duffy/atwater © 2005 prentice hall chapter 2 the journey begins – childhood

Duffy/Atwater © 2005 Prentice Hall

CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2

The Journey Begins The Journey Begins ––

ChildhoodChildhood


CHAPTER SUMMARY

Perspectives on Child Development

The Biological Perspective on Child Development

Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate

A Newer Approach Evaluation Applying It To Yourself


Chapter Summary Cont’d

The Psychodynamic Perspective On Child Development

Development Of Personality The Structure Of Personality Personality Dynamics Modifications Evaluation Applying It To Yourself



The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child Development

Social Learning Theories Recent Additions: Cognitions &

Behavior Evaluation Applying It To Yourself



The Humanistic Perspective On Child Development

The Phenomenal Self Human Freedom Self-Actualization Evaluation Applying It To Yourself


Perspectives on Child Development

Development is defined as the relatively enduring changes in people’s capacities and behavior as they grow older because of biological growth processes and people’s interaction with their environment, including their social environment.

Many psychologists believe that a healthy childhood creates resiliency and therefore a more fulfilling adulthood.

Different viewpoints (perspectives) on child development offer explanations of how

and why development occurs.


The Biological Perspective on

Child Development

Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate

Genes (the biochemical units by which characteristics areinherited) are the foundation for heredity (transmission of traits from parents to offspring) and also of the biologicalperspective.

Some psychologists argue that almost all of our personalcharacteristics are inherited or genetic.

Other psychologists argue that the environment and

learning provide the greatest influences on us.

This controversy is called the nature-nurture debate.


Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate Cont’d

Psychologists supporting the biological perspective also subscribe to the notion that evolution and adaptation play a major role in determining our characteristics.

Scientists often utilize identical twins (who possess identical genetic profiles) as participants in research designed to tease out whether nature or nurture is more important

Important questions and ethical issues regarding the biological perspective persist.


A Newer Approach

The nature-nurture debate is the debate over what is more important or influential – biology or environment.

A newer approach is to view development as the combination of or complex interaction of both factors.

Thus, identical twins might be similar on some traits (the influence of genes) and dissimilar on other traits (the consequence of being in different environments on different occasions).

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Evaluation

The biological perspective is controversial:

People do not want to believe that they are driven by some force (nature) they cannot control.

Ethicists fear stigmatization of people with certain, so-called genetic “defects”.

Some scientists fear the general public will ascribe

to heredity more personal qualities than those really under genetic control.


Applying It To Yourself

Do not solely blame your family genes for the causes of your behaviors or personality.

Most people in the same family also share the same environment.

You might want to examine your family tree with an eye toward discovering common family traits.

While you might not be able to sort out the cause for the traits, the exercise can be an interesting journey of self-discovery and self-revelation.


The Psychodynamic Perspective On

Child DevelopmentIntroduction

Psychodynamic theory consists of a group of related theories that view personality and behavior in terms of the dynamics (or interactions) of driving forces of development (and of personality) such as desires, anxieties, conflicts, and defenses.

The founder of this perspective was Sigmund Freud whoposited that many of the causes of our behavior wereinaccessible to us (i.e. hidden in the unconscious).

The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to help people gain insight and mastery into unconscious

processes.


Development of Personality

Freud postulated that children pass through several

stages of personality development.

When a person becomes emotionally fixed at one stage

and symbolically continues to act out wishes that

were overly inhibited or indulged, Freud called this a fixation.

The first stage is the oral stage during which the mouth

becomes the primary means of gratification for the child.

The second stage is the anal stage, when the child’s

major source of physical pleasure becomes the

releasing or retaining of feces.


Development of Personality Cont’d

The phallic stage is the third stage and is the period in whichthe child experiences sensual pleasure through handling his or her genitals.

The child also experiences a conflict or struggle with the parent of the opposite sex, because that parent attracts the attention and affection of the other parent.

In girls this struggle is called the Electra complex.

In boys this struggle is called the Oedipal complex.


Development of Personality Cont’d

The successful resolution of these conflicts leads to the fourth stage – the latency stage.

The latency stage is the stage during which the child’s interests turn away from sensuality and the child’s urges lie dormant.

The final phase is the genital stage, where the person begins the onset of puberty, true

sexual maturation, and adult sexual activity.


The Structure of Personality

Freud suggested that the personality is composed of three different structures which interact with one another.

ID – that part of the personality that is the unconscious reservoir of psychic energy and

the source of later development.

EGO – the direct outgrowth of the ID and which functions as a manager of personality, thereby

enabling the individual to cope with the conflicting

demands of the ID, SUPEREGO, and society.

SUPEREGO – the part of personality which has been shaped by the moral standards of society as transmitted by the parents.


The Structure of Personality Cont’d

Each structure operates according to a different principle:

ID – pleasure principle

EGO – reality principle

SUPEREGO – principle of perfection


Personality Dynamics

The term personality dynamics means the different forces within the psyche.

The ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO are often in conflict with one another.

When the EGO thinks the impulses of the ID will get out of control and duly experiences anxiety, Freud called the outcome neurotic anxiety.

When the individual’s SUPEREGO senses guilt and the person experiences anxiety, Freud termed this moral anxiety.


Personality Dynamics Con’t

We deal with these forms of anxiety, which are quite different from ordinary anxiety, by means of defense mechanisms.

Defense mechanisms are unconscious reactions that automatically reduce the level of anxiety, allowing the individual to better cope with the situation at hand.

The most important defense mechanism is repression,the blocking of unacceptable desires or memories from awareness.

Repression is often indicated by slips of the tongue.

Repressed thoughts also show up symbolically in dreams.


Evaluation

Freud’s many students and followers offered modifications to his theory, for example, decreasing the importance of sexuality.

Psychoanalysis or the psychodynamic perspective iscriticized for being vague and untestable.

Many of the concepts from psychoanalysis were derivedfrom Freud’s private practice and thus may not hold for “normal” people.

Freud, however, clearly turned our interest toward personal thoughts, feelings, motives, and wishes.

Freud helped remove some of the stigma attached to abnormal behavior by hypothesizing that they stem

from the same developmental processes as normal behaviors.



You may feel conflicted sometimes about what you want. This phenomenon is perfectly “normal”, according to Freud. Such conflict may be unconscious and can cause you to act in two totally opposite ways, e.g. loving and hating the same person.

Many of the ways that you cope with such situations derive from your childhood and how your parents raised you.

You should now understand that it is sometimes “normal” to experience multiple problems and anxieties at the same time.

Optimal adjustment, at least according to this perspective, comes from living in the world as it is rather than wishing the world were some other way.


The Social-Cognitive Perspective on

Child DevelopmentThe social-cognitive perspective includes behavioral and social learning theories.

Both theories hold certain concepts as important;definitions are given below:

Cognition has to do with the interpretation of information and involves processes such as selective attention, information gathering, memory, and motivation.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.


Behavioral Theory

Behavioral theory is a learning theory. Learning theory provides a systematic statement of learning principles. The leading theorist was B. F. Skinner.

Behaviorism is an objective science that studies external (or measurable) behaviors.

One of the major concepts of this theory is reinforcement, which is the addition of something that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Thus, positive child behaviors, such as making one’s bed, should be closely followed by something that will increase the likelihood of the bed-making again, perhaps reading the child’s favorite book to him or her.


Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory is another well-known learning theory. The leading theorist is Albert Bandura.

The crux of social learning theory is that much learning occurs by observation.

Researchers have studied the conditions under which observational learning occurs and under which circumstances it will be performed.

Theorists have paid special attention to the learning of aggression by children from media sources.


Recent Additions to Cognition and Behavior

Most behavioral and social learning theorists today recognize the important role cognitions (our interpretations) play in our behavior and personality.

They also recognize reciprocal determinism or the notionthat there is a mutual interaction among factors that affect our learning, cognition, and behaviors.

An example is that of a child who watches violence and whose parents explain that violence is not

acceptable. The child, then, is less likely to actually commit violence.


Recent Additions to Cognition and Behavior Cont’d

Another recent addition to these theories is the notionof self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capacity to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.


Recent Additions to Cognition and Behavior Cont’d

A student who studies hard for an exam so as to improve her changes of receiving a high grade is demonstrating self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is an extremely important concept in the field of personal growth and development.


Evaluation

One criticism of these theories is that they appear to oversimplify human behavior.

Another criticism is that behaviorism in particular eschews the idea of human freedom while on the other hand projects an image of humans as robotic.

One of the main contributions of these theories is to advance the science of psychology and to promote the use of scientific methods to establish principles of behavior.

Behaviorists, in particular, have developed many useful treatments for a variety of disorders that plague human beings.



These theories suggest that many of your behaviors andpersonality traits have been acquired by means ofinteracting with significant others, like parents.

However, past experiences and learning can be undone sothat we can acquire new behaviors and better traits and thus achieve personal change and growth.

Additionally, “abnormal” patterns can be replaced by more adaptive and optimal patterns.

Because of constant interaction with our environments personal change and growth is an ongoing process.


The Humanistic Perspective On Child

Development

Humanistic theories are known as the third force inpsychology, with psychoanalysis and behaviorism considered the other two predominant schools of thought.

The two leading humanistic theorists are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Humanistic psychology consists of a group of related theories and therapies that emphasize the values of human freedom and the

uniqueness of individuals.


The Phenomenal Self

The phenomenal self is the self-concept and is part andparcel of our organismic actualizing tendency or thebiological tendency to develop and fulfill ourselves.

When we were children, few of our significant othersprovided us with true unconditional positive regard orunconditional positive acceptance.

The result is a self which we do not trust, which is not self-directed, and which is not fully functioning (actualizing).


The Phenomenal Self Cont’d

Rogers said that children thrive in supportive and accepting environments. Unfortunately, this is not the environment in which children frequently findthemselves.

Rogers developed person-centered therapy ratherthan therapist-centered therapy to provide the supportive, warm, and accepting environment that many of us were deprived of in childhood.

Person-centered therapy is discussed in the chapter on getting help.


Self-Actualization

Self actualization is the process of fulfilling our inborn potential.

Humanistic theorists assume that this tendency is inborn or naturally occurring.

As long as our basic needs (food, water, etc.) are met, we become more aware of our need for fulfillment.

Maslow’s pyramid theory of human needs will be discussed in the chapter on motivation

and emotion.


Evaluation

The primary criticism of humanistic theories is that they are unscientific.

Another criticism is that the concept of self-actualizationis very “Western”, individualized, and not useable in other cultures. As such, the theorists spend little time discussing the inter-relatedness of people.

On the other hand, the humanists have heightened psychologists’ awareness of the importance of acceptance, love, personal growth, and human autonomy.



This theory should inspire you to perceive yourself in terms of your positive strengths and potential ratherthan in terms of your shortcomings.

Problems and conflicts are not necessary nor inevitable.

Optimal adjustment can be achieved through personal growth and by taking reasonable risks.

Self-actualization is an ongoing process and as such is only imperfectly realized for most of us.

Perfection is not necessary for happiness.


Conclusion

Child development is the prelude to later development.

There are differing perspectives on child development, each with its own contributions and criticisms.

No one perspective is better than another.

In fact, given human uniquenesses, perhaps a combination of ideas from the various perspectives will one day offer a better conceptualization of human growth and development.

duffy/atwater © 2005 prentice hall chapter 2 the journey begins – childhood

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