment in this region has been relatively severecompared to other regions. Pasture losses arecaused by a variety of activities, such as theconstruction of buildings, hydro-electricityfacilities, pipelines, roads, other infrastructure.On the Norwegian side this development hasbeen for most part in the coastal areas, whilein Finland forestry has also impacted reindeerherding. Research suggests that the progressiveand effectively irreversible loss of uncultivatedlands which reindeer use as pasture is proba-bly the greatest single threat to reindeer hus-bandry in the region today. Future developmentscenarios have estimated further encroach-ment on reindeer pastures in these areas. Reindeer herders at both EALÁT-Information

Snowcover and reindeer pastures. SDM.


Reindeer train, Kautokeino, Norway. OIE.

«We have no choice but to

adapt to the mainstream society,

and if they don’t accept us,

we will be pushed aside.»


workshops in the Sámi area were concernedabout the loss of grazing lands to industrialactivities and tourism.

These days, encroachment is our biggestproblem. They are building a little bit every-where, and in a manner of speaking are ripping the reindeer pastures apart as theygo. We have no choice but to adapt to themainstream society, and if they don’t acceptus, we will be pushed aside.

Nils Henrik Sara

It was said that the new development (StatoilHydro’s LNG plant in Hammerfest) inthis area would have positive effects for thelocal community and... many people saw it asa positive development. We reindeer herderswere concerned about how this developmentwould affect our future livelihoods – we felt thatthe promise of positive effects for the localcommunity put a strong pressure on us. Itbecame difficult for us to show the impactsthat this development would have on our rein-deer herding, and when compared with thelarge oil and gas installations, our small industry would seem like a drop in the ocean.

But if we were to look at this from anotherangle, the angle that the value of our hus-bandry is not measured in dollars but insteadconnected to the areas that we use...

In this way we could show our strength,that our industry is based on the access anduse of these areas. Because of this the situa-tion for us reindeer herders grew very difficultin terms of showing the consequences for ourindustry.

We were sort of forgotten in the wholeprocess and our perspectives were notfocussed on. Because the LNG-plant itself wasnot placed directly on reindeer pastures,wewere not fully included in the total process ofregulation. And with this start that we got,when we were not focussed on, we were con-tinuously lagging behind in the process, notable to follow this up properly. During theprocess that led up to the decision to initiatethe entire development, there was not enoughknowledge about the situation, knowledgethat we have today. Due to the developmentwe have seen an unexpected explosion inhuman activities. We have much more com-petition for our pastures now. There has beenintroduced a lot of other development projectsthat will impact our pastures. When you havethis kind of major industrial development inHammerfest, it makes the area around Hammerfest very attractive for other types ofdevelopment. Also the society of Hammer-fest is rapidly expanding because of the devel-opment.

Now there is talk about several possibleprojects, and planning has begun. This includespetroleum development, new power lines,windmills, infrastructure development and

Swimming from the traditional summer pasture of the

island Arnøya to the mainland of Norway. PB.


The StatoilHydro LNG plant «Snøhvit», Hammerfest. SDM.

«We were sort of forgotten in the

whole process and our perspectives

were not focussed on.»


roads. These are heavy investments drivenby independent and influential economicsources, also in part independent of Statoil. Wealso see increasing human activities in ourpasture areas in terms of outdoor leisure activ-ities. It cannot be right that one side gets thebenefits of development, while the other onlyget the negatives. We had no idea about thescale of the industrial development when itstarted, and nor did people in the town either.It was impossible to make a picture of it beforeit began and we see it all just now, and onlynow we see what it has meant and what it cancome to mean to us. We have to try to adapt

to this, as long as we can. But to do this, alsodevelopers, local and national authorities andmainstream society must be willing to con-tribute. Anyway, it is absolutely clear that ourpastures are being reduced. And thereforewe need to get in very early as a participatingpartner in development projects, as early aspossible, to try to have a reindeer herder’svoice in the early planning process

Aslak Ante M.J. Sara, Reindeer Herder,

Head of the Fálá reindeer herding district,

which includes the city of Hammerfest.

Our main challenge is preserving pastures.The main threat in our area is the entry ofmining companies, after the Finnmark Actcame into force last summer...They say thatthey have found deposits, and that now thequestion is no longer «if extraction will takeplace». Extraction will take place and rein-deer husbandry must make room for it. We seethat the ore goes through all our pasturesand migration routes. And we already havescarce pastures here; there is not enoughroom for everybody on the winter pastures. Ifthe winter pastures and migration routes arelost, people will have to quit working withreindeer, as reindeer husbandry is not possiblewithout winter pastures.

Máret Sárá, Karasjok.

With increased development comes other landuses such as demands for recreation:

Of course tourism is tourism and it is impor-tant, but the reindeer pastures are decreasing.One person coming to us here in Eanodat

Flaring. SDM.


Senior reindeer herder Aslak M. Utsi teaching traditional slaughtering techniques to Maret Anna Sara, Maret Risten

Sara, Kari Mákreda Utsi and Ellen Sara Eira Buljo. SDM.


(Enontekio) isn’t much, but a thousand peoplecoming is another matter. They will use thesame amount of area as 1,000 reindeer.

J. Antti Magga, Reindeer Herder.

Traditional knowledge and adaptation Traditional knowledge is not utilised much.The primary reasons for this are threefold;accessibility, status and power relations. Ithas not been easy to obtain the knowledgebecause it has been accessible only to a limited degree outside the livelihood. Further,the knowledge has not been appreciated bydifferent entities, among them the reindeerhusbandry administration.

Professor and EALÁT-Research Project Leader

Ole-Henrik Magga

The traditional knowledge of reindeer herderstakes many forms and Sámi reindeer husbandryis no exception. Much of the discussions in theEALÁT Information workshops revolved aroundherd structure, the importance of castration fordesigning a herd and the importance of language. Herders commented at the work-shop in Finland regarding management andlegislation, that Sámi reindeer husbandry hasbeen assumed to be similar to Finnish, where-by conditions stay stable year after year asreindeer are fed artificial feed. During the work-shop in Finland, herders also stressed thatthey wanted more self governance regardingtheir traditional reindeer herding activities. Traditional knowledge and the future of reindeerhusbandry were also topics of discussion.

In a Sámi reindeer herd, there have always

Traditional knowledge: Sámi reindeer herders use over

200 expressions for snow and snowchange. SDM.

Layers in the snow cover, Kautokeino, February 2009. PB.


been a lot of males. They are strong and theyare able to dig snow. They survive as long asthe bottom is not frozen. Hard snow is not adeterrent to them and neither is an ice layer ontop of the snow a problem.

J. Antti Magga,

Reindeer Herder

Herders in both Norway and Finland notedthat as long as they have autonomy regardingfor instance herd structure, climate changewill pose less of a threat.

If we were not allowed to castrate ourmale reindeer, Sámi reindeer husbandry wouldend. Such a ban would end the culture of Sámireindeer husbandry. [...] Even if we don’t needthe castrated males for transportation, theyare important to the herd. [...] We need themales and we need non-productive females –not only the productive females because weneed animals that can dig through the snow.[...] The Sámi way is that we are always ableto cope if we choose our own alternatives. [...]I think that the first thing that should be doneif we are to recognise the importance of

traditional reindeer husbandry is that the government should support it, and not justsubsidise the construction of fences and artificial feed.

J. Antti Magga

Sometimes castrated male reindeer stillhave velvet on their antlers during winterwhen they are sufficiently «hard» castrated in

Sámi student Elen Anne Sara and senior reindeer

herder Antti-Oula Juuso. PB.

EALÁT workshop in progress, Kautokeino, February 2007. MAS.


Workshop participants in Inari, Finland. SDM.


Hendá Smuk contributing to the EALÁT workshop in Kautokeino, February 2007. MAS.


the fall. In Sámi we call these reindeer stohkkenameoaivi, but sometimes old castrated malesbehave the same way as non-castrated males,they do not have not velvet on their antlers inwinter. We prefer castrated reindeer withoutvelvet on their antlers. If I castrate a male smartly,and don’t hold on too long when closing thecanals to the testes, it is possible that I can geta reindeer without velvet on the antlers allyear round. This makes the animal stronger. InSámi we call these reindeer ruovde∏áluoaivi.

Johan Mathis Turi

In late winter the females are weakest andpregnant females are not strong enough to digthrough the snow but the males are. We needmales to dig through the snow if it is hard. [...]We spoke a little about «close herding» whichin the Sámi language is called guoπoheapmi.When there is little snow we try to keep the

reindeer in a place where we cannot takethem later in the year. That is the idea of closeherding.

J. Antti Magga

Even if the price of fuel increases, we can’tquit reindeer husbandry.

Piera Matti Ruotsala, Reindeer Herder, Finland

It is more convenient to talk in the Sámilanguage. It is easier. I can speak such Finnishthat I learned in school, but not very well. It isa question of mother tongue[...] For me, theuse of Sámi is easier regardless of the issue...every issue...

J. Antti Magga

When we want to talk about reindeerissues, we prefer Sámi [language].

Antti-Oula Juuso

From the opening of the Indigenous Peoples’ International Polar Year, Kautokeino 14 February 2007. MAS.


Observing the herd. April, 2007. Kautokeino. SDM.


When we see hair breakage, then we knowthat the animal is in good shape. An animalwith hair breakage around the neck and to theshoulders is a good animal.

Antti Oula Juuso

Two to three year old males without antlerswith broken hair around their neck are thebest ones. It is because of their digging andgrazing through hard snow. Their hairs arenot broken due to poor physical condition,but because they have the energy to graze.

J. Antti Magga

Reindeer basically have a more or lessrigid pattern of activity every day. It moveswhen its need for food is satisfied, and it calmsdown when resting. This is what in NorthernSámi language we call «veaigi» and «liivat».Both grazing-time, resting-time and synchro-nising can change with the weather condi-tions, with the reindeer’s condition, and withthe season, in addition to that which concernsthe pastures directly. Grazing-time and resting-time can easily be manipulated. The manipu-lation of grazing-time and resting-time happensoften in practical life, for instance by migrationover long distances or when the reindeer is putinto corrals. Sometimes it is also beneficialto break the synchronisation of grazing andresting times to calm the herd down. The herdis like a living organism that is bound to-gether with invisible ties. When some animalsbegin to move this can, under specific circumstances, be a signal that also puts all theothers into motion. This often happens in thetransition between winter and spring, when

the herd wants to move because of naturalcauses.

Johan Mathis Turi

Everybody knows that traditional reindeerhusbandry is based on the use of differentseasonal pastures to utilize the pastures opti-mally. This is an adaptation that permits themaking of a livelihood out of the marginalpastures that no one else can utilise. In prin-ciple, one could create the desired herd com-position in order to adapt the herd to the specific conditions in which one is operating.However we could question who is decidingwhat in this pact of cooperation between rein-deer and humans. The truth is rather that bothare pieces in the play of nature. It is really thequalities of the pastures that define the limitsfor what kind of reindeer husbandry it is pos-sible to establish in a given area, and as suchalso the limits within which humans can oper-ate and manipulate. Today one does not havediversity in the herds that matches the diver-sity of different types of grazing land that onecontrols. The modern herd structure alsomakes the herds vulnerable to for exampleextreme snow conditions, as one does nothave enough mature bulls that are capable ofbreaking through extreme snow covers. Inaddition, this structure has caused changes inthe behaviour of the herds. The type of herdwith only a few bulls moves around a lot andthe pastures are utilised less efficiently than aherd with a traditional structure. This increasein mobility has caused herding practices todayto be completely changed.

Johan Mathis Turi


Explaining and discussing the challenges of climate change for world reindeer husbandry. Honoured guests were

HRH Crown Prince Haakon and HRH Crown Princess Mette Marit of Norway. Kautokeino, 2009. PB.


Dialogue, communication and capacity buildingThere have been a number of steps towardsbuilding capacity in the Sámi region. One suchstep is an initiative of the Association of WorldReindeer Herders and the International Centrefor Reindeer Husbandry project to establish aUniversity of the Arctic Institute for CircumpolarReindeer Husbandry (UArctic EALÁT Institute).It is envisaged that this project institute couldcontribute to a future Sámi University, thedevelopment of which has been approved bythe Sámi Parliamentary Council.

The professional language of reindeer herding is Sámi, and even though the rein-deer herding Sámi speak Norwegian fluentlythey can barely talk about reindeer and rein-deer herding with those who do not speakSámi. Researchers should therefore learn

about Sámi reindeer husbandry and its funda-mental concepts if they are to do research inthis field. [...] Luckily there are scientists thatcan tell us what the problems [related to climate change] might be. And when we cooperate with them, and they acknowledgetraditional knowledge, together we can findsolutions on how to manage in the future.

Nils Henrik Sara

SDWG EALÁT-Information is reported to the Arctic

Council. SAO-meeting in Kautokeino, November 2008.

AX.

EALÁT-Consortium meeting in Kautokeino, January 2009. PB.


School children welcoming participants to the Indigenous Peoples International Polar Opening, February 2007. KU.


EALÁT scientists and senior reindeer herder Isak Mathis O. Eira discussing snow change with HRH Crown Prince Haakon and HRH

Crown Princess Mette Marit of Norway, February 2009, Kautokeino. MCE.



The Yamal tundra, September 2007. SDM.

45

Authors: Anna Degteva, Ole Isak Eira, Leonid Khudi

and Ellen Inga Turi

There have been two EALÁT Information seminars and workshops held in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (YNAO). The firstwas held in Nadym (2–4 March, 2007) wherea series of presentations were made by rein-deer herders, scientists, students, politiciansand administrators, with around 80 people inattendance. Reindeer herders from severalregions of reindeer husbandry in Russia were

represented as well as herders and studentsfrom Norway, Finland and Sweden. The secondworkshop was held in Yar-Sale (22–23 Sep-tember, 2007) which was followed by a one dayworkshop on the tundra as guests of Brigade 17in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise,where discussions continued with reindeerherders.

Reindeer Husbandry in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous OkrugThe YNAO is a large area covering about

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia:

Nadym and Yar-Sale

Reindeer herders' camp, Brigade 17 on the Yamal peninsula, September 2007. SDM.

SámiFinns

Sámi Sámi

Sámi

Nenets

Nenets

Nenets

Enets

Eveny

Yakut

EvenyEveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Evenki

Eveny

Dolgan

Dolgan

Mansi

Komi

Khanty

Chukchi

Chukchi

Koryak

Yukagir

Yukagir

SoyotTofalar

Selkup

KetsEvenki

Evenki EvenkiEvenki

Evenki

Evenki

Negidals

Nganasan

Chuvans

Uil’ta

Inupiaq-Yupik

Dukha

Scotland

Todzh Tuvan

Reindeer herding work, Brigade 8, during EALÁT field work, March 2007, in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding

enterprise. EIT.

YAMALO-NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG, RUSSIA: NADYM AND YAR-SALE46

770,000 km2 of tundra, permafrost, bog andwater including the mouth of the Ob River,and the Yamal Peninsula. With just over ½ mil-lion inhabitants, the YNAO is actually one of themost «urban» regions of the Russian Arctic. Atthe same time, the region is one where reindeerhusbandry is at its most vibrant. Approximately14,000 indigenous people, primarily Nenets,practice traditional livelihoods in the YNAO, ofwhich reindeer herding is at the core. In 2007there were estimated to be over 600,000 rein-deer in the region, representing nearly halfthe total number of domesticated reindeer inRussia, and ¼ of the world’s population. TheYamal municipality, which includes the Yamalpeninsula, is one of the most important regionfor reindeer husbandry (with almost half thereindeer of the YNAO). Around half the popu-lation of the municipality (over 5,000 people),practice nomadic reindeer husbandry.

Dominated by traditional subsistence liveli-hoods such as reindeer herding, hunting andfishing into a rapidly developing region of oiland gas extraction and a key strategic asset ofthe Russian national economy.7

There are different theories as to how andwhen reindeer husbandry was established in the region. The transition from reindeerhunting to reindeer husbandry varies, butdomesticating small reindeer herds for trans-portation would appear to be the first stage8.The latest archaeological research in Yamalsuggests that the inhabitation of the Yamaltundra only began when people learned how touse reindeer for transportation.9

Paleozoologists have discovered middenswhich are located on exactly the same migra-

tion routes that are used by Nenets reindeerherders today. Today, it is hard to imagine theYamal tundra without reindeer and theirherders, and the Nenets represent one of theworld’s largest reindeer herding peoples. Khanty, Komi and Selkups are also engaged inreindeer husbandry in the region.

Climate Change and VariabilityThe climate in Salekhard, the capital of theYNAO is projected to shift dramatically thiscentury. This is according to empirical statisti-cal downscaling of temperature data sets fromSalekhard, but is also supported by the obser-vations of recent climate patterns by reindeerherders and local meteorologists who partici-pated in the EALÁT workshops. The mean sea-

Reindeer are still important for transportation on Yamal. EIT.

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

SALEKHARD: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

7 Forbes, 20098 Benestad, 20089 Federova, 2000

Salekhard: December–February

YAMALO-NENETS AUTONOMOUS OKRUG, RUSSIA: NADYM AND YAR-SALE 47

sonal temperatures for Salekhard (1961-1990)were: -22.9oC (winter), -8.9oC (spring), +11.1oC(summer) and -4.9oC (autumn). By 2070–2099,winter and spring temperatures are projectedto have risen to -15.9oC and -3.3oC respectively.Mean summer temperatures are projected tohave risen to 14.5oC and autumn to 0.9oC.Therefore, by 2099, the range of mean autumn,winter and spring temperatures in Salekhard areprojected to closely track the current meanseasonal temperatures of Kautokeino, and the risks associated with increased climatevariability may be a challenge for reindeerherders. In summer, the average temperaturein Salekhard is projected to be higher than the

present summer average temperature in Kautokeino.

An example of this increased variability wasraised at the EALÁT workshop in Kautokeino,Norway: during the winter of 2003-2004; rainin January locked the pastures with ice in thewinter grazing areas in the Nadym munici-pality. Some brigades responded to this byreturning back towards their summer pastures,others responded by not migrating as deeplyinto the winter pastures as they normallywould. This represents a systemic flexibilityand a key adaptive strategy that may becomemore important should climate variabilityincrease, as is projected10.

Permafrost, on the Yamal peninsula, September 2007. SDM.

10 Turi, 2008


Spring migration across the Ob Bay, during EALÁT field work, March 2007. EIT.

That year we decided to not migrate

over the Ob at all. Instead we stayed

here on the tundra all winter.

There was nothing else we could do.


Brigade 17's pastures in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise, September 2007. SDM.


Winter, 4 years ago rain caused icing of thepastures, a period of black ice, in the Nadymarea [in the winter pastures]. The ice was sohard that reindeer could not dig through it.That year we decided not to migrate over theOb at all. Instead we stayed here on the tundra [on the Yamal peninsula] all winter.There was nothing else we could do.

Reindeer herder11

When we came south, close to Yar-Sale,many herds had already migrated, leavingthe entire area covered with hard snow, [snowtrampled by reindeer often leaves a hard snowcover]. In addition it rained on the 8–9. January, leaving a 2 cm ice cover on top of thesnow. We had no other choice but to turnback northwards where the snow conditionswere better. Our brigade has therefore stayedon the tundra all winter.

Reindeer Herder12

In Russia, we do not yet feel that climatechanges hangs over reindeer husbandry likethe sword of Damocles. But already the fact isthat spring comes one month earlier andautumn come one month later. During winterit may rain several times and the pastures getcovered with ice. This is a big problem forreindeer herders. Large problems for migrationsof reindeer from pastures to pastures appeartoo. This raises the question of adaptation forboth animals and people.

EALÁT-Information seminar participant,

Nadym

Loss of PasturesWithin the Yamal region lie nearly ¾ of Russia’sand over 20% of the world’s known gasreserves, and the Yamal peninsula is the focusof the region’s future energy megaprojects.These new sources of energy in areas such asthe Bovanenkovo field lie beneath reindeerpastures, while their extraction involve anextensive network of roads, pipelines and rail-roads.

For reindeer herders, pastures are a keyresource, and so their loss would represent agreat challenge for reindeer and the herdersthat depend on them. Development in the

Migration in the Bovanenkovo area with Brigade 4, in the Yarsalinskoe

reindeer herding enterprise, during EALÁT field work, July 2008. AD.

11 Nenets reindeer herder quoted in Turi2008: 62

12 Nenets reindeer herder quoted in Turi2008: 63


Sergey Serotetto working with his herd, March 2007. EIT.

But what more can we lose

if we lose our reindeer?


South of the region has already meant a con-siderable loss of reindeer pastures. However,the wider effects of development are at least asimportant. Fishing lakes can be damaged andfish are an essential part of the Nenets summerdiet. Critical pastures may be lost, road andpipelines can dissect migration routes.

Reindeer herders have also complainedthat construction materials have been left ontundra, materials that can be hazardous toreindeer. With this development increasedpoaching of animals, birds, fish and reindeer is arisk, especially as new roads open up the tundra.

The Russian system of managing reindeerhusbandry has many drawbacks. Let us takeYamal as an example. The first priority is givento the oil and gas sector. Railroads and gaspipelines will come to Yamal. If a reindeerherder loses his reindeer, he will lose every-thing he has. For him reindeer are transport,dwelling and food. If the pastures aredestroyed, the reindeer, fish and birds will die.And they are the basis of life, not only for theNenets but for everyone else who lives in theNorth... we don’t have to delay gas exploita-tion, but it must be done in a clever way inorder not to damage the people who live fromreindeer herding. I do not say that gas explo-ration must be prohibited. But what more canwe lose if we lose our reindeer?

Sergey Serotetto, Reindeer Herder, Nadym

In order to prevent a crisis for humans,we have to do everything in our power to pro-tect reindeer and make sure there is enoughfeed available for them … Pastures are our

greatest resource during times of crisis. Wemust therefore try our best to prevent the lossof pastures.

Reindeer herder13

Concerning oil and gas, academician Alferovonce was asked how long oil and gas wouldlast as an energy resource. His answer wasabout 70 years. If we hold our positions inthe tundra now, the Nenets with his reindeerwill reign the tundra after these 70 years havepassed. And all these iron pieces will disappearin the earth.

Former Reindeer Herder, EALÁT-Information

seminar participant, Nadym

EIT.

13 Nenets reindeer herder, quoted in Turi 2008: 62


Reindeer herding in Yamal Brigade 17, in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise. SDM.

«The key issue is

to which extent they

show wisdom.»


Reindeer herders have controlled vastareas of the Arctic for centuries and onlyrecently has the petroleum sector becomeinterested in these regions.[...] oil and gashas appeared and it will disappear, but thereindeer will be there forever. Take care ofour reindeer!

Dmitry Khorolya, President,

Association of World Reindeer Herders

How is oil and gas going to influence the environment and traditional economicactivities? Here we choose the golden middleroad. It is very easy to declare each other tobe enemies of the State. But there exists alsoanother and more civilised way. This is thetrack of dialogue and cooperation and mutualproblem solving by both the protagonists oftraditional economy and the industrial sector.The first task is to minimise the impact on thenatural environment as much as possible. Thesecond task is that this or that developmentshall not make the situation for the other partworse. Last but not least everything dependson the concrete leadership of an enterpriseand the indigenous peoples’ communities. Thekey issue is to which extent they show wisdom.This will be decisive for relations between theworkers in the industrial sector and in the pri-mary sector. Cooperation, mutual under-standing, complementary behaviour and con-sultation with each other is the only and thebest way. The alternative is to declare war, butthis has never brought any good to anyone.

Sergey Kharuchi, President of RAIPON and

Chair of YNAO Duma.

Traditional Knowledge and AdaptationAs with other areas of traditional reindeer hus-bandry, it is the family that binds Nenets reindeer husbandry together. Nenets reindeerhusbandry also depends on reindeer for trans-portation, with some Nenets migrating as muchas 1.000 km annually with limited use of snow-mobiles or ATV’s. As climate is predicted toincrease in variability, the traditional know-ledge needed to structure the herd is ofincreasing importance.

Family-based reindeer husbandry. Ilya and Nina Khudi,

Brigade 4, in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding

enterprise, during EALÁT field work, July 2008. AD.


Gathering transportation reindeer, Brigade 17 in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise, September 2007. PB.


The reindeer herders of Yamal have pre-served their ancestor’s knowledge and aresharing them with others. Reindeer herders’survival experiences are being used by thosewho work with oil and gas, construction com-panies, meteorologists, pilots and road builderswhen they make use of these territories for theexploitation of oil and gas. Because of tradi-tional knowledge the reindeer herders of Yamalare able to do their work even when there isa critical shortage of pastures and new oiland gas exploration is taking place. As long asthere exists reindeer and reindeer herders,the image of Yamal will be associated with theimage of a reindeer herding region. Thanks toits reindeer herders so much attention is paidto Yamal. The traditional way of living of the

reindeer herders of Yamal is decisive for main-taining reindeer husbandry in the Arctic.

Leonid Khudi, President of the Reindeer

Herders Union of Yamal, EALÁT coordinator

In Russia during its long history of practic-ing scientific selection, not a single breed ofreindeer has been created by scientific selec-tion. People’s [reindeer herders] selection has created five [breeds].

Dr. Alexander Yuzhakov, EALÁT Information

seminar participant, Yar-Sale

The ratio of castrated males, non-castratedmales, productive females and non productivefemales may all have increased significance.According to reindeer herders, castrated males

Raisa Serotetto, Brigade 8 of the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise, March 2007. EIT.


The male herd of Brigade 17 in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise. SDM.


have a calming influence on a herd whichresults in a lower energy expenditure for thereindeer and the herders. The structuring of areindeer herd to reduce vulnerability could beseen as a long term project also dependentupon economy, institutional constraints andpasture availability.

Reindeer castration is a key element of traditional knowledge practiced by Nenets rein-deer herders. In addition, castrated males generally live longer, up to 13 years, severalyears longer than their non castrated counter-parts, meaning they also make good draughtanimals in later years.

Herd diversity is a key adaptation and survival strategy. For example, Nenets havemany avkas (Nenets for tame reindeer) in theherd. Furthermore Khaptarkas (non-productivefemales) are also used as draught animals.Non-productive females are considered tostrengthen herd structure, as they are strongenough to persevere during the most difficultmigration period, namely spring.

«Avkas» are very important, since they facilitate managing the herd. They obey people and lead the rest of the herd…[they]respond to human call and can be harnessedin case of emergency.

Brigadier Nyadma Khudi, Brigade 4, Reindeer Herder

That’s why there exist three resources inthe reindeer husbandry: There are the reindeerthemselves, the reindeer pastures and thereindeer herders. As Nenets' experience hasshown a herder can lose nearly all his reindeer.But he can restore the population if he has

pastures and other people around who canhelp. This is a renewable resource... reindeerhusbandry will die, if there are no reindeerherders with traditional knowledge left. It isenough to destroy one generation! The rein-deer husbandry of Yamal is still inherited fromgeneration to generation. If one generation islost, the ethnic basis of reindeer husbandry willbe dead. Well, another type of reindeer hus-bandry may come. But it will be a differentreindeer husbandry. And the reindeer hus-bandry which we have now will be lost. That’swhy it is of the utmost importance to take this

Johan Mathis Turi on the right, participating in the

Reindeer Herders’ Day, Nadym. SDM.


Traditional knowledge of Nenets herders encompasses virtually every aspect of life on the tundra. Raw meat is an

essential part of the Nenets diet. EALÁT field work, 2007. EIT.


Nenets and Sámi reindeer herders exchanging

knowledge, March 2007. SDM.

Sámi student Rávdná Biret Márjá Eira with Nenets youth.

SDM.


spiritual and human resource into considera-tion in all our projects and plans.

Dr Alexander Yuzhakov

...But it is possible to solve this problem. Itis necessary to come to an understandingbetween private reindeer herders and stateofficials. If not, the reindeer husbandry willbe finished. Why did the reindeer husbandry atYamal survive? Due to private reindeer herding.Private reindeer herders have a different atti-tude to reindeer.

Mikhail Yar, Reindeer Herder, Nadym

A while ago, I read in a magazine thatreindeer herders are not civilized. This state-ment was so provoking to me that I spent anentire week on the tundra, with our herd, simply thinking about this[...] Then, a whilelater, we had some visitors from the city in our

chum. It was clear to me that they could nottake care of themselves out here, they didnot behave according to our traditions in thechum, they asked many strange questions – ofwhich some were quite impolite [...] Now whenI come from the tundra and go into Salekhard,I can understand that some may see me asnon-civilised. But out here, it was they whowere uncivilised. So then I realised that thereare actually two types of civilisation: The firsttype is what I call «technological civilisations».It is the kind of civilisation that breaks down ifthe electricity and water supply fails. The other kind of civilization is what I call «ecological civilisations». This is the kind ofcivilization, that is based on nature, like rein-deer herding.

Nikolay Laptander, Reindeer Herder,

Salekhard

Herders in Brigade 17, in the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise, during the EALÁT-Information workshop,

September 2007. PB.

Our intentions are the same,

that is to solve the problems.


Dialogue, communication and capacity buildingSeminar participants and reindeer herders onthe tundra agreed that there were challengesto be faced over the coming decades in Yamalrelated to the complex relationships betweentraditional livelihoods and the coming waveof petroleum development. However therewas a clear desire for increased dialoguebetween industry and reindeer herders, as wellas local capacity building that would ensure thatthe benefits of industrial development wouldalso be felt by those who chose to maintaintheir traditional livelihoods. A concrete rec-ommendation from the workshop in Yar-Salewas to establish a research institute in Yamal

with a focus on traditional knowledge, rein-deer herding and other indigenous livelihoods.

Here the world’s most powerful energy complex and large scale traditional reindeerherding do coexist...That’s why [a proposedresearch institute] must be called the Institutefor Traditional Economy of the Indigenous Peoples of the North. Why it shall be situatedin Salekhard is clear. This is correct becauseYamal today is the centre for maintaining tra-ditional ways of living of the northern peoples.Absolutely everything is accumulated here.The indigenous ways of living and economicactivities are best kept here.

Sergey Kharuchi

Nenets youth, Nadym, March 2007. RBME.


Brigade 8 of the Yarsalinskoe reindeer herding enterprise, during EALÁT field work, March 2007. EIT.


EIT.


I have listened to this seminar. We have dif-ferent problems! We are lagging behind you[Sámi reindeer husbandry]. It is difficult tobelieve that we can catch up with you. Youhave different problems. You have institutes,we do not have them. And here we fight forour existence.[...] But we have started to reachsome joint conclusions. Our intentions are thesame, that is to solve the problems.

Mikhail Yar

These types of activities (like oil and gasexploitation) are non-traditional and have hadconsequences, some of them negative ones.This due to the fact that reindeer herders’ andlocal population’s experiences were not takeninto consideration. I hope that whatever will bedone in the North and in the Arctic, the inter-ests of indigenous peoples will be taken into

consideration, and that there will be as littleimpact as possible on the reindeer pasturesand the indigenous peoples’ traditional waysof living. I would like that oil and gas exploita-tion would be to the benefit of the peoples ofthe North. Oil and gas exploitation will cometo the Yamal peninsula sooner or later anyway.My hope is that Sámi reindeer herders willmake full use of the experiences of Russia andthe Russian reindeer herders there, the rein-deer herders from Yamal included. I say thisnot by chance. These are bitter experiences,which we have got by huge efforts and the lossof a lot of pastures and reindeer which it willnot be possible to get back. That is why Iwould appreciate it very much if Sámi reindeerherders would take into consideration theseexperiences.

Leonid Khudi.

Ruslan Serotetto and Alexander Okotetto: Castration is a critical tool for structuring a herdEALÁT workshop,

Brigade 17, Yamal peninsula, September 2007. SDM.


Five «khaptarkas» (non-productive female reindeer) harnessed for sledging. SDM.


68 SAKHA (YAKUTIA) REPUBLIC, RUSSIA: TOPOLINOE AND KHATYSTYR

The Verkhoyansky mountain range, en route to Topolinoe, April 2008. SDM.

SámiFinns

Sámi Sámi

Sámi

Nenets

Nenets

Nenets

Enets

Eveny

Yakut

EvenyEveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Evenki

Eveny

Dolgan

Dolgan

Mansi

Komi

Khanty

Chukchi

Chukchi

Koryak

Yukagir

Yukagir

SoyotTofalar

Selkup

KetsEvenki

Evenki EvenkiEvenki

Evenki

Evenki

Negidals

Nganasan

Chuvans

Uil’ta

Inupiaq-Yupik

Dukha

Scotland

Todzh Tuvan

69

Authors: Mikhail Pogodaev, Kari Mákreda Utsi

On April 6-11th 2008 a community basedEALÁT workshop was held in the Even reindeerherding village of Topolinoe. Reindeer herdersfrom other areas of Sakha (Yakutia) – Momsky,Verkhoyansky, Oymjakonsky, and also fromthe Krasnoyarsky and Chita regions were present, including a representative of reindeerhusbandry from Mongolia. The seminar was

attended by over 50 people, and additionalinterviews were held with reindeer herdersover the subsequent days in and around Topolinoe.

On 23–26 September 2008 another commu-nity-based workshop was held in the Evenki vil-lage of Khatystyr in Southern Sakha. Khatystyris a centre for taiga reindeer husbandry in theregion. The workshop was attended by over 30people, and also included a session in a taiga

Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, Russia:

Topolinoe and Khatystyr

Community based workshop in Topolinoe, April 2008. SDM.

Domesticated taiga reindeer in Bolshoi Njemnyr, Aldan, September 2008. AX.

SAKHA (YAKUTIA) REPUBLIC, RUSSIA: TOPOLINOE AND KHATYSTYR70

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

TOMPO: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

14 Ministry of Agriculture of the Sakha(Yakutia) Republic, 2008.

Tompo: December–February

SAKHA (YAKUTIA) REPUBLIC, RUSSIA: TOPOLINOE AND KHATYSTYR 71

reindeer herding brigade near the BolshoiNjemnyr river.

Reindeer Husbandry in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is vast –covering over 3 million km2, making up 1/5 ofthe Russia Federation, larger than France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, England, Finland andAustria combined. More than a half of the territory of the Sakha Republic is North of theArctic circle. A region of this size is obviouslymade up of a variety of different bioregionsfrom Arctic and forest tundra, to taiga andmountain-taiga. Only the middle part of theRepublic no longer has reindeer husbandry.

The region is as sparsely populated as it isvast, with just under a million inhabitants ofwhom 6% are considered to be indigenouspeoples. Five distinct peoples herd reindeerhere, namely Even, Evenk, Chukchi, Yukagirand Dolgan. Reindeer husbandry is practiced in23 uluses (regions) and covers a territory of 2,5million km2 which is about 83% of the totalarea of the Republic. Eveny reindeer husbandryis mostly practiced in the North-East of Sakha,but is also present in the North-West and Southof the Republic. In the North West, reindeerhusbandry is practiced by Dolgans and someYakuts. In the North East, Yukagir and Chukchiherd reindeer, though they are numericallyfew. In the Southern mountain taiga regions,Evenki predominate. In 2008, the number ofreindeer in the Republic was just over 180,000with the largest number (20,245) being in theTomponsky region, the site of the first EALÁTInformation workshop in Sakha. In the Aldan

region the number of reindeer in 2008 was11,555. In the Republic, there are currently176 reindeer herding brigades employing 2,055people, including brigadiers, reindeer herders,veterinarian reindeer herders and tent workers.14

There are basically three types of reindeerhusbandry in Sakha (Yakutia) – tundra, mountain-taiga (Even) and taiga reindeer husbandry(Evenk). Taiga reindeer husbandry differs fromtundra reindeer husbandry in terms of differentnature conditions, shorter migrations (if at all),smaller herds and the use of reindeer primarilyfor transportation, among other things.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union andthe transition to market economy, reindeerhusbandry in Sakha (Yakutia) was hit especiallyhard. Large reductions in domesticated reindeerwere experienced – in the 1990’s alone, num-bers were reduced by 2.5 times. With a curtail-ment in breeding work, a rapid increase ofpredator populations as controls were halted,a weakened economy and a reduction of sub-sidies, these were difficult times for reindeerherders and their families and there was areduced recruitment to the livelihood. A mora-torium on the slaughtering of reindeer wasintroduced which has only recently been lifted.

Climate Change and VariabilityClimate data for Sakha (Yakutia) utilised in thisbook derives from Tompo, a weather station 18 km south of Topolinoe, site of one of theEALAT Information workshops in Sakha (Yakutia).Tompo temperature ranges are characterized byextremes. The mean seasonal temperaturesfor Tompo (1961–1990) were Winter (-40.6oC),Spring (-10.4oC) Summer (+13.1oC) and Autumn

Mikhail Pogodaev during a visit to a taiga herd, Khatystyr, February 2009. PB.


(-14.2oC)15. By 2070-2099, Winter and Springtemperatures are projected to have risen to -35.7oC and -7.7oC respectively. Summer andAutumn temperatures are projected to haverisen to 15.2oC and -9.6oC. Even by 2099,Tompo will remain far colder in Winter andSpring than the other EALÁT workshop loca-tions. Tompo is also projected to continue to bethe warmest workshop site in its mean Summertemperatures. The coldest winter temperaturesin places of human habitation are recorded inthis region so starting from such a low base, climate change issues were not seen as a majorchallenge by workshop participants. In dis-cussions on climate change, reindeer herdersthemselves made connections between warmand dry summers and tundra and taiga fires.

Given the cold continental climate, the challenges of winter temperature variabilityexperienced by herders elsewhere was not afactor that was emphasized in the EALÁT work-shops in Sakha. When asked if icing conditionshad been experienced a herder responded:

No, never. There are just layers of early fallen snow. Sometime snow freezes dry aswell, in this case it crystallizes which is goodfor reindeer.

Nikolay Osenin, reindeer herder from Topolinoe

That is not to say that it had never unexpectedlyrisen above 0oC, but it was characterised as avery rare event.

It has happened, a long time ago as Iremember. Once during the reindeer herderscelebration this time [February] it rained.

Maybe that was in 1988 or 1989 but…it wasnot raining for too long, maybe only for 20minutes.

Nikolay Osenin

The speed of change in temperature was high-lighted as significant for adaptation, in terms ofreindeer selection.

If warming or cooling happens gradually,we don’t think it will effect reindeer selection.But if it happens very quickly, of course, itmay have an effect…There will be such ill- 15 Benestad, 2008

Angela Struchkova in the corral. KMU.


nesses as pneumonia, like a man has in asudden changing of weather.

Nikolay Osenin.

Herders did notice that the climate was warming,made visible by an increase in the growth oftrees in the Tompo region.

Gradually the trees are becoming bigger…For us, of course, this is not good, because itwill be easier to lose the reindeer. It will meananother method of pasturing.

Alexander Struchkov, reindeer herder from Topolinoe

The lack of concern about climate change wasreflected by other herders, and a reindeerherder in the Tompo region also played downthe threat posed by icing layers in the snowcover.

I think we should not be afraid of globalwarming, because it is so cold here. Othercountries like Holland, Denmark and islandstates need to be more concerned about it…probably warming happens periodically everycentury. It was always like this. But now theeffects of it are stronger, of course, because ofindustry – smog, factories and pollution [...]


Reindeer herder Mikhail P. Pogodaev in conversation, Reindeer herders’ day in Topolinoe. Johan Mathis Turi and

Ole Isak Eira in the background. PB.

75SAKHA (YAKUTIA) REPUBLIC, RUSSIA: TOPOLINOE AND KHATYSTYR

Alexander Struchkov, reindeer herder from Topolinoe, April 2008. SDM.

It was always like this. But now

the effects of it are stronger...

Reindeer have not really suffered when thereare bad icing conditions. If there is ice-coveredsnow, all the reindeer become emaciated, butmost of them survive.

Alexander Struchkov

Concerning the taiga of Aldan, there appears tobe a wide variation of climatic and topographicconditions even within the region.

The Aldan region has a uniquely variablenature and climate. I live by the Amga river.When it is -40oC in Aldan city, it can be -55oCin Amga. So nature differs considerably.

Vasily Kornilov, Reindeer herder and brigadier,

Obschina «Kien-Uryakh», Khatystyr.

In summer, mosquitoes and gadflies botherthe reindeer, preventing them from grazing.Evenki reindeer herders have developed adap-tation tools that are based on traditional know-ledge. One method is to burn special types of moss together with reindeer droppings, toproduce smoke that keeps insects away. This isalso combined with building traditional woodenshelters for reindeer, to provide shade from thesun and to «contain» the produced smoke.Another method is to utilize areas with frostmounds, if available, which retains lower airtemperatures and hence reduces the amount ofinsects. Summer grazing areas with frostmounds are valuable for taiga reindeer hus-bandry, as are the areas with existing tradi-tional shelters.

Some taiga herders explained that snowdepths in their winter pastures could reach1,5 metres and even higher, making it difficult

for reindeer to reach the pastures below. Undersuch circumstances a type of lichen that growson the trees can be essential.

It can save us if the snow conditions getreally bad.

Vasily Germogenof, reindeer herder and brigadier

of Brigade nr 6, «Khatystyr» Joint Stock Reindeer

Herding Company, in Bolshoi Njemnyr.

Loss of Pastures As for the taiga reindeer herding areas in theAldan region, reindeer herders there face sep-

Tree lichen, Bolshoi Njemnyr. AX.


Gold mining dredge in Nizhny Kuranach, Aldan region, September 2008. AX.


arate challenges, including that of industrialdevelopment and loss of pastures. While Sakhahas not yet experienced the development thathas occurred in for instance the Yamal regionor along the Norwegian coast, there are sub-stantial development plans on the table. Aldanwas a leading region for gold mining in theformer Soviet Union. Now there are furtherplans for a number of mining projects, hydro-electric power dams and other infrastructureupgrades. Construction has also begun on theEast-Siberian oil pipeline.

The challenges of development for rein-deer husbandry seems to be recognized bythe local authorities.

Because we have a relatively intensiveindustrial development in our region, we needto focus on and develop the traditional indige-nous livelihoods and culture.

Alexey Ivanov, Acting Head of Administration,

Aldan Ulus (Region).

There is mining for gold and uranium, a newrailroad and an oil pipeline that cuts throughthe pastures. We receive no compensation, butwe lose pastures. The agricultural sector getscompensation, but not reindeer husbandry.

Ivan Dormidontov, «Khatystyr» Joint Stock

Reindeer Herding Company.

Our living conditions are bad, but if ourlands disappear it will be even worse.

Claudia Tikhonova, reindeer herder in

Obschina «Idjek», Khatystyr.

Taiga herders report that the development ofthe East-Siberian pipeline has had negativeeffects during the ongoing development phase.The Evenki herders visited in Bolshoi Njemnyrhunt wild reindeer for sustenance, usingdomesticated reindeer for transportation andmilking. In discussions they reported a declinein the wild reindeer population locally, linked todisturbance from the development of thepipeline. There had been no previous contactbetween developers and the reindeer herdersin the host brigade.

Claudia Tikhonova, reindeer herder in Obschina «Idjek»,

speaking at the workshop in Khatystyr, September 2008. AX.


The underground East-Siberian oil pipeline construction site by

Bolshoi Njemnyr. Anders Oskal with Evenki reindeer herders Prokopiy

Karamzin, Maria Borisova and Vice-President of Association of World

Reindeer Herders Maria Pogodaeva, September 2008. MP.

Brigadier and reindeer herder Vasily Germogenof and

Anders Oskal inside the pipeline. MP.


There were also worries in terms of possi-ble pollution

The temperature variability could affectthe pipeline. It stretches 300 km across thetaiga. We are worried about accidents with thepipeline. If that happen it would be a catas-trophe for us. The pipeline seems to havebeen poorly researched beforehand. It crossesrivers that could be polluted. That would be adisaster.

Vasily Kornilov.

Another threat to pastures as perceived byherders are tundra or taiga fires. Herders them-selves were concerned with prospects of drier and warmer summers, expecting from

their own experience that this would increasethe frequency of fires.

Here fires mainly occurs from lightningstrikes. If the summer is dry and thundery,there are very many fires.

Mikhail P. Pogodaev, reindeer herder from Topolinoe.

Fire suppression programmes have in manycases been halted altogether.

During Soviet times we were given moneyto preserve pastures from fire. There was aspecial team of 12 firefighters. There was evena helicopter. Now there is nothing. Very muchpastures have been lost.

Mikhail P. Pogodaev.

Site of an earlier taiga fire, Khatystyr region, February 2009. PB.


Alexander Struchkov working his herd, in Topolinoe, April 2008. SDM.

How can one person look

after all the reindeer? To do this it is

necessary to follow them constantly.


KMU.


Traditional Knowledge and AdaptationDuring the workshop in Topolinoe, time spentwith the reindeer and knowledge of individualreindeer was stressed as being very impor-tant.

How can one person look after all the rein-deer? To do this it is necessary to follow themconstantly.

Nickolay Osenin

In any case the herders know their reindeer.Even if there are two thousand they mustknow them all.

Alexander Struchkov

A great deal of attention is also paid to selec-tive reindeer breeding, and herders speak ofthree breeds of domesticated reindeer in theregion: Evenki, Even and Chukchi (Khargin).Animal selection for optimal herd composi-tion was a common theme of discussion during the workshop, including also cross-breeding of reindeer from other areas. In common with other herders, a great number offactors are taken into account when Evenschoose animals.

We look at their body constitution. Welook at the size of their chest and testicles[…], Reindeer with a wide chest are hardy

SDM.


Alexander Struchkov and Motya Struchkova hosting EALÁT participants, April 2008. SDM.


Topolinoe, April 2008. SDM.


and strong for harnessing to sledges. Reindeerwith small chests are very weak and get tiredquickly.

Nickolay Osenin

The selection of animals for castration washighlighted as a critical element of herd com-position, particularly in relation to the formation

of antlers. Colour was also highlighted as acriteria of reindeer selection.

We prefer and try to get reindeer of darkcolour – reindeer of one colour – dark or grey.Usually reindeer of white or light colours areweak.

Nickolay Osenin

A feature of reindeer husbandry in the Tomporegion that was striking to participating herdersfrom the Sámi region was the large number ofcastrated males. The role of castrates in theherd was highlighted.

In order not to allow mating of weak rein-deer we castrate all reindeer. […] Even if it willnot become «buur», a transport reindeer, itwill go for meat, that’s why we castrate themall.

Nickolay Osenin.

Castrated reindeers are calm and do notactively travel around, they mainly stay inone place and eat. For example, during thecalving period, «buurs» dig snow and go away,and as females are with horns at this time, theycome and eat in these places.

Nickolay Osenin

Earlier a sterile reindeer was specially keptin a herd, which was called «ketem». It was

considered that this reindeer «holds» a herd.If there is a such reindeer, it is usually harnessed on a sledge. Now sterile reindeerare mainly slaughtered.

Mikhail P. Pogodaev

A recurring theme for reindeer herders in thisregion was the relatively poor economic statusof herders. The lack of economic opportunitieswas clearly connected to ownership issues inreindeer husbandry in the region.

Our biggest challenge is most likely theeconomy. We need to improve living condi-tions, to keep young people interested in working in reindeer husbandry.

Alexander Struchkov

All during Soviet times we have been livingin such tents. We need to improve our livingconditions, to build houses.

Mikhail P. Pogodaev

Reindeer racing on the Tompo river, April 2007. SDM.


...Every herder has to adapt himself, as you say

adaptation, everyone has their own method.

Topolinoe, April 2008. OIE.


Maria Borisova preparing blood sausages. Traditional food culture of Evenki reindeer herders, by the Bolshoi

Njemnyr river, September 2008. AX.


Private ownership of reindeer is limited in theRepublic of Sakha (Yakutia), and this was some-thing several herders said there is a need tochange, for both herder and animal welfare.

If we bring in private reindeer ownershipinto reindeer husbandry, then it will be prob-ably better… because you will look after yourown reindeer more carefully.

Alexander Struchkov

I do believe that the future of reindeer hus-bandry in our region is private. Because ifyou own reindeer you have responsibility for

them and you will do your best to care ofthem when conditions change. Reindeer arefrom our ancestors who gave us traditionalknowledge.

Vladimir Tuprin, Anabarsky region

Reindeer herders do not have the mostimportant element – motivation. Because themost important factor in peoples’ behaviour ismotivation. The institution of private propertyis the basis of the market economy and is thebase on which there chould be a prosperingeconomy.

Mikhail P. Pogodaev

Discussions with Evenki taiga reindeer herders in brigade number 6 of «Khatystyr» Joint Stock Reindeer Herding

Company, Bolshoi Njemnyr, September 2008. GNN.


Driving reindeer on the Tompo river, Topolinoe, April 2008. KMU.


Private ownership was also related to geo-graphical freedom of action and adaptation.

Yes, of course, reindeer herding will bemuch easier, because you pasture your rein-deer yourself without waiting for anybody’sorders. Whenever and however you canchange the place of pasture, to move to other places.

Nickolay Osenin

Every herder has to adapt himself, as yousay adaptation, everyone has their ownmethod.

Alexander Struchkov

Things were different in Soviet times. Thenthere was planning. We did not need to knowhow. Others were thinking, telling us what todo.

Vasily Kornilov


Taiga reindeer herders in the Aldan region dowhat they can to adapt and minimize theimpacts of development.

Now we try to use fences because of theimpacts, especially in the autumn before winter comes. Every year we have to build 40 km of fences. Each brigade now has

responsibility to maintain 15 km of fences,while we also have to build more of them.

Ivan Dormidontov

We live in the traditional way. [...] We haveto protect the traditional way of life. The newtime now is not bad, with schools and all, butwe will lose too much.

Claudia Tikhonova

We like EALÁT because

it is about life.

Claudia Tikhonova, reindeer herder

in Obschina «Idjek», Khatystyr.

AX.


Community based workshop in Topolinoe, April 2008. PB.


Dialogue, communication and capacity buildingOne of the concrete outcomes of the work-shops has been the establishment of an Infor-mation Centre for Taiga Reindeer Husbandry inKhatystyr. As a cooperation between theregional authorities of Aldan region, the Asso-ciation of World Reindeer Herders and theInternational Centre for Reindeer Husbandry,the centre could become an arena for dialogue

and a major step for improving contactbetween authorities, developers and taiga rein-deer herders. Comments by herders indicatethe need for dialogue.

In our area they are planning a huge hydro-electric power dam. If they build it our landswill be under water. This means we have tomove to the upper parts of the river. One summer, authorities came by helicopter to the


Traditional method of herd control in the taiga, February 2009. PB.

river. They did not see any reindeer herders orreindeer there in summer, but we only usethat area in wintertime. It is a very importantarea for us, both for reindeer grazing andhunting, and we also have fences there.

Claudia Tikhonova

[The oil pipeline] was implemented veryquickly. They should have investigated rivercrossings and such things better beforehand.

Vasily Kornilov

The establishment of a centre for taigareindeer husbandry can probably help us

handle megaprojects on mining of uranium, oilpipelines, railroad development and so on.

Claudia Tikhonova

Herders also communicated a need for infor-mation sharing.

We live very far apart, we need somethingto bind us together. We need information.Today we don’t even have information aboutthe reindeer husbandry here in Sakha. Weneed more contact.

Vasily Kornilov

95SAKHA (YAKUTIA) REPUBLIC, RUSSIA: TOPOLINOE AND KHATYSTYR

AX.

96 CHUKOTKA AUTONOMOUS OKRUG, RUSSIA; ANADYR AND KANCHALAN

The city of Anadyr, overlooking the ice road crossing Anadyr bay, Chukotka, February 2008. AX.

97

Authors: Anne-Maria Magga, Vladimir Etylin.

Between February 25 and March 1, 2008, therewas a series of EALÁT Information workshopsheld in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Thefirst part was held in the regional capital ofAnadyr, with over 50 participants includingelders, herders, scientists, regional adminis-trators and the local media. Workshop partici-pants then travelled to the reindeer herding vil-lage of Kanchalan where discussions continuedin the local school, with the additional partici-pation of school teachers and pupils. The coregroup of workshop participants then travelledoverland and were hosted by herders fromBrigade 4 on the tundra and in the yaranga, thetraditional tent of the Chukchi people.

Reindeer Husbandry in ChukotkaChukotka is a large region covering 737,000 km2

in Russia’s Far East. It borders the Republic ofSakha (Yakutia) to the West, the MagadanOblast to the South and the Bering Sea on itsEastern coast. Unconnected to the trans-portation infrastructure of Russia, for outsiders,it has long been synonymous with remote-ness. Chukotka is mostly situated north of thetree line and much of the region is characterized by grasses and lichens, onlyoccasionally interspersed with patches of

brush. The interior resembles a Sub-Arctic con-tinental climate with fewer storms and lesshumidity than on the coast, but there are muchcolder winter temperatures, down to -50oC.Further North and East the Chukchi Peninsulais surrounded by ocean on three sides. Thisgives milder temperatures but unpredictableweather conditions, making it one of the mostextreme areas for reindeer husbandry in Russia.

The region fell into severe turmoil after thefall of the Soviet Union, which saw a rapiddecrease in population as Russian and othersettlers left Chukotka due to the economic crisis. Currently, approximately 58,000 peoplelive in Chukotka, down from a peak of 150,000during the Soviet era. It has been estimated thatup to 20% of the regions inhabitants areindigenous people, of whom Chukchi are by farthe most numerous16.

Reindeer husbandry in Chukotka is one ofthe primary subsistence livelihoods for indige-nous people, mainly Chukchi but also Even,Koryak, Yukagir and Chuvan peoples. It is pos-sible to talk of two types of reindeer husbandryin Chukotka – tundra and taiga. Tundra reindeerhusbandry, characterized by long migrationsbetween winter (interior) and summer (coastal)pastures reflects the reindeer husbandry prac-ticed in the areas visited by the EALÁT work-

Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia;

Anadyr and Kanchalan

SámiFinns

Sámi Sámi

Sámi

Nenets

Nenets

Nenets

Enets

Eveny

Yakut

EvenyEveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Eveny

Evenki

Eveny

Dolgan

Dolgan

Mansi

Komi

Khanty

Chukchi

Chukchi

Koryak

Yukagir

Yukagir

SoyotTofalar

Selkup

KetsEvenki

Evenki EvenkiEvenki

Evenki

Evenki

Negidals

Nganasan

Chuvans

Uil’ta

Inupiaq-Yupik

Dukha

Scotland

Todzh Tuvan

16 Chukotka Duma, 2004

Gathering reindeer in brigade 4, Kanchalan, Chukotka, March 2008. SDM.

CHUKOTKA AUTONOMOUS OKRUG, RUSSIA; ANADYR AND KANCHALAN98

shops. The origin of reindeer husbandry amongChukchi is unclear. Traditionally, Chukchi societywas bound by the interaction between theChukchi reindeer herders of the inland tundraand the Chukchi and Yupik coastal villagers.Marine mammal hunters and reindeer herderscreated a mutually beneficial trade for food,clothing and goods.

The Soviet period had an immense impacton traditional forms of reindeer husbandry inChukotka. Between 1931 and 1946, privateownership of reindeer was outlawed in theSoviet Union and kolkhozy (collective farms)were established, though the pace of changewas relatively slower in Chukotka. As late as1941, 90% percent of all reindeer in Chukotkaremained privately owned. The post war period saw a focus on increasing meat pro-duction and by the late 1980’s the number ofreindeer approached 500,000.17 The collapse ofthe Soviet Union, a chaotic privatizationprocess, and the termination of state subsi-dies saw a very difficult transition period inChukotka. The number of reindeer fell to90,000 by 2001, the most precipitous fall in allof Russia. The number of people working in thelivelihood also fell, from 2,272 in 1976 to 837in 2001.18

A major theme of the EALÁT workshop inChukotka was underpinned by the story of therebuilding of reindeer husbandry in the region,and the visible effects of the physical recon-struction of Anadyr and Kanchalan. Reindeernumbers are also being built up again, a newreindeer slaughterhouse has been constructedin Kanchalan, and the local school and housingstock have been completely rebuilt. The

regional administration has embarked on acomprehensive review of reindeer husbandryto ensure more stable funding, with a view toincreasing revenue from processing and distributing reindeer products. Private reindeerownership has not yet been revived in Chukotka.In 2008, 92% of reindeer husbandry inChukotka was under either public ownership ormunicipal enterprises. There are currently 16municipal enterprises, 67 reindeer brigades,630 reindeer herders and 285 women fullyemployed as seamstresses. All in all severalthousand people, are involved directly andindirectly in reindeer husbandry.

Climate Change and VariabilityThe climate in the region’s capital Anadyr isprojected to change dramatically in the nextcentury.19 This is according to empirical statis-tical downscaling of temperature data setsfrom Anadyr but is also supported by theobservations of recent climate patterns byreindeer herders and local meteorologists whoparticipated in the EALÁT workshops in Chukotka. The mean seasonal temperaturesfor Anadyr (1961–1990) were Winter (-20.7oC),Spring (-12.3oC) Summer (+8.5oC) and Autumn(-5.9oC).20 By 2070-2099, winter and springtemperatures are projected to rise to -13.1oCand -7.3oC respectively. Likewise summer andautumn temperatures are projected to rise to12.5oC and 0.0oC. Winter months are predict-ed to be warmer and winter will arrive later inChukotka than today, so the risk of late rainsand thick ice layers on pastures as a resultmay increase. In other words, at the end of thiscentury, winter mean temperatures in Anadyr

1900 1950 2000 2050 2100

−40

−30

−20

−10

ANADYR: December−February

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Observations Model


shad

ed r

egio

n: 5

%−

95%

inte

rval

for

empi

rical

dow

nsca

ling.

17 Gray 2001.18 Gray, 200619 Benestad, 200820 Benestad 13/2008

Anadyr: December–February

CHUKOTKA AUTONOMOUS OKRUG, RUSSIA; ANADYR AND KANCHALAN 99

Anders Oskal and Igor Togoshiev (Executive Secretary of the Chukotka Reindeer Herders Union), examining snow

conditions on the tundra, March 2008. AK.


may approach those of Kautokeino, Norway in2007. Herders expressed concern that warmersummers may reduce water availability forreindeer and increase the risk of tundra fires.

The climate is changing here. It is changingbefore our very eyes. Let us take last year asan example: a whole lake dried up. In February2008 a lot of wet snow fell and a double icecrust was the result. We were forced to moveour herds as quick as possible to more suitableareas. Let us take late November – earlyDecember 2007: Then it was raining for awhole week. All the snow melted and therivers were without ice. The reindeer herdersthere were forced to move their reindeer toother places. It happened that they stood in thewater up to their waist. But they managed torescue their reindeer. We have extra expensesdue to the extra moving of herds. [Because ofclimate change]

Klara Gouvranroltat, reindeer herding specialist,

Lorino village, Chukotsky District, Chukotka

First of all.. not all of Chukotka is gettingwarmer. In the North of Chukotka it is on thecontrary getting colder. At all other stations ithas got warmer. Especially during the last 5years.. Black-flies and gad-flies were regis-tered by our stations in the Chaunsky district.But earlier they were not seen there. Thesespecies have only established themselves hereduring the last few years.

Alexey Yevstifeev, Regional Hydrometeorological

Observatory, Anadyr

Regional variation was a theme that wasreturned to during the workshop, particularly inreference to the extreme climate variabilitythat exists in the Chukchi Peninsula.

Summer pastures are really good there[Northern part of the Chukotka peninsula].Just ideal. But winter pastures spoil the picturebecause of regular icing. Every 11 years youmust be prepared for big problems. And if insuch a situation you don’t have the possibili-ty to move, you are lost. This is what happenedin both 1974 and 1994. If you do not havethe possibility to manoeuvre, that is the end...When I worked there and went to the reindeerherds, my hair stood right up in despair. [...]People were helpless; they couldn’t do any-thing to help their reindeer.

Vladimir Etylin

Although Chukotka is in a climatically challengingregion for reindeer husbandry, this variabilitymeans that herders accumulate a great deal ofknowledge about snow and snow conditions,

We often have bad snow. I was taughtfrom my childhood how to evaluate snow andthe reindeer pastures. For this was our life. Wealways looked first at this.

Peter Etylin, elder reindeer herder

Konergino village, Chukotka.

The main thing is that a reindeer herdermust live for his reindeers’ sake. This was wellunderstood by reindeer herders from theirearly childhood on. Only then will a reindeerrepay a thousand fold, for example in the form


Chukchi sledges, packed for migration. SDM.

«Remember, it is not us reindeer

herders who have been the cause of

climate change.»


of high meat quality. Today our task is to makereindeer meat competitive again. In order toreach this aim we must remember well testedtraditional knowledge about the influence ofweather and snow on Chukchi culture. Alexander Valgirgin, elder reindeer herder, Ust-Belaya

village, Anadyrsky district, Chukotka and Chair of the

Chukotka Reindeer Herders Union.

Additional climate challenges in the region forreindeer and herders are the summer tempera-tures which are also predicted to rise. Herdersworry this might increase the risk of tundra fireswhich represents a loss of pastures. Everysummer, thousands of hectares of tundra haveburned in Chukotka. Fires were mentioned byseveral participants in relation to loss of pastures and concerns that these may increasewith climate change.

I must admit that large areas in the forestzone were damaged by forest fires. The wholeAnadyr district has practically burned down.There are many different sites of up to 286hectares, which are damaged by fires.

Olga Mironenko, Chukotka Regional Forest

Department, Anadyr

Since 1989 forest fires have occured muchmore often. In only our district, over one million hectares burned. We are talking aboutan area which is 120 km wide and 230 kmlong.

Alexey Yevstifeev

The importance of finding water for reindeerwas raised again and again – not an issue raised

in other workshops. With higher temperaturesprojected, this may become a greater challengein the future,

In summer, our main task is to make surethere is enough water for the reindeer. This isa problem in our territories too. When a rein-deer drinks well it fattens in the right way. Ifreindeer don’t get enough water they get boththin and flat. Reindeer that don’t drink enoughwater during summer die quicker during thewinter time.

Peter Etylin

Despite these challenges, an elder herderreminded workshop participants that despitethe challenging conditions in which they work, reindeer herders are used to all kinds of «weather».

I will would like to say that reindeer herderslike all seasons of the year. Both the winter, thespring and the autumn and so on... Reindeerherders used to prepare themselves in time forthe next season, they were always one seasonin front. In the summer a herder for examplealready prepared the herd for the coming frostwhile the ground was still bare, when waterwould be hard to get to and when there stillwas no snow on the ground. In other words,the herd was prepared for all possible naturalphenomena.

Alexander Valgyrgin

Several participants still saw a changing climateas a threat. An elder herder made the pointthat reindeer herders were not responsible for


Chukchi reindeer herder participating in the EALÁT workshop, March 2008. SDM.


climate change, while reminding of close tiesbetween reindeer, man and nature.

Remember, it is not us reindeer herderswho have been the cause of climate change.The reindeer know what paths to take. Manypeople have lost their connection with nature,but the animals maintain this connection andthat is why we follow the reindeer.

Senior herder Vassily Nomchaivyn, Brigadier,

Brigade number 4, Kanchalan

Loss of PasturesWhile loss of pastures from tundra fires washighlighted, loss of pastures from develop-ment has not been seen as a pressing issuesince Soviet times, when reindeer numbers weremuch higher. However, a number of develop-ment projects are planned, primarily in themining sector. This has been noted by rein-deer herders and was also linked to waterquality.

But we have problems with geologists.Sometimes geologists illegitimately occupyplaces. Partially this happens in our higherlands where they enter the summer pastureareas. They chase us away and are offensive.Things get especially difficult when they useour reindeer drinking sites for their watertransportation. There were cases when thelips of our reindeer became inflamed, probably because of this.

Zinaida Kaantakai, reindeer husbandry veteran,

Kanchalan village, Anadyrsky District, Chukotka.

Community based workshop on the tundra of brigade 4, Kanchalan, 1st March 2008. AK.

Senior Chukchi herder

Alexander Pelyavge. AK.


Unlike other EALÁT workshop locations, anissue for reindeer herders in this region was thepresence of wild reindeer, which are a challengefor reindeer herders.21 With the collapse ofthe Soviet Union, wild reindeer populations expanded rapidly and this was also cited as athreat to pastures.

Problems started in fact during the 1980’s.The reindeer population increased a lot andproblems arose. We don’t say that domesti-cated and wild reindeer became antagonistsbut there were cases when domesticated reindeer disappeared with wild reindeer, even

whole herds of domesticated reindeer disappeared that way.

Vladislav Nuvano, Chukotka Branch of the

North Eastern Complex Research Insitute,

Russian Academy of Sciences, Anadyr.

As a result, pastures experienced a double bur-den. Formerly herders would move away fromthe migration routes of wild reindeer to otherpastures or ask permission from neighbours touse their pastures temporarily. More research onthis topic and long term monitoring of wild rein-deer herds and their interaction with domesticanimals was called for, to address this challenge.

The «khargin» reindeer breed of the Chukchi. The name literally means «dark» colour. SDM. 21 Family-based Reindeer Herding

(2004)


Fires also result in a loss of pastures inChukotka.

Fires destroy a lot of pastures. Last year Itook part myself in the fire extinguishing workwhen the tundra caught fire. Qualified firemenwere non-existing. As you remember therewere firemen in the villages before. [...] Butnow even our workers who were called in toextinguish the fire didn’t get paid a ruble forthis. Nothing!

Oleg Yatynto, reindeer husbandry specialist

and Mayor of Kanchalan

Traditional Knowledge and AdaptationMany examples of traditional knowledge andadaptations were cited during the workshopand subsequent discussions, covering issues ofherd structure, diet, the role of women, clothingand the relationship with the reindeer.

Our workshop deals with reindeer pastures.I have all reason to believe that our reindeerherders are the living carriers of traditionalknowledge. If these things are combined [scientific and traditional knowledge] it willhelp reindeer husbandry very much.

Igor Togoshiev

I believe that it is very important to pre-serve the ancient history of the Chukchi people. I am very thankful to those who initi-ated and implemented the EALAT project inorder to preserve traditional knowledge inreindeer husbandry.

Anna Kutynkeva, Veterinarian, Bilibinsky District

Administration, Chukokta

Traditional knowledge and how it was enactedthrough the dense trading networks establishedbetween herders in the interior and marinemammal hunters on the coast was cited as theglue that bound both the region and its peoplestogether.

The significance of barter as a branch oftraditional knowledge cannot be overesti-mated. This was eradicated when the SovietUnion drew the borders for the collectivefarms, halting thousands of years of fruitfulcontact. Already ages before capitalism andages before Marx wrote «Das Kapital», marketrelations existed between Chukchi marinehunters and reindeer herders. Coastal huntersand tundra reindeer herders created their market and exchanged products. Fairs fortrade and pleasure were arranged at manysites. In this way a sustainable culture devel-oped.

Vladimir Etylin

Keen attention was paid to the composition ofthe herd – for different reasons – and severalparticipants noted this and that this know-ledge was a gift that should be shared andcommunicated with others,

Once I worked in Ros'hytagyn’s brigade.There I noticed that these reindeer herderswere very eager to engineer the right femalecomposition of their herd. The collective experience of the reindeer herders of Chukotka should be made known to others too.

Peter Omrynto, reindeer herder,

Deputy of the Chukotka Duma


The traditional reindeer sledge of the Chukchi, using two draught animals. SDM.


I consider the Chukchi reindeer breed to beunique, and not only for gastronomic reasons.As for what concerns the areas, all territoriesare good, if we only practice relative bordersand herds can move in a «ribbon route»,reach the salty coast and migrate back to the continental zone where there are no problemswith icing.

Alexander Valgyrgin

Nowadays, no-one will bring us artifical

feed if there is an ice crust emergency. Theonly way out is to make use of the possibilitieswhich lie in the right structure of one’s reindeerherd. Use the possibilities of the herd, I repeat,the herd! The possibilities of the herd!

Vladimir Etylin

I must say that we too have icing some-times. This in spite of the fact that we arelocated in the forest zone. For example, aftersudden rain in the autumn, reindeer lichen

Herd diversity. SDM.


Reindeer grazing on dry grasses. SDM.


gets wet and icy. Then we look for places withless ice and find them in the bogs. The snowmight even have melted there. If this has happened, it gets frozen during the night. Butsuch snow will be dry. In order to rescue theherd we have to move to the forest zone then.Possibly there will be no ice on reindeer lichenthere.

Dmitry Khodyalo, veteran reindeer herder, Hero of

Socialist Labour, Omolon village, Bilibinsky district,

Chukotka.

In the latter years of the Soviet period, there was

a push to increase reindeer numbers and thiswas detrimental to the quality of the reindeer,

The policy of just increasing their numbersdid great harm to reindeer as a whole. As aresult reindeer scored lower on all the para-meters ...That’s why reindeer husbandry firstof all became guarding. Feeding, care andkeeping became less important. That’s why thecondition of our reindeer worsened. Our rein-deer became smaller and weaker. Their repro-ductive capacity was reduced. Their immunaldefence against illnesses was weakened. Let

Grazing efficiency by the herd of brigade 4, Kanchalan, March 2008. AX.


SDM.


me give you an example of this: The skins ofreindeer became weaker. A man of averagestrength and a woman can now tear a reindeerskin. Only very strong people could boastabout this in the 1950’s and 1960’s.

Alexander Valgyrgin

As with many other reindeer peoples in Russia,Chukchi rely to a large degree on reindeer fortransportation and this requires a great deal ofhighly specialised traditional knowledge.

It is important to have draught reindeerfor the sledges, one can’t manage withoutthem. Many young people now don’t knowhow to train such reindeer.

Peter Etylin

Another [reason to have castrates] has todo with transport. Castrates are the best trans-port animals. Reproductive animals cannotbe used for transport during or after the rut.

Vladimir Etylin

AX.


Castrated males are important for another reason and this may be a key adaptation strategy for Chukchi reindeer herders if, as ispredicted, climate variability increases. Thepresence of castrated males offers an insurancepolicy against those times when access to pas-tures is made difficult due to icing,

«Chymnat» [castrates] are the main icecrushers in a reindeer herd. I have talked withmany reindeer herders… they say that the herdstructure is also a way to be able to rescue theherd. Because of this it is absolutely necessaryto have castrates in a herd. When peoplestarted to drive with machines at this farmthe castrates disappeared from the herd struc-

ture. And who then will then break the ice? [...]People would not have been able to domesti-cate reindeer without castration. It is one of thecorner stones of the domestication process...[...] Castrates have many functions in a rein-deer herd. One is that they are the calmest animals of a herd which means that a reindeerherd with castrates quiets down easily.

Vladimir Etylin

Other workshop participants made clear thattraditional knowledge was a key survival strategy for successful reindeer husbandry.

Reindeer herders knew exactly how to manage their herds and what their reindeer

Valeria Nomchaivyna preparing food for the guests, March 2008. AK.


Maiya Nomchaivyna. According to Chukchi tradition, only women may slaughter reindeer, March 2008. SDM.


Reindeer herder Vassily Nomchaivyn and his grandson, Yaroslav. Brigade No. 4, March 2008. AX.


ate. And how much they ate. Reindeer herdersalso knew very well where to stop for a drinking place. They knew when half [the stom-ach] of their reindeer was filled or three quarters of it. Only such balanced feedingcan give good results.

Alexander Valgyrgin

When there only were some centimetres ofmelted water left in a brook, herders would linetheir reindeer up in a row and not cross thisbrook until they had drunk enough. Drinking

places are very important for reindeer. And itis important to that they do this drinking at theright time...

Alexander Valgyrgin

Acquiring these skills of course can only belearned over time and these careful lessons inreindeer husbandry are learned from childhood.

From early childhood we were trained toremember reindeer which looked a bit differentfrom the others. Because of this reindeer

The community based workshop in Kanchalan, February 28, 2008. AK.


The Chukchi «Yaranga» is specifically adapted to the climate conditions of Chukotka. AK.


herders can see whether a herd is someoneelse’s herd or theirs, or whether some part oftheir herd has separated from the main herdand run away. «Always memorize the rein-deer which goes in front, and the ones whomost to the left, to the right and behind».These were instructions based on reindeerherders’ experience as to how to herd reindeer.

Grigoriy Ranavroltun, Chukotka Branch of the North

Eastern Complex Research Insitute, Russian Academy

of Sciences, Anadyr.

It is important to provide the right condi-tions for the herd in order to be able to regroupthe herd when this or that natural pheno-menon occurs. Even a herders «greeting» tohis reindeer are important.

Alexander Valgyrgin

I would like to tell you something: My hus-band Kaantakai spent all his time togetherwith older herders. They often told him: «Don’ttake a reindeer, go on foot! Go on foot! Studythe pastures carefully! Go on foot! If you dothat, you get to know your pastures muchbetter than when you use reindeer transport».And now we even want to fly in helicopters.

Zinaida Kaantakai

The importance of the Chukchi language toreindeer husbandry was highlighted by severalparticipants – as a bearer of the culture, as ameans of transmitting culture to the youth andas a tool upon which the livelihood and thepeople depends,

The EALÁT workshop continued inside the Yaranga, March 2008. AK.


AK.


Reindeer herders…have chosen «koragyn-retgyrgyn». «Korany» means reindeer and«gynretgyrgyn» means «to protect», «to takecare of», «to keep reindeer». In other words:it means that herders themselves have chosenthis hard work. We know that they are the solecarriers of the Chukchi and the Even language.Other people who have lost or are losing theirreindeer husbandry, such as the Nganasanand the Yukagir, have problems maintainingtheir mother tongue. This happened becausethey have lost reindeer husbandry.

Anna Kutynkeva

A topic that was turned to again and again indiscussions in this workshop was the impor-tance of traditional knowledge as it relates toclothing, and the key role that women play inmaintaining life on the tundra.

It’s impossible to survive in our area withpoor clothing. There are so many snow storms.This influences the quality of herding too. If aherder has poor clothing he cannot guard hisherd well. Before our women sewed clothingfor herders who were looking after the herd inthe tundra for a number of days on end. Those

Vasily Nomchaivyn, Reindeer herder, Brigade 4, March 2008. AK.


AX.


herders didn’t leave…they stayed with thereindeer herd. This was possible because theyhad good clothes which were well sewn. Nowthe quality of such clothing is very bad.

Peter Etylin

Women who are young now don’t get any-thing for their work. When they sew and serve,they must get paid for it. Especially when theyare so few. Without them the tundra willbecome empty. And this is what is happening.Young men don’t have girl-friends or wives any

more. They are single. This is very bad for rein-deer husbandry. It cannot continue like this.

Zinaida Kaantakai

I remember endless migrations….Earlier Ididn’t pay much attention to this fact. Butnow while I am getting old, I must say that Ifeel really impressed when I think back to howmuch hard work was done by women in thetundra. Unfortunately there are too few womenin the tundra now.

Grigoriy Ranavroltyn

Reindeer meat is the core of Chukchi herders diet. SDM.


SDM.


It is very important to try and transfer thisknow-how to young people so that they canhand it on later. It is also important to hand onknow-how to our grandchildren.

Zinaida Kaantakai

Dialogue, communication and capacity buildingThe need for contact, dialogue and knowledgesharing was highlighted by herders.

Though our land is very cold and verywindy, we anyway have to do our work. It isvery positive that we meet each others onevents like this one. I think we should be opti-mistic. Meetings like this one, give us extraenergy to move forward.

Zinaida Kaantakai

We very rarely can gather like today. Thisis a fact. I don’t think there has been such aseminar during the last 20 years. A seminar forboth young and old reindeer herders, wherethe experienced old generation can hand ontheir experience to the younger generation.

Oleg Yatynto

A concrete proposal from the workshop inChukotka was to establish a monitoring centrefor reindeer husbandry and traditional liveli-hoods in Anadyr. The purpose of such a centrewould be to address the challenges of climatechange, wild reindeer populations, forest andtundra fires and information sharing.

Anne-Maria Magga with pupils at the EALÁT workshop, Kanchalan. SDM.


Editors

Anders Oskal, International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry Pb 109, 9521 Guovdageaidnu, Norway. [email protected]

Johan Mathis Turi, Association of World Reindeer HerdersInternational Centre for Reindeer HusbandryPb 109, 9521 Guovdageaidnu, Norway. [email protected]

Svein Disch Mathiesen, International Centre for Reindeer HusbandryPb 109, 9521 Guovdageaidnu, Norway Sámi University College, Hánnoluohkká 45, N-9520 Guovdageaidnu,Norway Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Sjøgt 39, 9000 Tromsø, Norway. [email protected]

Philip Burgess, International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry Pb 109, 9521 Guovdageaidnu, Norway. [email protected]

126 EDITORS

AX.

Ассоциация «Оленеводы Мира»Association of World Reindeer Herders

127AUTHORS

Authors

Anna Degteva, PhD student, St.Petersburg State University, Departmentof Geography and Geoecology, V.O. 10th line, 33, 199178, Saint-Petersburg, Russia. [email protected]

Inger Marie G. Eira, PhD student, Sámi University College, Hánnoluohkká 45, 9520 Guovdageaidnu,Norway. [email protected]

Ole Isak Eira, MSc student,International Centre for Reindeer HusbandryPb 109, 9521 Guovdageaidnu, Norway. [email protected]

Rávdná Biret Márja Eira, B.A.Sámi University College, Hánnoluohkká 45, 9520 Guovdageaidnu,Norway. [email protected]

Vladimir Etylin, Chukotka Branch of the North-EasternResearch Institute. Russian Academy of Science, Anadyr, Chukotka, Russia. [email protected]

Nils Jonas Ketola, Sakkaravaarantie 97, 99470 Karesuvanto,Finland. [email protected]

Leonid Khudi, Deputy Head of Department, Department of the Affairs of IndigenousPeoples of the North, YNAO Government, Gavryushina st. 17, 629008, Salekhard, Yamal Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia.

Anne-Maria Magga, BA studentInternational Centre for Reindeer HusbandryPulkkatie 10, 99400 Enontekiö. [email protected]

Dr. Mikhail Pogodaev, Representation of Sakha Republic in Saint-Petersburg, 1/10 Av. Birjevoy199053, Saint-Petersburg, [email protected]

Ellen Anne Sara, BSc.Lismantie 2031 C, 99800 Ivalo, Finland. [email protected]

Ellen Inga Turi, Phd Student, Sámi allaskuvla / Sámi University College, Hánnoluohkká 45, 9520 Guovdageaidnu,Norway. [email protected]

Kari Mákreda Utsi, MSc studentAdjetjohka 9520, Guovdageaidnu, Norway. [email protected]

Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Impacts of a warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. 2005. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Benestad, R. E. 2008. Empirical-StatisticalDownscaling of Russian and Norwegian temperature series. Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Report 13/2008.

Eira, O. I. and Oskal, A. 2007. The Opening of Indigenous Peoples International Polar Year (IP-IPY) 2007-2008,Báktehárji Kautokeino, February 14th 2007.Unpublished Report. International Centre forReindeer Husbandry, Kautokeino.

Gaup Eira, I. M. and Eira, R. B.M. 2008.EALÁT Ánar Workshop Report. Unpublishedreport. Sámi University College. Kautokeino.

Forbes, B. 2009. Equity, Vulnerability andResilience in Social-Ecological systems: A contemporary example from the RussianArctic. Equity and the Environment. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy. 15 (203–236)

Golovnev A.V. 1993. Istoricheskayatipologiya khozyaystva narodov Severo-Zapadnoy Sibiri. Novosibirsk:NGU

Fedorova, N.V. 2000. Olen', Sobaka,kylayskiy fenomen i legenda o sikhirtya//

Drevnosti Yamala. Vyp.1 Ekaterenburg;Salekhard: UrO RAN. S. 54-66

Gray, P. A. 2006. «The Last Kulak» and Other Stories of Post-privatisation life inChukotka’s Tundra. Nomadic Peoples. 10 (2).

Gray, P. A. 2001. The Obschina in Chukotka:Land, Property and Local Autonomy. Max Planck Institute for Social AnthropologyWorking Papers. Working Paper No. 29.Halle / Saale:

Jernsletten, J.L, and Konstantin Klokov. 2002.Sustainable Reindeer Husbandry. Arctic Council 2000-2002. Centre for SaamiStudies, Tromsø.

Magga, A.M. 2008. EALÁT/AWEEN workshop in Chukotka. 25th February – 3rdMarch, 2008 «Monitoring and rational use ofreindeer pastures» Unpublished report.International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry.Kautokeino.

Mathiesen S. D, Heatta M., and Eira R.B.M.2007. IPY – Ealát Vitenskapelig Seminar Kautokeino, 15.-16. Februar 2007, Rapportworkshop nr. 1. Sámi allaskuvla.Guovdageaidnu.

Maynard, N.G., Oskal, A. Turi, J.M., Mathiesen, S.D., Gaup Eira,I.M., Yurchak B.,Etylin,V., Gebelein J. (in press). Eurasian

128 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

References and Resources

129REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Reindeer Pastoralism in a Changing Climate:Indigenous Knowledge & NASA RemoteSensing. In: Impacts of Arctic Climate andLand Use Changes on Reindeer Pastoralism:Indigenous Knowledge and Remote Sensing”Springer.

McCarthy, J.J., Martello M. L. with Corell,R.W., Selin, N. E., Fox, S., Hovelsrud-Broda,G., Mathiesen, S.D., Polsky, C., Selin, H.,Tyler, N.J.C., and Bull, K.S., Gaup Eira,I.M.,Eira, N.I., Eriksen, S., Hanssen-Bauer, I.,Kalstad, J.K., Nellemann, C., Oskal, N., Reinert, E.S., Siegel-Causey,D.,Storeheier,P.V., Turi, J.M. 2005 ACIA Report Chapter 17. 945-988. Climate Change in theContext of Multiple Stressors and Resilience.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nelleman, C., Kullerud, L., Vistnes, I.I.,Forbes, B., Foresman, T., Huseby, E., Kofinas,G.P., Kaltenborn, B.P., Rouaud, J., Magome-dova, M., Bobiwash, R., Lambrechts, C.,Schei, P.J., Tveitdal, S., Grøn, O., and Larsen,T.S. 2001. GLOBIO; Global Methodology forMapping Human Impacts on the Biosphere,UNEP, Environmental Information andAssessment Technical Report.

Stammler, F. and Forbes, B. 2006. Oil and gasdevelopment in the Russian Arctic: West Siberia and Timan-Pechora. IWGIAIndigenous Affairs, Arctic Oil and Gas Development 2-3/06:48-57.

Stammler, F. 2005. Reindeer Nomads Meetthe Market: Culture, Property and

Globalisation at the End of the Land. Muenster: Litverlag (Halle Studies in theAnthropology of Eurasia) vol. 6.

Turi, E. I. 2008. Living with Climate Variationand Change; A comparative study ofresilience embedded in the social organisation of reindeer pastoralism in Western Finnmark and Yamal Peninsula, University of Oslo, Master thesis in PoliticalScience.

Tyler, N.J.C., Turi, J.M., Sundset, M.A., StrømBull, K., Sara, M.N., Reinert, E., Oskal, N.,Nellemann, C., McCarthy, J.J., Mathiesen,S.D., Martello, M.L., Magga, O.H., Hovels-rud, G.K., Hanssen-Bauer, I., Eira, N.I., Eira, I.M.G., and Corell R.W. 2007. Saamireindeer pastoralism under climate change:Applying a generalized framework for vulnerability studies to a sub-arctic social–ecological system. Global EnvironmentalChange 17:191-206.

Utsi, K.M. 2008. EALÁT Workshop in Topolinoe, 2008. Unpublished report. International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry.Kautokeino.

Ulvevadet, B., Klokov, K. 2004. Family-BasedReindeer Herding and Hunting Economies,and the Status and Management of WildReindeer/Caribou Populations. Arctic Council 2002-2004. Centre for SaamiStudies. Tromsø.

Vistnes, I.I, Burgess, P, Mathiesen, S.D,Nellemann, Oskal, A, C, Turi, J.M (2009)Reindeer Husbandry and Barents 2030.Impacts of future petroleum development onreindeer husbandry in the Barents region.International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry.Kautokeino.

«Arctic development scenarios, humanimpact in 2050.» UNEP/GRID-Arendal Mapsand Graphics Library. 2007. UNEP/GRID-Arendal. 29 Mar 2009<http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/arctic-development-scenarios-human-impact-in-2050>.

Declarations, Conventions

Association of World Reindeer Herders.2005. The Yakutsk Declaration. Yakutsk.

ENSINOR. 2008. Declaration on coexistenceof oil & gas activities and indigenous communities on Nenets and other territoriesin the Russian North.

United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Rio deJaneiro, 14 June 1992, A/CONF.151/26 (1).

Convention on the Protection of BiologicalDiversity, 1992.

Internet Resources

www.ealat.org The IPY EALÁT ReindeerHerder Vulnerability Network Studywww.reindeerportal.org The Reindeer Portal.The website of the International Centre forReindeer Husbandry and the Association ofWorld Reindeer Herders. Information aboutworld reindeer husbandry.

www.reindeerblog.org The Reindeer Blog.Latest news from around the world of rein-deer husbandry. Project of the InternationalCentre for Reindeer Husbandry.

www.nrl-nbr.no The Sámi Reindeer HerdersAssociation of Norway.

www.suomaboazosamit.org The Sámi Reindeer Herders Organisation of Finland.

www.reindrift.no The Norwegian ReindeerHusbandry Administration.

www.paliskunnat.fi The Finnish ReindeerHusbandry Association.

www.arcticcentre.org/ensinor The websitefor the project “Environmental and SocialImpacts of Industrialization in Northern Russia (ENSINOR).

www.raipon.org The Association of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and Far East of the Russian Federation.

130 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

131REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Reindeer on migration to the coast, Finnmark, Norway. IMGE.

EA

LÁ

T• R

EIN

DEER

HER

DER

S’ V

OIC

E




Editors: Anders Oskal,

Johan Mathis Turi,

Svein D. Mathiesen

and Philip Burgess

Rein

deer h

erd

ing

, traditio

nal k

no

wle

dge an

d ad

aptatio

nto

climate

chan

ge an

d lo

ss of g

razing lan

d

Ph

oto

: G

avri

l N

. N

akh

od

kin

Ph

oto

: Svein

D. M

ath

iese

n

Ph

oto

: El

len

In

ga

Turi

Ph

oto

: In

ger

Mar

ie G

aup

Eir

a

Ph

oto

: A

lexa

nd

er

Kuts

kiy

Ph

oto

: Jo

han

Mat

his

Gau

p

Nordic Council of Ministers

Report number 2.2009 International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry

ealÁt. reindeer herders voice: reindeer herding, traditional knowledge and adaptation to climate...

Documents

robust reindeer

domesticated reindeer

reindeer husbandry2

ealtinformation project

ealt information workshop

norwegian information

project leader of ealt

arctic council system