Durkheim on Durkheim on SuicideSuicide

How do Sociologists Study How do Sociologists Study Problems? Problems?

Scientific Method Scientific Method

This involves…This involves… isolating the problem isolating the problem forming a hypothesisforming a hypothesis building a research design building a research design collecting the data collecting the data analyzing the data collected analyzing the data collected making generalizations making generalizations

Isolate the ProblemIsolate the Problem

In terms of the scientific method a In terms of the scientific method a problem refers to any question for problem refers to any question for which we seek an answer.which we seek an answer.

It is simply some matter about which It is simply some matter about which we want to know the answer. we want to know the answer.

Sociologists usually choose to research Sociologists usually choose to research problems that are related to their areas problems that are related to their areas of interest and their particular specialty of interest and their particular specialty in the field of sociology. in the field of sociology.

Develop a Hypothesis Develop a Hypothesis A A hypothesishypothesis is a tentative assumption, is a tentative assumption,

an untested generalization. an untested generalization. The hypothesis is essential because it The hypothesis is essential because it

sets the stage for the research and sets the stage for the research and gives it direction. gives it direction.

A hypothesis always states a A hypothesis always states a relationship between two or more relationship between two or more situations, events, or factors. situations, events, or factors.

The purpose of the research is to test The purpose of the research is to test the hypothesis to see if this statement the hypothesis to see if this statement of the relationship is accurate. of the relationship is accurate.

Build a Research Design Build a Research Design

A A research designresearch design is a set of is a set of directions for research. directions for research.

To set up a research design, the To set up a research design, the sociologist must determine the sociologist must determine the variables and how they will be variables and how they will be measured. measured.

The sociologist must then decide what The sociologist must then decide what sample will be used.sample will be used.

Finally, the sociologist must Finally, the sociologist must determine what tools and techniques determine what tools and techniques to use in collecting the data. to use in collecting the data.

Collect the Data Collect the Data

The collecting process must be done The collecting process must be done carefully to avoid error. carefully to avoid error.

If the data is inaccurate, the results If the data is inaccurate, the results will be useless. will be useless.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

On the basis of the data, the On the basis of the data, the sociologist decides whether to accept sociologist decides whether to accept or reject the hypothesis. or reject the hypothesis.

Make GeneralizationsMake Generalizations

What can we say about the What can we say about the population on the basis of the sample population on the basis of the sample actually investigated? actually investigated?

What conclusions can we draw about What conclusions can we draw about the whole on the basis of examining the whole on the basis of examining a part? a part?

A classic example of A classic example of sociological research is sociological research is Emile Durkheim's study Emile Durkheim's study of suicide, published by of suicide, published by the French sociologist the French sociologist in 1897. Let's examine in 1897. Let's examine just what Durkheim did, just what Durkheim did, how he did it, and what how he did it, and what he concluded.he concluded.

But first, a little about But first, a little about Durkheim… Durkheim…

Emile Durkheim (1859-Emile Durkheim (1859-1917)1917)

Sought to use sociology to explain Sought to use sociology to explain the many social problems plaguing the many social problems plaguing Victorian-era industrialized Europe.Victorian-era industrialized Europe.

Believed that the application of Believed that the application of scientific methods could result in a scientific methods could result in a more perfect society.more perfect society.

Considered to be the founder of the Considered to be the founder of the functionalist paradigmfunctionalist paradigm of sociology. of sociology.

Isolating the Problem - Isolating the Problem - SuicideSuicide

In Durkheim's France, as in societies In Durkheim's France, as in societies today, the question of suicide was today, the question of suicide was one of great popular concern.one of great popular concern.

It raises not only specific questions It raises not only specific questions for the relatives and friends of the for the relatives and friends of the victims, but also larger questions of victims, but also larger questions of causation. causation.

Why do people commit suicide? Why do people commit suicide?

WhyWhy don'tdon't some people do it? some people do it?

Why does the rate of suicide vary Why does the rate of suicide vary from place to place? from place to place?

Durkheim noted that suicide rates Durkheim noted that suicide rates differed, depending on the society differed, depending on the society and the conditions. and the conditions.

He felt that differences in the rates of He felt that differences in the rates of suicides suggested that more than suicides suggested that more than indi vidual factors were operating. indi vidual factors were operating.

He thought that suicide must reflect He thought that suicide must reflect changes in social or environmental changes in social or environmental circumstances. The problem was to circumstances. The problem was to discover the nature of these discover the nature of these circumstances and their causes. circumstances and their causes.

The Hypothesis The Hypothesis

Durkheim first explored the current Durkheim first explored the current explanations for suicide. One explanations for suicide. One explanation was that suicide resulted explanation was that suicide resulted from individual psychological from individual psychological conditions.conditions.

Another explanation assigned the cause Another explanation assigned the cause of suicide to factors in the natural of suicide to factors in the natural environment, such as the time of year, environment, such as the time of year, the climate, or the temperature. the climate, or the temperature.

After examining case histories and After examining case histories and statistical records, however, Durkheim statistical records, however, Durkheim concluded that such explanations were concluded that such explanations were not adequate.not adequate.

In investigating individual psychological In investigating individual psychological conditions, he found that although many conditions, he found that although many of the people who committed suicide of the people who committed suicide were mentally ill, many others were not.were mentally ill, many others were not.

No one type of mental illness was No one type of mental illness was always associated with suicide.always associated with suicide.

Neither could he find a clear relationship Neither could he find a clear relationship between alcoholic consumption, age, between alcoholic consumption, age, race, or gender and the suicide rate. race, or gender and the suicide rate.

Similarly, such forces as seasonal Similarly, such forces as seasonal variation and climate did not cause variation and climate did not cause suicide.suicide.

For example, if warm weather For example, if warm weather increased the number of social increased the number of social interactions, and the suicide rate was interactions, and the suicide rate was affected, the important factor was affected, the important factor was the increased social interactions and the increased social interactions and not the warmer weather. not the warmer weather.

Durkheim arrived at his hypothesis Durkheim arrived at his hypothesis that the basic causes of suicide were that the basic causes of suicide were social in nature.social in nature.

It seemed to him that the main It seemed to him that the main determinants of suicide were such determinants of suicide were such social factors as religion, marital social factors as religion, marital status, and the pace of social change.status, and the pace of social change.

He therefore hypothesized that the He therefore hypothesized that the degree of social attachment, or the degree of social attachment, or the lack of it, explained the variations in lack of it, explained the variations in the suicide rate. the suicide rate.

The Research Design The Research Design

To test his hypothesis, Durkheim To test his hypothesis, Durkheim reasoned that he would need reasoned that he would need statistics on the number of suicides statistics on the number of suicides in given areas at given times.in given areas at given times.

To be able to talk about the To be able to talk about the rate rate of of suicide, he would also need accurate suicide, he would also need accurate figures for the total population of figures for the total population of these areas. these areas.

He would also need all these statistics He would also need all these statistics from a variety of places. from a variety of places.

Then he could make comparisons Then he could make comparisons between the suicide rate and different between the suicide rate and different social conditions. social conditions.

He found that most of the European He found that most of the European countries, as well as the United States, countries, as well as the United States, had relatively accurate statistics on had relatively accurate statistics on the number of suicides, who the number of suicides, who committed them, and the total committed them, and the total population. All Durkheim had to do population. All Durkheim had to do was to get at these already existing was to get at these already existing sources of information. sources of information.

By comparing the suicide rates of By comparing the suicide rates of Protestants and Catholics, of urban Protestants and Catholics, of urban and rural areas, and so on, Durkheim and rural areas, and so on, Durkheim could test his hypothesis. could test his hypothesis.

He could find out if the degree of He could find out if the degree of social attachmentsocial attachment determined the determined the rate of suicide, and if suicide was, rate of suicide, and if suicide was, therefore, a social phenomenon. therefore, a social phenomenon.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

What Durkheim found was that the data What Durkheim found was that the data he collected did seem to fit a pattern, he collected did seem to fit a pattern, and that this pattern confirmed his and that this pattern confirmed his hypothesis.hypothesis.

He found, for example, that the suicide He found, for example, that the suicide rates were higher among Protestants rates were higher among Protestants than among Catholics.than among Catholics.

This was so even when he allowed for This was so even when he allowed for other differences in the social climate other differences in the social climate that may have affected the suicide rate. that may have affected the suicide rate.

Similarly, taking other factors into Similarly, taking other factors into account, he found that single people had account, he found that single people had higher suicide rates than married ones. higher suicide rates than married ones.

Married but childless people had higher Married but childless people had higher suicide rates than people with children. suicide rates than people with children.

City dwellers had higher suicide rates City dwellers had higher suicide rates than people living in rural areas. than people living in rural areas.

Men had higher suicide rates than Men had higher suicide rates than women. women.

Soldiers had a higher suicide rate than Soldiers had a higher suicide rate than civilians. civilians.

The Generalizations and The Generalizations and Conclusions Conclusions

From his evidence, Durkheim From his evidence, Durkheim concluded that the suicide rate was concluded that the suicide rate was determined by the degree of social determined by the degree of social attachment.attachment.

He discovered, however, that the He discovered, however, that the relationship was a complex one.relationship was a complex one.

Suicide seemed to result from both Suicide seemed to result from both unusually high levels and unusually unusually high levels and unusually low levels of social attachment. low levels of social attachment.

The 3 Types of SuicideThe 3 Types of Suicide

From his findings, he was able to From his findings, he was able to generalize that there were three generalize that there were three basic types of suicide: altruistic, basic types of suicide: altruistic, egoistic, and anomic. egoistic, and anomic.

Altruistic Suicide Altruistic Suicide

Altruistic suicideAltruistic suicide occurs when the occurs when the degree of attachment of the individual degree of attachment of the individual to the society is very great.to the society is very great.

It is not always defined by the society It is not always defined by the society as suicide.as suicide.

This would be the case with soldiers This would be the case with soldiers who volunteer for a dangerous mission, who volunteer for a dangerous mission, in which they are likely to lose their in which they are likely to lose their lives, out of zeal for and devotion to lives, out of zeal for and devotion to their country. their country.

Egoistic Suicide Egoistic Suicide

Egoistic suicideEgoistic suicide, , on the other hand, on the other hand, results from a lack of attachment of results from a lack of attachment of the individual to the society.the individual to the society.

The less integrated into society The less integrated into society individuals are, and the more they individuals are, and the more they must depend on their own egos or must depend on their own egos or selves, the more likely they are to selves, the more likely they are to commit suicide. commit suicide.

He found Protestants, who make He found Protestants, who make more theological decisions on their more theological decisions on their own than Catholics and are therefore own than Catholics and are therefore less attached to their society, have a less attached to their society, have a higher suicide rate than Catholics.higher suicide rate than Catholics.

In the same manner, single people, In the same manner, single people, city dwellers, and men have higher city dwellers, and men have higher suicide rates than married people, suicide rates than married people, rural people, and women. They tend rural people, and women. They tend to have fewer attachments and to have fewer attachments and responsibilities, more social freedom, responsibilities, more social freedom, and more dependence on their own and more dependence on their own egos. egos.

Anomic Suicide Anomic Suicide

Anomic suicideAnomic suicide, , like egoistic suicidal like egoistic suicidal occurs because the individual is forced occurs because the individual is forced to make decisions without any strong to make decisions without any strong social attachments. However, in social attachments. However, in anomic suicide the individual is anomic suicide the individual is unattached because the whole society unattached because the whole society is undergoing rapid change and the old is undergoing rapid change and the old rules no longer seem to apply.rules no longer seem to apply.

Anomic suicide occurs during periods of Anomic suicide occurs during periods of uncertainty, such as times of crisis, uncertainty, such as times of crisis, revolution, or economic depression. revolution, or economic depression.