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gs NAVES AND NICKNAMES O F THE SHANGHAI SETTLEMENTS

be made, and "E Woo,' or "E Wo" (N a), is the cry. The "Pleasant Harmony" of the firm of Jardine, Mathesou di Co. has lasted longer than that of any other firm in the Far East. For close upon a hundred years since the early trading ventures of Dr. William Jardine, the firm has held a leading place in Far Eastern commerce and proceedings. I ts jetty is the only one left which still retains the Hong name. The E-wo building, now in course of demolition, was the second to occupy the same site, a site which has t h e unique honour of standing in British Consular records as. No. 1.

We have found no need in this dissertation to discuss the principles of name-giving-the science of onomatology. Yet. incidentally we have discovered that Shanghai is no exception to its general laws. We have seen one name from India- the Bund. We have seen another imported under peculiar circumstances from Canton, the Kwangtung Chieh. Another might he named as coming from New York-Broadway. How various native names have been retained we have also. shown. How many of our roads came to be called after Chinese provinces or cities has been made clear. Personal names, also, have been drawn upon. Boone, Seward, Purdon, and Wetmore are American. Balfour, Brenan, Burkill, Carter. and Dent are British, while in the French. Concession there are many French.

Family names such as the Li Chia, or the Si Chia, in the Li Chia Chang and Siccawei, may be numbered by the. t h p ~ a n d in China. It is just the same in Europe. I t is. estiihlated that there,are more than 2,000 places in Great Britain alone in which the "ing" affix shows, as in Kensing- ton. They are common, too, in France and Germany. The. "ton" in Kensington, and the "tun" in Changohiatun in Manchuria are as common as blackberries both in England and China; and no wonder, for the origin, use, and pronun- ciation of the words, together with their meanings are. identical. But this is far too broad a subject to be discussed s t the tail of so homely a topic as the Settlement Names and Nicknames of Shanghai. I t must, therefore be left f o r the present.

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS

CONNOTATIONS1

FLORENCE AYSCOUGH

One of the most important elements of poetry is its "connotation"; that is, to quote Webster, "the implication of something besides itself." If this be true of all poetry how much more so is it of the Chinese which, by reason of its extreme terseness, reduces the art of connotition to the very last degree. The difference between connotation, which is kggestion, and allusion which is reference, must be clearly defined and perhaps the following extract from Wells Williams "hl iddle Kingdom" will make this distinction apparent:-Vol. 11, Chap: XIII.

"It is a sensible remark of de Guignes, that 'the habit we fall into of conceiving things according to the words which express them, often leads 11s into error when reading the relations of travellers. Such writera have seen objects altogether naw, but they are compelled when describing them, to employ equivalent terms in their own language in order to be understood; while these terms deceive the reader who. imagines that he sees such palaces, colonnades, peristyles, etc., under these designations as ha hss been used to, when in fact, they me quite another thing.' The same observation is true of other things than architecture. . . . If for example the utensils used by the Chinese to shave with were picked up in Portsmouth by s o b English navvy who had never Been or heard of it, he would be more likely t o od l i t an ~rptw-&uife, or a wedge than a razor; while ths use to which i t is #plied must of course give it that name, and would if it were still wore 'unlike the Western article.

'Read before the Soeiety, March %th, 1623.

100 CBINESE POETRY AND IT8 CONNOTATIONS CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 101

It is not here that the merits and demerits of the now Imagine for a moment, however, the feelings of a well established "Imagist" movement in modem poetry can Chinese scholar in his grass hut, buried among the mountains be discussed, but the similarity between the methods of of Ssfi Ch'iian to whom a translation of such a poem were the Chinese poets and that of their descendants, the read! ! I His attitude of mind would he very much that of "Imagists" of to-day, is interesting to note. Miss Lowell, the Westem reader to.whom translations of chinese poetly one of the leaders of the modem movement in poetry are presented to-day, and to whom the connotations of writes :- Chinese poetry, arising as they do from a perfeotly alien

-1f I were to define the dominant characteristic of this civilization, mean-nothing, idiom (that, of the poetry of to.day) in E word I should say i t 'suggestion. !the invoking of a place or character rather than d e - Much has already been written describing the technique ~r ib ing it." Of Chinese poetry, (8 technique bye .the bye which cannot be

rendered in translation on account of the fundamental And further : - differences in the genius of the Chinese and other languages)

-1" short poems, can be carried to the extreme, 8s there but as Yet little has appeared in regard to the background is no danger of the reader losing the thread ; in longer poems definite against which t.hat poetry stands in its marvellous vividness. statement has to be more frequently employed, so 8s t o keep the current It is with the object of calling attention to a few of the of the poem eonrtsnt~y before the reader; hut even here, amntivs

will find a different attitude from that of the older poets elements which compose that background that this paper -they told s ~ o ~ ~ ~ s - w ~ do not tell stories, we throw pictures on 8 has been written.

but we ourselves remain in the dark." Before, how-ever, proceeding to study the bsokgrounds

iqo words could describe more exactly Chinese poetry, under their various heads, there is the method of translation while the following poem, by Miss Lowell, is an excellent to be considered. Chinese poems are written in an extremly example of the similarity of method referred to:- 'terse style and in a very carefully chosen and highly

specialized language in which the composition of the chsrac. NOSTALGIA ter is carefully considered and it is often impossible to seize

a poet's complete meaning unless the characters are broken "Through pleasures and palacesM- into their component parts. As the aim of the translator

~ h ~ ~ ~ ~ h hotels and Pullman cars, and steamships . . . should be to reproduce as vividly as possible the pink and white camellias floating in a crystal bowl, Painted by the Chinese poet, it is very important that & d e s ,

The shsrp smell of firewood. of meaning should be as far as poasible conveyed. ~h~~ in

~h~ serape and rustle of a dog stretching himself on a speaking of sunrise or sunset the English language gives little scope for finesse of description, whereas the Chinese pmt.

hardwood fioor, has a t his disposal a variety of characters which he uses mogt ~ " d ,.our voice, reading-reading-to the slow t ickin~ carefully to give the exact meaning he wishes. (See

of an old brass clock . . . "Tickets please !"

And I watch the man in front of me Fumbling in fourteen packets, While the conductor balances his ticket-punch Between hie fingers.

can the art of connotation be more perfectly applied? ~h~~~ is not one of us to whom "Home'Sweet Home" is unfamiliar, in a mental flash we conclude the stanza suggest- ed by the first line, while the second brings vivid pictures of all the of American travel,-of rushing trains,

covered seats, negro porters in blue-grey suits-f marble-floored hotel entrances, weary "clerks" a d hurryink! ,chell.hoys-; & who, that knows America, can fail ta rec&ze the -m which floats before the eyes of the writer?

/.Q".. Dl"," " ,*-, ,

CHINESE POETRY AND IPS OON

R 8

CEISESE POETRY AND ITS OONNOTATXONS

GILES.

Dusk, Twilight.

Hrm.

LITEEAL. Pictograms from Shuo Wen. - Thediml ightof failing day. Analysis : The Sun and fi ure of a floating plant wl ich throws i t s roots t o the buttom of the water-hence meaning of " t o sink."

Pictograms from Shuo Wen. Dawn, Light. -

" T h e first dim light of morn- Haiao. ing," Analysis : The Sun and

ra1,sed mounds of Earth.

Analysis : T h s Sun disap- pearing in grass dn the horizon.

D a r n , Day, The actual moment Sunrise. Morning. Analysis : The Sun on t h e

l 'nn . - horizon.

Pictogram of moon crossing the horizon. The bottom of the planet cannot be seen.

,* The ~ a r l v mormng af ter the

Dawn, Morning, s u n has >isen. 'Analysis : A

Sun shincs out. perlod of t ~ m e , and the figure of a mortar, the idea being

Ch'gn. " i n the early morning the labourers work."

Evening later than " Hsi." ThsSun and figure for "to avoid." A man struggling against evil.

Ea1.1y in the @ Period till about ten in t h e

Morning. morning. Analysis: T h e Sun ""eight of helmet"

TB(LO.

El (Not in Giles or Williams in this form) Dark.

Hsiao.

Dark, night, "K 'ang HSI " explains the character t hus : "The breath of l ight is consumed.

Dnyligl~t , Daytime.

C'hoa.

Daylight. Analysis : T h e period of time between two nights when i t i s light enough to hold a w r i t ~ n g brush.

The Shuo Wen gives no explanation nor does Kang Hai, except t ha t the ehsraeter means "light." Williams says

Ancient Pietoaram of a man Dawn, the Sun.

Haii.

: rising lying on his r G h t side a t night. Night represented by the figure for the rising moon.

Dawn, D'light, Brightness. Daylight-brightness. Analy-

sis : The Sun and the Moon, M i n g . the "two great lights."

The black eolour of night. Analysis: The six divisions of time (2 hours each) when the Sun is hidden. Sun, Day.

Jih. Daylight--simply s pictogram.

The colour of night-and also of early dawn. Analy- sis : The Sun and figure f o r "not." The ides being, "when there is no Sun."

Mid-day, Period 11 a.m. t o 1 p.m. A primitive.

Wu.

f 04 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS

GILES. LITEEAL Pictoerams from Shuo Wen. - - To unite closely, fuse to-

Both, Together, @her. Muehused inpoetry Unite in one. in connection with matri.

mony. Analysis: A hand binding into sheaves small bundles of corn which have been left to dry.

I. Giles 10,357. Totell, toinform,, to accuse, lay a plaint.

11. Giles 10,365. (only entry) "Same as10.357."

- - ' 1 son in their house."

" To attack."

"The moon."

"The heart."

Another good example of the importance of dissecting the character appesrs in the character "su" Z , used by Pan Chieh-yu in her reply to the Emperor (see below). A conversation with a Chinese lover of poetry will soon betray the fact that to the Chinese the composition of the character -although i t may he quite suhconsciously4oes largely influence his interpretation of a poem. It may be axgued that many Chinese are ignorant of this composition m d therefore, miss the fine point-that may he so, but to those who have studied the Shuo W&n 88 Z, etc., the character i s there to be analysed or not according t o their scholarly ability and knowledge; the Western reader is not in the same position; unless the translator assists him, he cannot know what the beautiful little picture used by the Chinese poet is. a little picture which undoubtedly does convey many of the. "overtones of Chinese poetry."

BACKGROUNDS. Topography.-Firstly, what were the natural scenes

which came before the mental eye of the T'ang poet and which he attempted to picture t o his readers?

Ch'ang An S4 S:, city of "Eternal Peace," was then the Capital of the Empire, the seat of learning, and the home of the arts. I t stood to the south of the Wei Waters, 3W * and within a stone's throw of H s ~ e n Yang !Z YI city of "Complete Brilliance" the more ancient capital, founded by the sncestors of the great Shih Huang Ti and created first.

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 105

oapitd of United China hy him; so near do the two sitea lie, in fact, that the poets seem to use the names almost interchangeably.

To the south of Ch'ang An. (the present Hsi An-fu i n Shensi) lay Ssh Ch'iian that pravince of marvellous scenery, where the mountains, which are really the foot-hills of Tibet, pile themselves up tier upon tier. One range known as the Mountains of the Two-edged Sword was, and is, especially famous; i t formed an almost impassable barrier between ihe provinces, the great Chu KO-liang, therefore, ordered that a road-way of the kind generally known as Chan Tao kl 9 (that is one made of logs laid on piers which are driven into the face of a cliff and kept secure by mortar) be built, so that travellers from Shensi might he able to penetrate the heart of Ssd Ch'uan. This roadway is des- cribed by Li T'ai-po in a very beautiful ' 'T'zt~" 3. "The Roadway of the Two:Edged Sword." I n Ssh Ch'iian, too, lay t.he distriot of P a E where the "Serpent River" wound its way through deep ravines; to the south again rolled the great Yang Tzu iEf +, Son of the Sea, with its famous Gorges, among others the San Hsia 38, Three Chasms, which the poets never tire of referring to, they "press green Heaven"

L to use the words of Li Po. Among these scenes the poets lived and sang and it is

not strange that a very speoial phraseology with very definite connotations should have grbwn up. The picture of ru

r cavalcade of travellers crossing a mountain pass will, if com-

I pared with the key, give an idea of what was in the poet's mind, when for instance he spoke of a "flying spring" R P or a "suspended precipice" #8 &!. If these, however, were the scenes in the poet's mind when he wrote of Ssh Ch'iian how very different were those which flashed before his mental eyes when his thoughts followed the soldiers to the far north- west! !-to the country where the Hsiuug Nu $ @ m d other Mongol tribes lived-'hose Barbarians, as the Chinese called them, who perpetually desired that their horses should "drink of the streams of the SouthH-who have harrassed the Chinese Empire since its earliest days. As a defence against them the "Fimt Emperor" erected the Wall which runs for 10.000 li, which, however, could only palliate, not cure the evil; only constant effort, constant fighting, could prevent the Mbngol hordes from over-r~~nning the country.

Beyond the "Jade Pass" I W in Kansu, through which the soldiers marched, lay the desert and the steppes stretch- ing to the very edge of Heaven, and on the "Edge of Heaven" stood the "Heaven-high Hills." while on the way surrounded by miles of sand, lay the Ching Hai W the Green Sea. A dreary region at best, and peopled by the ghosts of countless soldiers who had fallen in battle.

106 CHINESE POETRY AND IT8 CONNOTATIONS

Besides these backgrounds of actuality, that of t he Fertile Empire, and that of the Barren Waste, there was another-that of the "Wqstern Paradise" peopled by the Hsi Wang Mu F!l E % and those nun~berless beings who,

after a life in this world had attained Immortality, and lived among the "hqien" a. This blessed region of perfect happiness was supposed to lie among the K'un Lun B # Mountains in Central Asia, and from the spontaneousmanner

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 107

in which they contmually refer to i t , and from the vivid pictures suggested in reference to it, one can almost question whether this Fairy World, the World of Imagination with its

MA I<" or Tne WESTERN P I ~ L D ~ S E

:. inhabitants, xvas not as real to the writers ob those early days as was the World of Sense. Thus the "Topography" of Chinese poetry may be said to [all into three main divisions and the connotations a1.e :

I .-To the bcaniiEnl scenes in what are now the "Eighteen provinces of China."

2.-To the desolate region which lies hevond - the "Jade Pass."

3.-To the ulorions "Western Paradise.'' h'i,tu.~al H i s t o r y . l I n addition t o the topo'graphical

there were also the Zoological and Botanical backgrounds, if they mag be so described, which play s most important part in both Chinese poetry and in the twin art of painting. It is almost a truism to remark that these manifestations of ar t , poetry and painting, these merliums of spiritual expres- sion should, in China, be studied together. "4 picture is a painted poem-a poem is a nrritten picture." This thought is uppermost in the mind of every Chinese scholar-and scholar, poet, nnd painter are practically synonymoils terms.

Zoolog!/.-Broadly speaking the dragon may be said to symbolize the forces nf Heaven, the tiger those of earth. The philosopher who by living a life of contemplation among the mountains attains t o Hsien-ship, that is to immortality. mounts s "white dragon" and ascends t o the Western Para-

108 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS

dise, there t o "pick the fairy grasses" and t o partake of the various growing things which ensure longevity. As far as the d ' connotations" of Chinese poetry are concerned, however, more important than either of these creatures are the birds; f i r s t l ~ the F&ng Huang ntl m, which as the symbol of the Empress-is associated with the Dragon symbol of the Em- peror. Someone, probably in desperation once translated the "FAng" as "Phoenix" and this name has been used ever since; i t seems, ho'~x-ever quite wrong-to students of western literature the word "phoenix" suggests a bird which, being consumed by fire, rises from its ashes. The FSng has no such power, the description of this lovely creature reads:-

The Chinese " F h g Huang" or Phoenix, i s probably based on the Argus pheasant. I t is described as adorned with every eolour, and combines in its form and motions whatever is elegant and graceful. while i t possesses such a benevolent disposition $,hat i t will not peck or injure living insects, nor tread on growing herbs. Like the kylin it has not been seen since the halcyon days of Confueius, and from the account given of i t seems to have been entirely iabulous. The e t y m o l o ~ of t h e characters implies that i t is the emperor of all birds. One Chinese author describes it as "resembling a wild swan before and a unicorn behind; i t has the throat of a swallow, the bill of a cock, the neck of a snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead of a crane, the crown of a mandarin drake, the stripes of a dragon, and the vaulted back of a tortoise. T h e feathers have five colours, which are named after t h e five cardinal virtues and i t is five cubits in height; the tail i s graduated like Pandean pipes and its song resembles the music of the instrument. havine five modulations."

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATION8 109 E

The female is the "FAng," the male the "Huang,:' and the two words are used together or alone as the case may be. It is not the symbol of "hope" or of eternal resurrection but of love, friendship end affection of various kinds. I t is also the bird of good omen, and as i t will only perch upon a Wu T'ung W m, a, specimen of this tree should he planted before the house, if one hopes for a visit from the FSng Huang and the resulting happiness. After the F&ng Huang, and sometimes confused with it, comes the Luan a sacred hird connected with fire and an emblem of love such as exists between young men and women. Thus in an exquisite "Tz'b" by Li T'ai Po a young wife in writing to her absent husband describes how "nightly, nightly, she drowses alone under the quilt of the "Luan" % on the bed of the "Huang." The references to these birds-the Feng Huang, and the Luan-are endless and always suggest affection of various kinds. The Yiian Yang SB JZ1, that is the male and female of the mandarin ducks, have, on the contrary, hut one connota- tion. A reference to these ,birds is invariably a reference to conjugal fidelity. To quote Li T'ai Po again, rather than be separat.ed these birds would find i t "better by far t o die ten thousand deaths and to have their wings, which are like coloured gauze, torn into fragments. "

It is impossible t o speak of all the birds which are men- $. tioned as connoting various virtues or characteristics, but

one cannot omit a reference to the wild geese who follow the course of the sun, who fly in a perfectly straight line towards the objective they wish t o attain. Their arrival suggests the autumn-their departure the spring.

Supernatural Beings.-These can, perhaps, be classified as. well under "Natural History" as under any other term, and ofthese, besides the "Hsien" already referred to, there are the "ShAn" 19, the "Kuei" 81, and the "Yao Kuai" BS.

Korx oa FLOOR BELOW - 5 ~ 6 ~ l sove

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 111 110 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS

The "Kuei" inhabit the grave w h i ~ h connects with the "World of Shsxles" and are a portion of the souls of t he departed; and although there are kindly Kuei the influence suggested is generally an evil one; the Shen on the contrary are beneficent personages who inhabit the higher regions and who, in addition to their other duties (which are many as the 6hBn are the tuielary deities of the roads, hills, rivers, etc., and are very busy) they intervene ta rescue people from nny attacks from questionable sources.

The Yao Kuai are a class of fierce creatures who live in the wild regions of the south-west, and who delight in the arrival of travellers because they like to eat the flesh of human beings, and in the sparsely popuhted districts which they inhabit are often denied their favorite fwd. Exiled officials whose road cnrried them through these fearsome portioils of the Empire thought of the Yao Kuai with terror.

Dotany.-The flowers, plants and trees which have their definite connotations make an nlmoat endless list. A few of the more important are :- .

Flowers and Plants

Poeony = Riches and prosperity. Lotus = Purity. Although i t rises from tilo mud it is ure and spotless Plum-62opsont = "The First." It is the first of the l d f lowera to open,

and therefore sug,nosts the beginnings of things. Lon hua=Noblc? inen and beautiful retined women. Confucius com-

nnred the "Chun Tzu" to this little orchid with its exquisite scent. r - - - and in poetry i t is also used in constant reference to iha women's a ~ a r t m e n t s and everything connected wtth them. Refinement is i t s cilief characteristic.

C~y8avthe?nunl = Fidelity and constancy. In spite of the frost the flowera continue to bloom.

Ling Chih =Longevity. This fungus, which grows a t the roots of trees, is very durable when dried.

Trees

Pine = Longevity, immutability, steadfastness. Bamboo = 1. Modesty; 2. Protection from defilement; 3. Inalterability.

These are the chief three of its seven virtues. 1Vu Tcunq=lntegri ty ; High-principles : Great sensibility, ss when

"autu'mn stands." Aueust 7. although i t is still hot the W u T'una ~~~~~~ -~

"dro s one leaf:" 0;ly it; wood can be used for the Ch'in, oy "tabL-lute," on an extremely intimate instrument which betrays the feelings of the person who is playing it.

Willow = A prostitute, or any very frivolous ersan. It also conveys because of i ts lightness and pliability the i i e a of extreme vitality.

Peach = Beautiful women, because of its exquisite colour; also 111- success in life, as one shower of rain destroys i ts beauty.

Mulberry =Ut i l i ty : also suggests a peaceful hamlet. I t s wood is used for the making of bows, and of the wooden drums known sll "mo yii" wood fish used in temples. I t s leaves feed the silk-worma.

Plainloin = Grief cnd'sadrikss,.' It is symbolical~of a h e a r t t h a t is not "flat" or "level" as the Chinese say, not open and carefree, b u t one tha t is "tightly rolled" t ha t is which hides its care. T h e sound of rain on the leaves is very mournful, therefore sn allusion to a plaintnin ia sad. It is planted outaide windows which %re glazed with silk in order to soften the light of the sun, its heavy green leaves being very useful for this purpose.

To a Chinese reader all these connotations are instantly eom~rehensible and of course make a Doem extremely vivid. and suggestive.

Architectu~e.-In the translation of Chinese ~ o e t r v there is perhaps no point which should more constantli be Gept in mind than the fact that the architectural background of China is utterly different to that of any other country, and that unless s vivid picture of the various buildings and appnrt- merits referred to exists in the mind of the reader, it is quite impossible to grasp the connotations of Chinese poetry. Another point, and one which seems to be, generally spesk- ing, ignored by those who have already made translations, is that our language does not possess terms which adequately describe the homes and buildings of the Chinese. Phrsses must therefore be used which will make clear to the Western reader the kind of building referred to.

Dwelling Houses.-Apart from the humble cottages of the very poor, the dwelling houses are built on the same general plan-th'atis they consist of a series of buildings divided by court-yards, which, in the case of the wea.lthy are cwnected by covered passages. Ench building is divided into "cliien': W or "divisions;" the number varying according to $he official position of the owners; thus the homes of the people both rich and poor, consist of buildings containing three or five "chien"-official residences are of seven chien, while Imperial palaces are of nine. The number of buildings varies considerably and is constantly being added to as the sons bring home their wives and as the family outgrows the original "chia" g.

A study of the attached plan will reward the reader with a clear idea of the general. arrangement of the numerous edifices which constitute a "chia" and of the uses to which they are put.

Many of the references in poetry to the "Kuei" or women's apartments which open on t o the "Hou Ting" $ @ or back court are in most picturesque terms. Thus the windows are spoken of as "gold" or "jade" windows, while the door is called the "Lan" Kuei R BS the orchid door; mdeed the "Lan" that sweet scented little epidendrum is,

114 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS

12.-Hou T'ing Zp @. At the back is the "Flower Wall"=a wall with apertures through which flowers can make their way. The HOU T'ing is much used by the women. ,

13.-Nzr Hsio Fang k 1; = room for women servants. 14.-Fo Lou $3 t f = Buddha Apartments, a two-storied structure,

where images of "Po," Kmnyin , ete., are kept. Ordinarily i t i s locked. oeaole cannot go up unless ther have washed and put on clean - . olothei. ' '

15.-Tse Shih @IS= a side house, where poor relations can live, and which i s generally used by concubines (the latter may not enter the "kuei")-a wall is to the south of i t snd guests may not penetrate further than this wall.

16.-Tung Hun T'ing ZE = the eastern flower hall. 17.-Tui T'ing B IQ= the "Opposite" Hall. These two t'ing are

used far theatricals, a cloth covering is stretched over the court where the guests si t , facing south, while the stage faces north from 17. A wall divides the t'ing from the rest of the house.

18.-Nan Hsio Fang X + E = house fo r the men servants, divided as f a r as nossible from the auarters of the women servants. It i s also -- -

convenieni to the great gate where guests enter. 19.-To Shu Fans k B IS = the great study, where the teacher " - -

instructs the sons. 20.-Hsi Hun T'ing I& = where guests are entertained at

meals, flower garden on either side, also walls which prevent either study or women's apartments from being seen.

21.-Tse Shih i% = can be used by the ladies of the house as a study, or a place to embroider or write-the light is very good, whereas in the "kuei" i t is not so good.

22.-4h'u Fang B = kitchen, near 20, where the men dine, and 21, where the ladies dine.

23.-Ch'a Long @ gB = crooked passage. 24.-Shu Chai Z$48 = a study. 25.-Hsien @? = a long, low. covered, out-door passage, or gallery. 26.-Ma Fang ,g B= stables, fa r from the house, near the garden,

f o ~ mamlrc Rcino rather f a r from the house. the houses are kept ... ~~ ~. -. ready during the day by the great gate.

27.-Hua Yuen K Fi = garden, arranged according t o taste, with oavilions. and so forth-must be water.

28.-kai So fij = Privy.

The garden is reached by doors leading from the study and guest room, snd from the women's apartments. ,The doors are of various shapes, that leading into the Tung Hua T'ing is round, so that many people can pass through easily. while those leading from the study, women's rooms, and so forth, are "leaf," "fan," "flower vase" doors, and other shapes.

T'ai i or terraces were very varied and ranged from the small square stage still used in private gardens and known as a "yueh t'ai" where one may kit and enjoy the moon-light, to the famous structures like very high, long platforms, built by the Emperors and Officials of old days for various reasons. Of these a certain number are constantly referred t o by the poets, the most famous being in Shansi.

CHIXESB POETPIY AXD ITS CONXOTATIONS 115

1.-Xh'iung T'ni : the Terrace of Red-veined Marble, built 1786 B.C. by Chieh Kuel of the Hsla dynasty for the very beautiful and "en, wicked Mo Hsi his rnnr,,hine ~-~ - ~ ~ . , ...~

2 - - Y o . T'u' & PI . the 'Tecrai r of iir...: J a s p r ; \,ullr i n Honnn 1112 kt' b.v I k u u H ~ i n of the >ham dr:larrv i,,r 1%. ~ ~ . f l m ~ . ~ > ~ T.a Chi

~ ~~~-~ ~ ~~-

who isregaided as ~ e r h a p s the mo~ide'~rav;d woman in history. 3.-Fr'ng N n T'oi I& * a : built in Shensi 645 B.C. by Ch'in

Mo Kung one of the ancestors of Shih Huang T i to celebrate the flageolet playing of his daughter Lung Yu who, having learnt her a r t from the divine youth Hsiao Se, (whom she; eventually married), was able ta attract the FCng Huang to the Terrace where she and Hsiaa Se lived for a "ear before t,hev hersma immnrt.ll " ~~ ---.....4--...-.." ....... "

4.-Ku Su T'oi @ 6. : Terrace of the Ku Su Hill, built i n Kiangsu (Soochou) 4% K C . by Fu Cha King of Wu for the lovely Hsi Shih, who had been sent to him bv the Kine of Yueh and who ~ ~~~~ --..d ------... " - " .....-...

5 4 h ' i n g Ling T'oi 99. R g : Terrace of the Green Sepulchre. built a t K'ai Feng-fu, Honan 321 B.C. by Kang Wang of Sung, ( the Six Dynasties "Sune"l. It has a mast romantic historv. It was not large but was very gigb and was built so that Kang wang could look down into the home of his Official Han Peng who had s most lovely wife.

6.-Po Liang P o i j : The Cedar Beam Terrace, built 108 B.C. bv Han Wu Ti. When i t was finished the ereat men of the Empire were invited to a feast. This was the occasion upon which the first 7 character "lu" was written, the Emperor himself giving the first line, which was then capped by various officials in turn.

7.-Turg Tso T'ni a S : Bronze Wood-pecker Terrace, built in Honan A.D. 217 by Ts'ao Ts'ao. for the use of his concubines.

8.-Chin flu T'ai & B S : Gold Tiger Terrace, built by Ts'ao Ts'ao for use of hil mnc~ lh in i i

~~~~ .- ...- ". 9.-Ping Clbing T'ai jh #. gC : Ice Well Terrace also built by

Ts'ao Ts'no for same use. 10.-Ling Hsioo T'ai 8 a : R,ising Mists Terrace, built on t h e

Huang Sban a 111 Yellow INountains, Anhui. A D . 420 by W u T i of Sung (Six Dynasties) as a summer residence for his best laved con- cubine whom he took there to avoid the heat.

11.-Ping H u n g T'ai I& 5 S : built in Nanking A.D. 439 by Wen T i of Sung (Six Dynasties) to celebrate the appearance of these fabulous birds which were supposed to have been seen near the South Cztc of t,ha C i i x ~ -. ---- --~..

12.-Ya Hun T'ui fi K : Rain Flowers Terrace, built in Nanking A.D. 543 by Wu Ti af Liang to celebrate an occasion when a Buddhist ~ r i e s t chanted a sutra and "Hcauen rained flowers."

There are perhaps no people in the world who are more passionately fond of nature than are the Chinese, and i n addition to their large homes, the rich often indulged in Pieh Shu BB 4! or country villas set in most beautiful and peaceful surroundings; scholars who were unable t o afiord such luxuries contented themselves with t,iny dwellings among the hills to which they retired and lived a life of con- templation.

SOCIOLOGY. Home Life.-Having seen the manner of house in which

the people of China liued let us consider for a moment the

116 CHISESE POETRY ASD ITS C O ~ K O T A T I O N S

life they led, the clothes they wore, and the occupations i n which they took pleasure.

Deep respect was of course paid to the elders of the family who were dutifully attended on all occasions by their sons, daughters, daughters-in-law, and grand-children.

The men of a wealthy family were as a rule of official rank, they led, therefore, a life in touch with the outer world. a life of sdcial intercourse with other men in which friendship played an all engrossing part. This characteristic of Chinese life, this intimate friendship between men is one of the most striking features of the poetic background. Love poems from men to women are so rare as to be almost non-existent, but poems of grief written by men a t parting from the "man one loves" are innumerable. L i T a i Po in writing to the famous courtesan Hsieh Tao addresses her as though she were a fellow man, and a friend. To sit with ones friends sipping wine and humming verses, making music or playing chess, were the favoriie pastimes in the glorious days of T'ang, while to retire from the world completely and live in communion with Nature was the ideal which every scholar hoped, in time, t o realize.

The use of wine was general and although i t was un- doubtedly often mis-used, i t is probable that this misuse has been exa"ggerated.

The Chinese word "tsui," which is, as s rule, translated in the colloquial as "drunk," as used in Chinese poe tq , desig- nates a stateof "stimu1atio~n"produced by the controlled use of wine. "Ta tsui" (big tsui) means drunk, nolongarnatural; con- trol is lost. "Cb$n tsui" means drunk, unable to move; still oonscious and able to talk, but talking nonsense; the "ChAn"

' means "sunk like a stone." "Lan tsui" (rotten tsui) is stronger than "ChBn tsui;" a person does not know where they are, they cannot speak; they are not conscious, but "dead drunk," like a dead person. "l<u'ang tsui" (mad dog tsui) means crazy with drink; violent and disorderly. These states, however, the poets seldom reach as, of course, did they do so,, their object in drinking wine mould not he attained.

What is the object? It is t o key the sense to that pitch when all the sights and sounds of nature are most keenly appreciated, when the poet feels a veritable ecstasy a t the sight of flowers and birds, moonlight and the ~ e t t i n g or rising sun. Li T'ai-pa's exquisite little poem, which follows, per- fectly describes the state. .It has been translated more than once, but one can perhaps appreciate more exactly what the pa,et means if one studies the text with a Chinese schclar who loves poetry.

CHIKESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 117

The words in parenthesis are those of the scholar who is explaining the poem.

UNDER THE Moos, SIPPING WINE ALONE. Among flowers-a jug of wine. Alone, sipping wine with no intimate companion. I l i f t my cup and invite the bright moon to be my guest. M y shadow is opposite to me, thus making us three. The moon is already unable t o drink

(Being inanimate haw can i t?) My shadow fallows my body in vain

(It is of no practiczl "use as a companion, as i t also cannot diink wine).

For a very short time, the moan and my shadow are my companions, (1,i T ' a i~po is thinking of the speed with which time passes).

Be joyful!! ! I t is necessary in the spring. (This 8th line connects as i t wero, with the first. I n that the poet spoke af flowers, and brought spring to mind. This line makes the picture more vivid. Li T'ai-po thinks that man should enjoy his spring time-his youth, to the very utmost-that i t is his duty t o make tlio most of every g i f t of beauty that has been given him, in order tha t he may not reach a "futile" old age having missed many opportunities).

I sing-the moon mores graduallv an i ts way. (The 'sing' connects this line Gith the last, it springs, as i t were, from the 'joyful'; the image of the moving moan gives l i f e to the poem, and that is the most important feature a poem should have, the poet's idea is tha t the moon seems to be moving rythmically in time to his song).

I dance,-my shadow takes strange shapes on the ground. (The 'dance' follows of course on the 'sing' and 'he joyful,' the posturing dance of the Chinese is an expression of jay, and as L i T'ai-po gracefully moves, his shadaw seems no longer tha t of a person but is confused on the ground).

In my waking moments we are interlocked in happiness. After the drowsiness, which follows the sipping of wme, overcomes me

we are separated, our union no longer exists. (As he lies asleep on the ground he is of course unconscious of the mwn and how has he any shadow9 He, his shadow, and the moon are no longer one, but three ent~ties).

For endless time I am bound up in and find my joy in those things which have no human passions.

(Li T'ai-po feels that hecnuse he is capable of emotions end sensa. tions, he can find ecstasy in communion with the manifestations of Nature, which have no&).

We will meet then together in the vast, boundless, Cloudy River. (When he sleeps he will dream of the mwn in the "Cloudy River," whleh is our "Milky Way," and will believe that he and his shadow are there also).

It is hardly too much to say that the Western conception of the Chinese poet (which is that in many cases he is a "drunken reveller") is entirely wrong. I t is due to an absolute misunderstanding of the word "tsui"-used as i t is used in poetry. The accounts most often quoted oE Li T'ai-po show that he himself unquestionably did upon occasion reach a state which would be called "ta tsui," but even then his control was such that he could write marvellous verse.

Travel was extremely popular, (though only the rich could travel in comfort) and the poeta especially wandered far m d wide throughout the Empire. The life of the women was very different to that of the men, if the latter could travel and enjoy the beauties of natural scenes, the gaities of the Court, and the pleasures of social intercourse, the

OI~INESE POETRY AXD ITS COSXOTATIONS 119

former were obliged to find their occupations and pleasures within the women's apartments--the "Kuei," already re- ferred to.

TRAVELLERS IN:SSVCH'U~N.

The ruling spirit of the Kuei wm of course the wife of t h e master of the house, the mother of his sons, the "director" of his daughters-in-law. ( I t must he understood that concubines did not live in the Xuei but in a side house and could only enter the women's apartments upon express invitation). A short sketch of a young wife's day will perhaps make the life then led in a large "chia" mare vivid.

The old.fashioned bed was like a small ante-room, i t had an infinite number of drawers and receptacles, and also a division,which held tables and chairs; a door ensured privacy which was made doubly secure by two sets of curtains, one within and one without. With the first grey streak of mom- ing a daughter-in-law would rise and after removing her sleeping clothes and adjusting her skirt, (before this she was not visible to even her most devoted maid-servant)-would step out into her room where the less intimate part of the toilet, such as hair-dressing, etc.! was performed. This accomplished, and accompanied by a servant who carried tea, she would go to t h e r w m of her mother-in-law and herself place the tea upon a table outside the old ladies bed which was built upon the same pattern as her own, with door curtains, eta. Upon hearing the word of dismissal she could return t o her apartment where 1ight.refreshment had already been pepared by the maid who had followed her from her fathers house, of this she and her husband partook and then waited

120 CHISESE POETRY A S D ITS C O S N O T A T I O ~ S

the summons t o the old ladies toilet-when this important funct~on and the breakfast which followcd it was over, the young w~fe ' s d u t ~ e s for the day were more or less accomplish-

EYBBOIDERY.

ed she might eat her own breakfast and then amuse herself i n whatever manner she pleased; all the direction of the house- hold was left t o the "man servant's head" and the "woman servant's head," the ladies of the house were often expert calligraphists, or painters, while many of course spent hours a t the embroidery frame or in making music.

I n poetry references to the toilet, which was of course vem elaborate as i t com~rised intricate hair dressin#, paint-

CHIKESE POETRY A S D ITS COSIIOTATIONS 121 . .

ing of t,he eye-brows, maliing up of the face, etc., all com- prised in the word "bhuang" is very freqnent. I n ~vriting to her absent husband a lady repeatedly mourns that she has no heart to make the "cloud" head-dress, and that "looking down upon my mirror" (the mirror being of course a round metal disc set upon a stand upon her toilet table) "in order to apply the-powder and paint, I desire to keep back the tears! I fear that the people in the home will lmom m - grief-I am ashamed! Again I use the puff, which lies in the powder, to press back the tears which I cannot permit tofa l l !" Often, too, will the piningwife declare that "because my waist is so shrunken my girdle falls," indeed these lonely women shut in a great house among people strange to them seem to have depended upon the cornpainship of their hus- bands in a most devoted manner. Althoush the occupations of the day were of course pursued in the women's apartments or in one of the side houses, the evenings were spent by wife and husband together in reading and in intellectual enjoy- ment which is beautifully expressed in the phrase "The red sleeve replenishes the incense-at night, studying hooks"

L aas%?7E%4s.

Red -,as the colour worn by rerv J-oung women, married or not, who as the years advanced chose dresses of soft blues and lavenders, and later still tho,se of dark grey or black. Therefore a line that reads "my tears soak my dress of coarse, red silk," instantly suggests a young creature grieving a t her loneliness.

The children, both boys and girls, studied daily under the direction of teachers and the children of servants who

122 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS"

had become, as i t were, a part of the household by taking the family sumame were given the same advantages as were those oi the master; the only distinction heing that while the aons and daughters of the house sat "above" the table, i . e . facing south, the children of the servants sat "below," that is facing north, and that the sons of the latter could not attend the Official Examinations unless they left the house- hold and altered their sumame.

Palace Life.-As the houses of the great and small were built on the same general lines, so the lives of the great m d small were on the same general lines-t.he Court was simply the "chia" of a member of the Official Class on a Tery grand scale.

The Emperor's intelligence was supposed to he a . pene- trating, as brilliant as the light of the Sun, that o'f the Empress as the Moon; the Emperor's mercy was as all em- bracing as Heaven, that of the Empress as all-supporting es E,arth, thus "there is nothing which Heaven and Earth do not cover or s t ~ p p o r k q u a l l y with the rest" K fdl & 11 &.

"Floating Clouds" ofton suggest evil courtiers who attempt to prevent the rays of the great luminaries from reaching thone whom they dislike. This symhdism is con- stantly used in poetry-the line "In short, the drifting clouds are able to conceal the sun" from Li T'a Po's "Ascending the F ing Huang Terrace a t Nanking" means that

-the machinations of his enemies had succeeded in preventing the poet from enjoying the light of the sun and moon-the "desire of every poet was to bask in these lights a t the Court,

CHINESE POETRY ISD ITS COSXOTATIONS 123

and the desire of every family was that its daughters should come before the Emperor's notice, therefore the most heauti- ful and talented young girls from throughout the Empire were sen6 to the Imperial Palace where, however, they often lived and died without once appearing before the Son of Heaven.

Many tragic poems have been written by these sad ladies who dragged out a long life of uselessness and idleness amid luxurious surroundings, and many charming romances i n connection with the Palace women have taken place; the romances heing made possible by the custom of periodically dispersing and marrying to commoners, those Palace women who had not been brought before the Emperor. Two of the most famous cases are those of Han Ts'ai P' in 085RB and Shih Shih b R. The former in despair a t the emptiness of her life threw a red leaf upon which she had written some lines of poetry into the Palace C,anal, this was picked up by a noted scholar who wrote a reply upon another leaf,-this was found by Han Ts'ai Pin. As good fortune uvould have it when the Palsce ladies were dispersed some ten yeam later the lady was married to the scholar, by tha t time a R a n Lin, and found the leaf upon which she had written oarefully preserved among his books. From that day to this the term "Red Leaf" connotes a marriage go-between.

Shih Shih was also a Palace woman who lived in the days of Li Shih-min when the number of such was very great. During the t.imes when the trwps were fighting on the northern borders and had need of waddsd garments t o protect them from the rigours of winter, the women were employed in making these. As she worked Shih Shih was overcome with grief a t the thought that the garment she was making should really be for her husband-that the joys of married life were never to he hers, so writing a sad little poem she placed i t in the pocket of the garment upon which she was engaged. The soldier to whose lot the coat fell, found the po'em and carried it. t,o the General in command who in turn brought i t to the notice of the Emperor. L i Shih-min $%8? immediately entered the women's apartments and asked from whose hand it had come. Shih Shih tremhlingly oon- fessed to being the a,uthor, adding that she quite realized that she should "die ten thousand deaths" for such infidelity. Imagine her jog whsn the great Emperor decreed that she should suffer no penalty but should marry the soldier who had found the poem.

I n striking contrast to the unfortunates who lived thus .cloistered was the lot of the "beauty" who captured the lmperial fancy, who through her influence over the Son of

124 CBINESE POETRY ASD ITS C O Z N ~ T A T I O N S

Heaven virtually ruled the Empire. For t'iese exquisite creatures no extravagances were too great and various dynasties have fallen through the popular revolt against t h e excesses of an l m p e ~ l a l concubine. Many names' occur in history and in poetry. The most famous, and those to whom allusion is rncst often made in suggesting attributes both gooil and evil, are Imperial Favorites, to be noticed later on.

The inmates of the Palace amounbed to thousands, and besides the women,-the possible concubines-who lived in retirement "doc? in the Palace" there were a host of singing and dancing girls, these being known as Kuan Chi Z &3 they were the most beautiful and talented inmates of brothels whom Officials ?resented to the Emperor and who enter- tained and charmed the Son d Heaven and his favorites, (women and also the men who were commanded to attend), with their exqukite songs and wonderful pwturing.

The Emperor's life was not entirely given over to dis- sipation and pleasures, i t was not all passed in the beautiful surroundings of the Imperial gardens, though the principal allusions in poetry axe to these moments; the cares,of state were many and a t sunrise the Officials attended the Audience Hall to make their reports and discuss Imperial matters, while the Court ceremonials which were of the greatest. im: portance were extremely solemn affairs attended only by men and carried o,ut with the utmost dignity.

I n f ~ e ~ ~ a r , FAVORITE^.

Nu Ying R. % the Concubine of the Emperor S h u n s , the younger daughter of Yao 9 ;her elder sister was Shun's Empress. Shun was killed in battle and buried in Hunan, the two sisters cams to his grave and wept so bittrriy that the bamboos all became spotted and remain so to t h i ~ day. They eventually threw themselves into the river Hsivng and drowned themselues.

hlo H s i a g the Concubine of Chioh $t: of Hsia g , she loved t o hear the tearing of silk, which was of course very difficult to procure in those early days, however, to please her Chieh ,% arranged t h a t people should hastily prepare i t and others stood by to tear i t in strips to give her pleasure. For her gratification a great lake of wine was made on which she and the Emperor floated in a boat, this was sur- rourdeci with "hills of meat," and f o r her amusement three thousand men were oblized to lie uponi their faces a t the edge of the lake and lap up thc mine s~ thong11 they had been beasts.

T'a Chi ti (Concubine of Chou Hsin ;M of Shang @, her tastes were much t h e same as those of Mo Hsi but mare depraved. she mi? be szid to be the most wicked woman in Chinese history! For her pleasure ('hou Hsin spent millions of tho people's money in building the GreenJanper Terrace, he also prepared a lake of wine and a forest in which the trees were of metal with leaves of meat. As there was dissatisfaction and revolt abroad she expressed the opinion that the punishments of tho day were not sufficiently severe, and invented the terrible torture of the metal pole; the culprit wsr obliged t o clasp

CBIXESE POETRY AXD ITS OONNOTATIONS 125

this metal pole which was well greased so that i t was impossible t o climb up, a fire was then lighted-below, while T'a. Chi and the Emperor sat by and laughed heartily a t the antics of the tortured wretch. Chou Hsin was eventually over-thrown and Ts Chi perished with him i n the flames of the Palace which Chon Hsin had caused t o be set alight.

Ch'i Chi & Concubine of Kao Tsu of Han, who loved her very denrly, an" wlshed her son to be his heir. The Empress Dowager who was the infamous Lii Hou P, E was, however, unwilling tha t th is should be the case, and upon the death of Kao Tsu put the boy t o death and submitted his mother to terrible tortures. He r eyes were torn out, her ears, hands and feet were cut off and she was thrown into p filthy hole to die, in fact she Gas trested worse than ove t reats a dog.

YU Chi the much loved Concubine of the famous Hsiang Y e who followed him everywhere. After the battle af Kai Hsia

when he was surrounded by the soldiers of his enemy Liu Pang he appealed t o her in the following words; "hly strength is great enough t o tear up hills, Alas ! alas ! spirit could flow over the whole world. The time is not propitious : Alas ,! Alas ! my dappled horse csnnot pass out. My dappled horse cannot pass out Alas! Alas! what can he done? Yii. Alas, Alas, Yii, my beloved, Alas what is i t necessary for me to do?" Then Yii, hearing the songs of the opposing soldiers on every side replied. "The ~old iers of IIan have eampletely captured the place, On tho four rides tho sounds of their songs ring out clearly. The intentions of tho great Prince (Hsiang Yti himself) aye consumed, are as the ashes in a furnace. What resource can your Unworthy One, (herself) devise?" Hsiang Yii thereupall committed suicide by cutting his throat and the lovely Yii Chi followed suit.

Pan Chieh-yu the very noble Concubine of Cheng Ti of Han a. Her talents were great, and the title "Chieh-yu," is equivn-

lent to tha t of a high literary degree. She i s reported as having reproved the Emperor when he suggested tha t she should drive beside

1.28 CHIXESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONP, CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 129

refused to fight in defence of the Empire until the lovely Yang Koei in Chinese poetry are innumerable and of the greatest im. Fei had been given over to them for execution. They strangled her to death, and the broken-hearted Ming Huang $rl g fled to SsG Ch'iian

portance in the proper understanding of the subject,-it may. however, be questioned if Mr. Waley is not perfectly correct

')"ifiao (Yao, Giier) Niang Q djl Concubine of Hou Chu @? 4 the when in his preface t o "One Hundred and Seventy Chinese Southern Tcang B, during cne din Dynasties. Was very small, ex- Poems" he writes: "Classical Allusion, always the vice of quisitely lovely, and could dance most beautifully. The Emperor had a. golden lotus six feet high rising from fairy clouds made for her, and Chinese poetry, finally destroyed i t altogether." upon this she used to dance, her feet bound with white rilk to make The Poet8 Themse1ues.-No paper on Chinese poetry, them look like crescent moons. Thecustamof foot-binding isrupposed however short, can be complete without mention a t least of to have come from this incident. those two great exponents of the art , I,i T'ai-po a, and

his younger contemporary, Tu FU Y #. Li Po's life was most romantic. Of imperial.descent and

born of wealthy parents, his boyhood was passed in the large country house of the family near tho "Hamlet of the Green Lotus" in Ssb Ch'uan. At the age of five he read the books generally used by boys of ten, while when he was ten he had studied t ' i~e Six Classicc. H e was, hornever, no mere "shu tai tzu"-book idiot-as the Chinese call i t , but was on the contrary of a most virile and impetuous nature. Psssionately fond of sword play, he continnally made use of his art to right the wrongs of his friends. In his early youth h e was once obliged to fly from home, after killing several people, and see11 employment with a minor official in a neighbouring dist'rict, disguised as a servant. The official had poetic aspirations which were greater than his power of expression, but was not pleased when his youthful attendant capped the verses he was struggling to malse, with lines far better than his own.

MIAO MANQ. T'ai-po therefore found i t advisable to leave the employ of the official and joined a scholar whose real identity was concealed under the name of "The Stern Son of the East."

Many ohher names are mentioned in the annals of With this scholar h e travelled to Mt. Min in Ssb Ch'iian, women both good and bad who have influenced the rulers ol where for five years the two lived in peace, studying, r e d i n g the Empire during the many years of its history, but those and writing poems. At the age of twenty-five he left the already quoted are characteristic examples of the great power solitude of the mountain and began an extensive tour of the urhich has been wielded from behind the doors which guard Empire. Space is lacking to follow his wanderings'in detail, the "blossoms of the Palace." hut i t is related that during a period of less than a year he

His toy and Literature.-The historical and literary lived in Tang-chou and spent more than three thousand backgrounds of Chinese poetry are so vast, the allusions to ounces of silver in charity and good works. His nature was persons, events, and writings so numerous that i t is im- so generous that if he saw suffering m d want he felt obliged possible to even touch upon them in a paper of this length. to relieve i t . From here he proceeded to Hupeh, where he

The fundamental difference between the poetry of China masried and lived for ten years. and that of the West is that the former is of necessity the It was not until he was forty-two that his fame reached work of scholars, who before they can dash off the spirited the ear of the Emperor Ming Huang, who summoned him to lyrics for which they are so famous, must have studied deeply court. Discoursing upon t,he affairs of the Empire a t his the history and literature of their country; whereas the latter introductory audience, the words rushed from Li T'ai-po's is the ~vo,rk of men and women who make no profession mouth like a mountain cascade. The Emperor was enchanted of deep erudition. The result is that the Classical Allusions and piled all sorts of hono~lrs upon him.

m

130 CIIIXESB POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS 131

To this short ~ e r i o d most of the European accounts of period Sui Tsung came to the throne, thereupon Tu F u who Li T'ai-po's life refer. H e led the gay life of a court favourite

was living with a relative at "White Waters," dressed in

during t l ~ e time when the Emperor Ming Huang was rul& very Poor clothes started to walk to the Capital hoping to

by the beautiful Yang Kuei-fei, most lovely of Imperial con- cubines, who eventrialla brought disaster upon the Empire.

And d u ~ i n g this period was formed that unique.Associa- tion of poets and lovers cb beauty known as "The Eight

# Immortals of the Winecup." This brilliant'career at, Court \>-as meteoric. Jealousies

were arotlsed, and in less than three years L i TT'ai-po realized that. intrigues were busy, trying to undermine his influence. H e therefore begged that he might return to the mountains of Ssil Ch'uan, and deparied with an Imperial gift of gold.

The closing years of his life were sad in the extreme. H e became involved in political troubles, his fortune was con- fiscated and he was condemncd to death. The sentence was comn~uted to one of exile, which, however, was re vented from being carried out by an amnesty. H e died a t the home

a great friend, an official in Kiangsu, who wrote the of sixteen lines to the thirty vohmes of marvellous

poetry which is Li T'ai-po's legacy t'o the world. These read :-

Since the three Dynasties of Antiquity (Referring to the Hsia, the Shang and the Chau].

Since the days of the style of the Kuo Feng (One of the books in the Book of Odes) and the ~i Sao (chu'u Yuan's famous poem). obtain some position under the new ruler. H~ wns, however,

During these thousand years and more, of those who captured by brigands cn a mountain road and for over a year have walked the "lonely path" hat is the path of original thought and style).

lived in captivity; when he finally made his he fled to There nas been only you-you arc the rolitary man-

Feng Chiang m , where the Enperor was in residence, and YOU are without rival! presented himself to the Imperial presence. H~ appeared

A Chinese student of poetry describes him in these haggard and thin, his shoulder sticking out of his coat and

words : "He dearly loved his friends. H e regarded money as his mgs literally tied together. The Emperor was terribly

nothing, '1'-that untranslatable word which means ' that distressed and a t once appointed him to the post d censor;

which ir. i g h t to do as opposed to that which is profitable'- this,. howuver, did not last more than about % month as as everything." H e was generous to a fault, and was a Tu Fu expressed himself very frankly in his disapproval of

person who did not hesitate to right the wrongs of others, the Emperor's behaviour towards Tang Kuan and it was only

who man high-principled and endowed with both physical and h i t h e active intervention of his friends that he was spared

moral courage, who was, in short, a Hero. the indignity of an enquiry and w-ns allowed to go to his

Ti1 Fu's career was very different. His life w.as one long home and see the family f~:om whom he hat1 been separated

!.,truggle with poverty and misfortune. H e failed in his ex- for so long. H e found that their sufferings had been dreadful,

nminatians bu t was eventually, a t the age of forty created : several of his children having died of starvation.. oficial by the Imperial Command of the Emperor Ming His work is hold ir. the highest esteem by the chinese

Huang, who appointed him to the Chi Hsien Yuan, % 5t R' who regard him as their greatest poet, the eulogies are

library \,-here books were collected. A few years later he nnmerous and most. eloquent. Yiim Ck6n @ declares: held at Feng Hsien; the An Lu-shun rebellion then "The Empire's Hisboq can he read in his poems; ~i~ mean.

broke out , Xing Huang fled to $ s t Ch'iian and after a short in@ are profound; His poems have perfect balance, if he

,

132 CHIKESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS #

wrote a thousand lines his last would have as much vigour as the first. No one can equal him in this-his poems make a perfect circle, while those of L i T'ai Po are like spring flowers, the poems of Tu F u are like the pine trees which are eternal-which do not fear cold or snow." '

To the end of his life hc retained the characteristic of telling the truth squarely and flatly with no consideration for the feelings of the person with whom he spoke-a character- istic which, possibly, did not endear him to the general puhlic, although his friends were deeply devoted to him. 1x0 h3d a passionate love of country; a deep hatred of the endless wars and rebellions which were devastating t,he coun- t ry and .*vhich he felt were due tomis-government ; and akeen npprcciation of the sufferings of his fellow men whom he felt porverless t o help. Having tasted the b~tterness of extreme

he longed to he able to house all the starving scholars in :L beallt inl building where they would suffer no want. This thoueht he exprccscd in the poem which ends :-

&low to obtain a. s~acious mansion, with a thousand,- . .~ ~

ten thousand ;oonls ! A where the Empire's shirering scholars

rhould all have happy faces !,! x\~ot moied by the w ~ n d and ran-immovable like a hill. w,, 11" ~ l s s ! at what time before my eyes will rise,

dominstinq and proud this manner of house? ~ l t h ~ ~ ~ h my hovel were destroyed-although I myself

,,,fiered ~ n l d and froze to death (in my heart) would be complete Peace.

CHINESE POETRY AND ITS COXNOTATIOXS 133 The paper was illustrated with the following slides :

To~ocamny. I.-Chineae characters for

rise and sunset. 2.-Map of China. 3.-A "Chan Tau" or cliff road. 4.-A Peak. 5.-A Cliff. 6.-Mountain scene by ~ s i a

Kuei. 7.-Pine in the Mountaiis. %.-Snow scene by Wang Wei. 9.-Mountain scene

10.-Gorges of the Yang Tz6. 11.-Mountain scenery from

"Mustard Seed Garden." 12.-Great Wall. 13.-Taoist Henven. 14.-Ma Xu serving two scholars

with the foods of Para- dise.

15.-Lung Yu calling the FCng Huang.

16.-Tung Shuang ChCn. NATUBIL HISTORY.

17.-Draean. 1 8 . - ~ i ~ G . 119.-Dragon and Feng. r20.-FCng Huang. -21.-Luan. 22.-Yuan Yang. 23.--Geese.

:a'?.-Kuei and Shen. 25.-Yao Kuai or Chih Mei. :26.-Paeony. :ZI.-Lotus. 28.-Plum-blmsom and Moon. .XI.-Bamboo.

Ascarrscrwe. 30.-Plan of Chinese "chia" or

home. -31.-A "gold" or "jade"

window. ;=.-A Ting or pavilion and en-

trance gate. %.--A Hsian and s Lou. 34.-T'ai. 36.-Villa of Ma yuan. 36.-Villa of Wsng Wei. 37-Villa of to-day. 38.-Scholar's retreat in hills.

H o r n L m . 36).-"ChngratulatGgthe parents

on a featival day."

HOME Ll~~-cont . 9.-Pastimes of a scholar 41.-Friends reading i t -night ,

"snuffing the candle." 42.-Returning from the Ban.

quet. 43.-Official travelling carriage. 44-Toilet scene. 45.-Embroidery. 46.-Painting. 47.-Writing, Wei Fu-jCn the

famous lady calligraphist. 48.-Dressing the hair "above

the. mirror." 49.-Husband and wife studying.

"Red sleeves replenishas incense, ete."

PALACE LIFE. 50.-Palace ladies. 51.-Danei-g dress. 52.-Ladies palace "push.

carriage." 53.-Palace lady riding. 54.-Han Ts'ui-pin, story of

"Red Leaf." 55.-Shih Shih story of "madded

garment." 56.-Pan Yu-erh, "at every step

a lotus hlaomed." 57.-Yao Liang dancing on a

golden 1ptuasix.feet hi&. 58.-Yang Kuei-fei teaching her

white wrrot a Buddhist sutra. -

59.-Pan Chieh-yu holding her "autumn fan."

60.-The character "su." 61.-A Kuan Ch'i, or O5cial

Courtesan. 62.-Imperial chariot. 63.-Officials in ceremonial dress.

H l s ~ o n ~ AND L ~ ~ e n n ~ w s . 64.-Cho WCn-chun and Sau Ma

Haiang-ju in wine shop. 65.-Cho WCn-chun when she

wrote the "song of White *,

68.-Tu F; and his wife. 69.-A P'ieh ahu or country

house painting by Li 8su Hann .. . -.. .

Phraseology used in describing mountain scenery. Key to accompany Plate A. Mountain scenery from "The Mustard Seed Garden."

134 CHINESE POETRY AND ITS CONNOTATIONS

PLATZ A.

1.-Tien 151 = The Topmost Peak of a mountain, literally "moun- .. ~

tain's head." 2.-Wei %=Approaching the p a k , very high, not level, literally

"ghosts hill." 3s.-P'u # = A Water-fall, a cascade.

b.-Fei Ch.von & = A Water-fall, literally "Flying Spring." c.-P'u P u 6 = A Water-fall, literally a Cloth Cascade, that

is, water like a strip of cloth. 4.-FIng & = Peaks. 5.-Hsuan Yoi S a =Over-hanging precipice, literally a precipice.

anspended like the head of a criminal. 6.-Lamt gI = Peaks which are lower than FCng, and sharper. 7.--ChCzraa & = Spring. 8.-Shon Lin dl ;Wr = Mountain forests. 9.-Shan Shih 9 =Mountain temples.

10.-Toi = Cliff. both its flat top and i t isides. 1 l r . - 4 h n n Too @ = T h e Roadway or thoroughfare on the side-

of a cliff. llb.-Ko = The Roadway or thoroughfare on the side of a cliff.

The "KO of the Two-Edged Sword" is very famous. 12.-Shan F i n g = Mountain Pavrlians. 13.-Tien = An Inn , also a little collection of houses where things.

can be bought. 14.-Lien 10: = A flag or sign which shows tha t wine is sold. 15.-Lan = Mountain Mist or Vapour which shuts off bottoms. -

hii~s. 16.-Konq W = High level ground on a hill, or among hills. 17.-Chia = The steep aide of a hill-its "thigh." 18.-Lu KO. #( g = Travellers on a. journey. 19.-Ling a = A Pass in a mountain range. The bottom

sketch is not a t the foot of hills but well up in a range. 20.-Sun or Lun Yu @, 1& = Bamba, chair made for me

Mountains. 21.-Chien a = The water in a ravine. n.-Ku S = Gully between hills. 23.-Ho a = The pool a t the foot of a water-fall.

NOTES ON THE AGRICULTURE, BOTANY AND THE ZOOLOGY

OF CHINA

B. W . SKVORTZOW

XXXII1.'-THE CUI.TIVATION OF WATER VEGETABLES AT FOOCHOW.

I n the tropics and in China we find s well developed system of water gardens for the cultivation of vegetables. Thousands of acres of swampy lands axe thus utilized in China. The gardens being excellently kept are very profit- able.

It certainly is a wonderful rvay of utilizing what other- wise would be waste land, m d indicates one way in which we might copy them in the use of some of our swampy areas.

The water vegetables are known to the Chinese from ancient times. Some of these plants, growing wild in t h e country, have been improved during centuries of cultivation. and now represent important and valuable food products for the people.

We may first refer to the water-calthrop (Ttapa lispinosa and Trapa natans) with two or four horns; the arrow-grass (Sagittaria chinensis and S . Sagittifolia L.), known for i ts edible bulbs, the water chestnut (Scirpus tuberosus), culti- vated for its tubers; the lotus plant (Nelumbium speciosum) growing in China in several varieties and the Zizania grass (Zizania aquatics)-a kind of tall grass much cultivated throughout China on account of its voune stalks. which are " - eaten-as a vegetable.

Besides these there are several kinds of water plants which grow wild in China, such as the bamboo, (Limnanthe- m u m nymphoides Hoff): the reed (Phragmites communis Trin.): the cat-tail (Typha orientalis Presl.). These are used as vegetables.. The seeds of the water plants Euyale feroz Salisb., Coiz lachyma L., Panicum crusgaUi L. var a~is tata L., Panicum frumentaceum J . and S. , Beckmannia m c i - formis Host, are eaten also, and some of them are cultivated. As i t was observed at Foochow the water vegetables are well known to the native Chinese: and for the cultivstion

'Sections I-XXXII appeared in Volume L, pp. 49-107.