Dr. Robert Sanderson The Age of Religious Wars The Oakridge School RELIGIOUS WARS French civil wars Dutch revolt against Philip II Scottish rebellion against Mary Stuart Spanish attack on England 1588 Thirty Years War Puritan revolution Glorious Revolution The two main crusaders: John Calvin and St. Ignatius Loyola Calvinists seized control of Scotland, northern provinces of the the Low Countries, temporarily England, France, Germany, Poland, and Hungary Catholics controlled Flanders, France, Austria, Spain, and Bohemia After 1689 European international politics reverted to secularism The political trend during this time was toward centralized, authoritarian state. Opened with Phillip II of Spain and ended with Louis XIV of France It was an era of absolutism, but not for the Dutch or the English It was an era of great inflation and the development of mercantilism - Amsterdam became the commercial center of Europe There was an intellectual Revolution in mathematics, physics, and astronomy It was the age of Galileo, Descartes, and Newton It was the period of the Baroque of great art and theater, of Shakespeare and Molire Western capitalism vs Eastern agriculture Spain, France, England, Holland all improved, Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Ottoman Empire all deteriorated Propertied vs the propertyless 1559 Treaty of Cateau-Cambrsis between Phillip II of Spain and Henry II of France French gave up claims to Italy; Spain stopped trying to dismember France Habsburg victory; Valois lose But started a new era of warfare neither country could handle Calvinists and Catholics both conservatives - no religious deviation would be tolerated in Christendom Both sides recognized new secular forces changing Europe a) overseas expansion b) commercial capitalism c) dynastic rivalry d) nationalism e) state sovereignty It would be the last medieval crusade and the first modern war Calvin died in 1564, the Council of Trent ended in 1563, Loyola died in 1556 People no longer mediated disputes The Roman Inquisition and the Index of Prohibited Books kept Catholics pure The Consistory of Geneva kept Calvinists pure Charles V sacked Rome in not Wittenburg Elizabeth I of England and Henry IV of France pursued policies of moderation and compromise Mary, Queen of Scots, Phillip II, Catherine de Medici proved ruthless but ruined their countries By 1570 Huguenots were arguing against tyrannical rule - male or female. A policy favored by the great noblemen who wanted to depose monarchs and return to the old feudal days To Protestants Jesuit meant Machiavellian SPAIN Four great rulers: Ferdinand, king of Aragon Isabella, queen of Castille (wife) Charles I (HRE V) grandson Phillip II son It was also the age of exploration for Spain 95% of the people were peasants but couldnt provide enough grain Nobility were exempt from taxation 1571 Battle of Lepanto defeated the Turks 1580 Phillip annexed Portugal French Wars of Religion French collapse had many reasons: a) Huguenots and catholics b) Aristocracy and the Crown c) Bourgeoisie and political rights d) Paris mob e) Riots in the provinces BUT religion triggered the crisis Francis I ( ) Henry II ( ) Francis II ( ) Charles IX ( ) Henry III ( ) 1516 Concordat of Bologna - French bishops and abbots nominated by the monarch The king was not all-powerful, he lacked money Opposition began during the reign of Henry II 3 opponents: Guise, Montmorency, Bourbon Montmorency was very wealthy Bourbons claimed the throne through blood Guise - strongest group - ultra-Catholic Henry II was killed at a tournament in 1559 at the Peace of Cateau-Cambrsis, the throne went to his oldest son - Francis II All the sons were dominated by their mother - Catherine de Medici Catherine tried to reconcile the Huguenots and the Catholics like Elizabeth I had done The Catholics turned against her and supported the Guises Guises controlled northern France, Paris and were helped by Phillip II of Spain who wanted to see France destroyed Elizabeth of England supported the Huguenots 1562 the Duke of Guise ordered his men to slaughter a group of praying Huguenots - starting the French religious wars Killings mounted as both sides randomly killed any and all people For 10 years the killing continued - paid for by aristocrats who loved fighting In 1572 a peace was declared so the Bourbon prince Henry of Navarre could marry the sister of the king Charles IX The Guises saw this wedding as a disaster Catherine de Medici, jealous of her sons, joined with the Guises St Bartholomews day the Catholics ambushed the Huguenots in their beds Prince Henry was allowed to live after promising to become Catholic Thousands of Huguenots were killed The pope paid the messenger 100 gold coins King Charles was sick - the House of Valois was discredited and the Huguenots were still around 1574 Henry died and was replaced by his neurotic brother Henry III Catholics and Huguenots hated Henry and the fighting resumed 1576 Henry of Guise formed the Holy League to destroy all Huguenots Prince Henry of Navarre, heir to the throne, renounced his Catholicism and led the Huguenots The War of the Three Henries Guise vs Valois vs Navarre 1588 Phillip II order Guise to stage a riot in Paris to prevent the French from interfering with his Armada The king fled the city and left Guise in charge, he forced the king to make him chief minister But Phillips Armada was badly defeated and he was powerless to help Guise Henry III plotted to have Guise assassinated Henry III joined with Henry of Navarre to crush the Catholics, but III was also assassinated by a fanatical monk Only Henry of Navarre was left It took Henry 10 years to end the war because Philip kept trying to invade France from Flanders 1598 Henry and Phillip made peace restoring the terms of 1559 1598 Henry issued the Edict of Nantes declaring Catholicism the official religion of France (nobles could practice Protestantism in the privacy of their own houses) The French learned that a strong central government was the only answer to national problems - i.e. Absolute monarchy REVOLT IN THE NETHERLANDS Mid-sixteenth century Netherlands was very different from either France or Spain 17 autonomous provinces, the most important being Flanders, Brabant, and Holland Antwerp was the largest city and chief financial center of western Europe HRE Charles V was the ruler of the Low Countries Control of the country was handled by the State- General with delegates from each province The Low Countries was also a popular place for Protestants and religious toleration- Erasmus Phillip II inherited the dukedom of Burgundy in 1556 Phillip tried to introduce Spanish politics and religion to the Low Countries and encountered stiff resistance He personally disliked the Low Countries and never visited after 1559 Phillip did all he could to eradicate Calvinism Between 1560 and 1600 the Low Countries split to create Belgium and Holland William of Orange and the counts Egmont and Horn tried to persuade Phillip to alter his policies 1566 lesser nobles asked Phillip to stop the Inquisition Phillip refused - Calvinist fury shocked the Low countries Habsburg Empire 1560 (John Calvin) By 1560, Calvinism was a strong, militant minority in most of the cities in the Netherlands. Lutheranism had posed no serious threat to Spanish rule. Calvinism is what worried the Spaniards. The Netherlands were slit up into seventeen provinces under Spanish rule. These provinces possessed a large middle-class population. Calvinism appealed to the middle classes with an emphasis on any form of labor well done. It took deep root among financiers in Amsterdam and people in the northern provinces. Working-class people were also converted, partly because their employers would hire only other Calvinists. In 1559 Philip II appointed his half-sister, Margaret as regent of the Netherlands. She pushed Philips orders to wipe out Protestantism. She introduced the Inquisition. Charles V had steadily increased taxes in the Low Countries When Margaret raised taxes even more, fanatical Calvinists, mostly from the poor class, went on a rampage. On March 3, 1568, fifteen hundred men were executed Even Margaret was sickened and resigned For 10 years, civil war raged in the Netherlands between Catholics and Protestants and between the seventeen provinces and Spain In 1576, the 17 provinces united under the leadership of Prince William of Orange Philip II then sent his nephew, Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, to make the revolt come to an end. Farnese arrived with an army of German mercenaries, a great knowledge of the geography, and a perfect plan Many cities in the south fell, including Bruges and Ghent And finally Antwerp fell, the financial capital of northern Europe Calvinism was forbidden in these areas and Protestants had to either convert or leave The ten southern provinces remained under the control of the Spanish Habsburgs The seven northern provinces were led by Holland and formed the Union of Utrecht In 1581 the provinces declared their independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Philip II considered himself the international defender of Catholicism and did not want these provinces to become independent. England had allied with the new seven provinces because if they were defeated, they knew that they would be next Elizabeth put 250,000 and 2,000 troops into the Low Countries. Philip prepared his vast fleet of ships to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, fight off Elizabeths navy if necessary, and escort his barges across the English Channel. la felicissima armada In 1588 an armada of 150 ships was constructed. Most of the ships were Spanish but some were from Portugal and Naples. It was the largest fleet ever seen in Europe. Once the armada joined forces with the Duke of Parma, they would invade England. After the invasion England would be brought under Spanish Catholic rule. May , led by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the armada arrived at English Channel and they solidified a crescent formation. The strict formation would be hard for the English to break. However, the English had superior ships, designed by John Hawkins, that were faster and carried more weaponry. The English intended to sail around the armada and destroy any stragglers. The armada pushed forward and anchored at Calais. That night the English sent in fire ships to scatter the armada. The aid expected from the Duke of Parma never arrived. Without any support the armada was forced to spend too much time in the Channel. It was not the English that defeated the Spanish but a violent storm. The Spanish couldnt find any safe harbors and many men starved as the wrecked ships limped back to Spain This defeat prevented Philip II from re-imposing unity on western Europe England was never conquered and the Netherlands borders remained the same Charles recruited army from nobility (Cavaliers) Parliament recruited an army (Roundheads) The English Civil War (1642-6) did not resolve the problem of who would hold the power King held the initial advantage 1642 Charles marched to London to end the war At the Battle of Edgehill Charles won an expensive victory The battle was watched by Oliver Cromwell Cromwell raised his own New Model Army Enforcing rigid discipline and religious zeal he became the most successful Parliamentary leader 1643 the king looked like being successful The Battle of Newbury was a draw but the king suffered great losses Parliament asked Scotland for an alliance Charles sought an alliance with the Irish 1644 the Scots entered England and marched on the Cavalier army at York 1644 at Marston Moor the royalist were badly defeated and their hold on the north was released 1645 at Naseby the king was finally defeated 1646 Charles surrendered to the Scots is the Interregnum or Puritan Commonwealth Theoretically, power rested with parliament Col Pride excluded 140 Presbyterian members of Parliament from entering and admitted only Independents Rump Parliament 1649 King Charles found guilty of treason 1649 the office of the king and the House of Lords abolished The army controlled Parliament, Cromwell controlled the New Model Army Protectorate Cromwells rule was a military dictatorship 1653 Cromwell took control of Parliament i.e. the House of Commons 140 Puritan leaders were appointed this was the Barebones Parliament Dec 1653 the Barebones Parliament is over The Protectorate Three groups evolved: a) Presbyterians - associated with the Church of England and Calvin b) Independents - rejected a compulsory church c) Radical Puritans i. Fifth Monarchy - waiting for the second coming of Christ ii. Levellers - universal male suffrage, guarantees of popular sovereignty iii. Diggers - agrarian communists against private property Cromwell: a) divided the country into 12 military districts b) The Instrument of Government gave religious freedom to all, except Catholics c) crushed rebellions in Ireland Wexford and Drogheda d) enforced the Navigation Acts (English goods - English ships) which led to Anglo-Dutch Wars e) welcomed Jews The state: a) censored the press b) forbade sport c) closed the theaters Cromwell was an absolutist - died 1658 Richard Cromwell was a poor leader General Monck returned from Scotland and recalled the Long Parliament He then forced Parliament to dissolve itself The new Parliament of 1660 invited Charles II to return as king The Restoration Reestablished the monarchy - Charles II Both houses of Parliament were restored Law courts restored New Triennial Act Failed in two areas What was the attitude of the state towards Puritans, Catholics, and dissenters? What was the relationship between king and Parliament? Test Act of 1673 To enforce religious conformity those who refused to receive the sacraments of the Church of England: a) could not vote b) hold public office c) preach or teach d) attend university e) assemble for meetings CABAL 5 advisors appointed by the king, also members of Parliament: Clifford; Arlington; Buckingham; Ashley- Cooper; Lauderdale Gave rise to ministerial responsibilities Parliament did not give Charles enough money to rule - but acknowledged his divine right For 200,000, (742,000 total) Charles agrees to: a) relax laws against Catholics b) re-catholicize England c) support France against the Dutch policies d) convert to Catholicism The people feared: a) a Catholic dynasty b) hated Louis XIV and absolutism c) hated Catholicism The Commons passed a bill excluded Catholics for the throne Charles dissolved Parliament - the bill never passed Glorious Revolution Charles II was made king with the same conditions as before the civil war 1660s saw England develop mercantilist policies - especially with overseas trade The Navigation Acts increased British trade and hurt the Dutch Three Anglo-Dutch Wars severely hurt the Dutch Charles II preferred Catholicism Secretly he promised to help Louis XIV (cousin) make England Catholic for a loan Charles had no children so his brother James II succeeded him James appointed Catholics to high positions - contrary to the Test Act James suspended the law at will and England feared absolutism Charles IIMaryJames II m. William of Orange Charles I William III Mary II Anne William III + Mary He also declared religious freedom for all Two events signaled revolution i) seven bishops were arrested for not complying with the Declaration of Indulgence ii) Jamess second wife produced a male heir Wealthy English men offered the throne to Jamess Protestant daughter Mary and William Triumph of Government The Glorious Revolution had very little blood and was the end of divine-right monarchy in England William and Mary accepted the throne but recognized the supremacy of Parliament The rights of the people were listed in the Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights Laws were made by parliament and could not be suspended by the Crown Parliament had to be called at least every 3 years The Crown would not interfere with Parliament Judges would be independent No standing army in peace time English monarch must be Protestant Freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters Feb 13, 1688, the Declaration of Rights was accepted and proclaimed by William and Mary. Declaration had three main parts: 1. an indictment of James II and his transgressions, 2. a declaration of the rights of citizens. 3. William and Mary declared King and Queen of England, with William to exercise all power during his lifetime. John Locke Second Treatise of Civil Government defended the revolution: a) People set up governments to protect life, liberty, and property b) If government oversteps the bounds then it is tyranny, people have a natural right to revolt The revolution was not democratic Sovereignty rested with Parliament Parliament reflected the Upper Class Created a constitutional monarchy - the age of aristocratic government