dr. hüseyin toros, İtÜ uçak ve uzay bil.fak. maslak, İstanbul, 34469, türkiye,...

Dr. Hüseyin TOROS, İTÜ Uçak ve Uzay Bil.Fak. Maslak, İstanbul, 34469, Türkiye, [email protected], http://www.huseyintoros.comDr. Hüseyin TOROS, İTÜ Uçak ve Uzay Bil.Fak. Maslak, İstanbul, 34469, Türkiye, [email protected], http://www.huseyintoros.com

AIR POLLUTIONAIR POLLUTION

Prof.Dr. Orhan ŞEN, Öğr.Gör.Dr. Hüseyin TOROS

İTÜ Uçak ve Uzay Bil.Fak. Maslak, İstanbul, 34469, Türkiye,


AtmosphereAtmosphereThe atmosphere is the gaseous envelope The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope

that surrounds the earth and that surrounds the earth and constitutes the transition between its constitutes the transition between its surface and the vacuum of space. The surface and the vacuum of space. The atmosphere is composed primarily of atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) and is nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) and is made up of many layers of air, each made up of many layers of air, each one identified by their thermal one identified by their thermal characteristics or temperature changes, characteristics or temperature changes, chemical composition, movement and chemical composition, movement and density. Life on earth is supported by density. Life on earth is supported by this atmosphere, solar energy, and our this atmosphere, solar energy, and our planet's magnetic fields. planet's magnetic fields. http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/ap1.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/ap1.html

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The first layer is called the The first layer is called the tropospheretroposphere. People, . People, plants, animals, and insects live in the troposphere. plants, animals, and insects live in the troposphere. It is the layer where all weather occurs. The It is the layer where all weather occurs. The troposphere begins at ground level and extends troposphere begins at ground level and extends 12km (7.5 miles) up into the sky where it meets 12km (7.5 miles) up into the sky where it meets with the second layer called the with the second layer called the stratospherestratosphere. . The stratosphere begins at the 12km (7.5 mile) The stratosphere begins at the 12km (7.5 mile) point and reaches 50km (21.1 miles) into the sky. point and reaches 50km (21.1 miles) into the sky. An important layer of atmosphere containing ozone An important layer of atmosphere containing ozone is located inside the stratosphere. Ozone (O3) is a is located inside the stratosphere. Ozone (O3) is a special form of oxygen, and the ozone layer is very special form of oxygen, and the ozone layer is very important to all life on earth. Ozone blocks large important to all life on earth. Ozone blocks large amounts of solar ultraviolet radiation from entering amounts of solar ultraviolet radiation from entering the troposphere. Too much solar radiation can the troposphere. Too much solar radiation can harm living things, including people. harm living things, including people.

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The third layer is called the The third layer is called the mesospheremesosphere. The . The mesosphere begins 50km (21.1miles) above the mesosphere begins 50km (21.1miles) above the earth's surface. Temperatures are warmest at the earth's surface. Temperatures are warmest at the lowest level of the mesosphere and coldest at its lowest level of the mesosphere and coldest at its highest level. The fourth layer is called the highest level. The fourth layer is called the thermospherethermosphere. The thermosphere begins 80km . The thermosphere begins 80km (49.7 miles) above the earth. Temperatures in the (49.7 miles) above the earth. Temperatures in the thermosphere go up when moving farther away thermosphere go up when moving farther away from ground level due to the sun's energy. The from ground level due to the sun's energy. The increase in temperature stops at this height, increase in temperature stops at this height, beyond which lies the exosphere. The beyond which lies the exosphere. The exosphereexosphere is the highest layer of the atmosphere. The is the highest layer of the atmosphere. The exosphere extends to 40,000 miles above the exosphere extends to 40,000 miles above the earth's surface. The thermosphere and the earth's surface. The thermosphere and the exosphere together make up the upper exosphere together make up the upper atmosphere. atmosphere.

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• The troposphere, stratosphere, The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere act mesosphere, and thermosphere act together as a giant safety blanket. They together as a giant safety blanket. They keep the temperature on the earth's keep the temperature on the earth's surface from dipping to extreme icy cold surface from dipping to extreme icy cold that would freeze everything solid, or from that would freeze everything solid, or from soaring to blazing heat that would burn up soaring to blazing heat that would burn up all life. In the study of air pollution control all life. In the study of air pollution control the layers of the air that are most the layers of the air that are most important are the troposphere and the important are the troposphere and the stratosphere. stratosphere. http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/ap1.htmlhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/ap1.html

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Pollutants in the Ambient Pollutants in the Ambient AirAir

The composition of "unpolluted" air is unknown to us. The composition of "unpolluted" air is unknown to us. Humans have lived on the planet thousands of years Humans have lived on the planet thousands of years and influenced the composition of the air through and influenced the composition of the air through their many activities before it was possible to measure their many activities before it was possible to measure the constituents of the air. Air is a complex mixture the constituents of the air. Air is a complex mixture made up of many chemical components. The primary made up of many chemical components. The primary components of air are nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and components of air are nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and water vapor (H2O). About 99 percent of air is nitrogen water vapor (H2O). About 99 percent of air is nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The remaining percent (78%) and oxygen (21%). The remaining percent includes trace quantities of substances such as carbon includes trace quantities of substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), argon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), argon (Ar) and helium (He). (Ar) and helium (He).

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• In theory, the air has always been polluted to some In theory, the air has always been polluted to some degree. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, wind degree. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, wind storms, the decomposition of plants and animals, and storms, the decomposition of plants and animals, and even the aerosols emitted by the ocean "pollute" the even the aerosols emitted by the ocean "pollute" the air. However, the pollutants we usually refer to when air. However, the pollutants we usually refer to when we talk about air pollution are those generated as a we talk about air pollution are those generated as a result of human activity. An result of human activity. An air pollutantair pollutant can be can be considered as a substance in the air that, in high considered as a substance in the air that, in high enough concentrations, produces a detrimental enough concentrations, produces a detrimental environmental effect. These effects can be either environmental effect. These effects can be either health effects or welfare effects. A pollutant can health effects or welfare effects. A pollutant can affect the health of humans, as well as the health of affect the health of humans, as well as the health of plants and animals. Pollutants can also affect non-plants and animals. Pollutants can also affect non-living materials such as paints, metals, and fabrics. living materials such as paints, metals, and fabrics. An An environmental effectenvironmental effect is defined as a is defined as a measurable or perceivable detrimental change measurable or perceivable detrimental change resulting from contact with an air pollutant. resulting from contact with an air pollutant.

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Human activities have had a detrimental effect on the Human activities have had a detrimental effect on the makeup of air. Activities such as driving cars and makeup of air. Activities such as driving cars and trucks, burning of coal, oil and other fossil fuels, trucks, burning of coal, oil and other fossil fuels, and manufacturing chemicals have changed the and manufacturing chemicals have changed the composition of air by introducing many pollutants. composition of air by introducing many pollutants. There are hundreds of pollutants in the ambient air. There are hundreds of pollutants in the ambient air. Ambient airAmbient air is the air to which the general public is the air to which the general public has access, i.e. any unconfined portion of the has access, i.e. any unconfined portion of the atmosphere. The two basic physical forms of air atmosphere. The two basic physical forms of air pollutants are particulate matter and gases. pollutants are particulate matter and gases. Particulate matterParticulate matter includes small solid and liquid includes small solid and liquid particles such as dust, smoke, sand, pollen, mist, particles such as dust, smoke, sand, pollen, mist, and fly ash. and fly ash. GasesGases include substances such as include substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO2), and volatile organic nitrogen oxides (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). compounds (VOCs).

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Pollutants can also be classified as either primary pollutants or Pollutants can also be classified as either primary pollutants or secondary pollutants. A secondary pollutants. A primary pollutantprimary pollutant is one that is emitted is one that is emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source of the pollutant and into the atmosphere directly from the source of the pollutant and retains the same chemical form. An example of a primary retains the same chemical form. An example of a primary pollutant is the ash produced by the burning of solid waste. A pollutant is the ash produced by the burning of solid waste. A secondary pollutantsecondary pollutant is one that is formed by atmospheric is one that is formed by atmospheric reactions of precursor or primary emissions. Secondary reactions of precursor or primary emissions. Secondary pollutants undergo a chemical change once they reach the pollutants undergo a chemical change once they reach the atmosphere. An example of a secondary pollutant is ozone atmosphere. An example of a secondary pollutant is ozone created from organic vapors given off at a gasoline station. The created from organic vapors given off at a gasoline station. The organic vapors react with sunlight in the atmosphere to produce organic vapors react with sunlight in the atmosphere to produce the ozone, the primary component of smog. Control of secondary the ozone, the primary component of smog. Control of secondary pollutants is generally more problematic than that of primary pollutants is generally more problematic than that of primary pollutants, because mitigation of secondary pollutants requires pollutants, because mitigation of secondary pollutants requires the identification of the precursor compounds and their sources the identification of the precursor compounds and their sources as well as an understanding of the specific chemical reactions as well as an understanding of the specific chemical reactions that result in the formation of the secondary pollutants. that result in the formation of the secondary pollutants.

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The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has further The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has further classified ambient air pollutants for regulatory purposes as classified ambient air pollutants for regulatory purposes as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and criteria pollutants. hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and criteria pollutants. Criteria Criteria pollutantspollutants are pollutants that have been identified as being both are pollutants that have been identified as being both common and detrimental to human welfare and are found over common and detrimental to human welfare and are found over all the United States (ubiquitous pollutants). EPA currently all the United States (ubiquitous pollutants). EPA currently designates six pollutants as criteria pollutants. These criteria designates six pollutants as criteria pollutants. These criteria pollutants are: carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), pollutants are: carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), and particulate nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), and particulate matter (PM). On the other hand, EPA refers to chemicals that matter (PM). On the other hand, EPA refers to chemicals that cause serious health and environmental hazards as hazardous cause serious health and environmental hazards as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics. air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics. Hazardous air pollutantsHazardous air pollutants are are those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects. Units 5 and 6 of this defects, or adverse environmental effects. Units 5 and 6 of this module discuss in more details the criteria pollutants and the module discuss in more details the criteria pollutants and the hazardous air pollutants. hazardous air pollutants.

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Dr. Hüseyin TOROS, İTÜ Uçak ve Uzay Bil.Fak. Maslak, İstanbul, 34469, Türkiye, [email protected], http://www.huseyintoros.comDr. Hüseyin TOROS, İTÜ Uçak ve Uzay Bil.Fak. Maslak, İstanbul, 34469, Türkiye, [email protected], http://www.huseyintoros.com19.04.2319.04.23 1111


A source of air pollution is any activity that causes A source of air pollution is any activity that causes pollutants to be emitted into the air. There have always pollutants to be emitted into the air. There have always been natural sources of air pollution, also known as been natural sources of air pollution, also known as biogenic sourcesbiogenic sources. For example, volcanoes have spewed . For example, volcanoes have spewed particulate matter and gases into our atmosphere for particulate matter and gases into our atmosphere for millions of years. Lightening strikes have caused forest millions of years. Lightening strikes have caused forest fires, with their resulting contribution of gases and particles, fires, with their resulting contribution of gases and particles, for as long as storms and forests have existed. Organic for as long as storms and forests have existed. Organic matter in swamps decay and wind storms whip up dust. matter in swamps decay and wind storms whip up dust. Trees and other vegetation contribute large amounts of Trees and other vegetation contribute large amounts of pollen and spores to our atmosphere. These natural pollen and spores to our atmosphere. These natural pollutants can be problematic at times, but generally are pollutants can be problematic at times, but generally are not as much of a problem as are human-generated not as much of a problem as are human-generated pollutants or pollutants or anthropogenic sourcesanthropogenic sources. .

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The quality of daily life depends on many modern The quality of daily life depends on many modern conveniences. People enjoy the freedom to drive conveniences. People enjoy the freedom to drive cars and travel in airplanes for business and cars and travel in airplanes for business and pleasure. They expect their homes to have pleasure. They expect their homes to have electricity and their water to be heated for bathing electricity and their water to be heated for bathing and cooking. They use a variety of products such as and cooking. They use a variety of products such as clothing, pharmaceuticals, and furniture made of clothing, pharmaceuticals, and furniture made of synthetic materials. At times, they rely on services synthetic materials. At times, they rely on services that use chemical solvents, such as the local dry that use chemical solvents, such as the local dry cleaner and print shop. Yet the availability of these cleaner and print shop. Yet the availability of these everyday conveniences comes at a price, because everyday conveniences comes at a price, because they all contribute to air pollution. they all contribute to air pollution.

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Human-generated sources of air pollution or Human-generated sources of air pollution or anthropogenic sources are categorized in two ways: anthropogenic sources are categorized in two ways: mobile and stationary sources. mobile and stationary sources. Mobile sourcesMobile sources of of air pollution include most forms of transportation air pollution include most forms of transportation such as automobiles, trucks, and airplanes. such as automobiles, trucks, and airplanes. Stationary sourcesStationary sources of air pollution consist of non- of air pollution consist of non-moving sources such as power plants and industrial moving sources such as power plants and industrial facilities. Stationary sources are classified as point facilities. Stationary sources are classified as point source or area source. A source or area source. A point sourcepoint source refers to a refers to a source at a fixed point, such as a smokestack or source at a fixed point, such as a smokestack or storage tank, that emits air pollutants. An storage tank, that emits air pollutants. An area area sourcesource refers to a series of small sources that refers to a series of small sources that together can affect air quality in a region. For together can affect air quality in a region. For example, a community of homes using woodstoves example, a community of homes using woodstoves for heating would be considered as an area source, for heating would be considered as an area source, even though each individual home is contributing even though each individual home is contributing small amounts of various pollutants. small amounts of various pollutants.

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Sources of Pollutants in the Sources of Pollutants in the Ambient Air - Mobile SourcesAmbient Air - Mobile Sources

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"Mobile sources" is a term used to describe a wide variety of vehicles, engines, and equipment that generate air pollution and that move, or can be moved, from place to place. Mobile sources are classified as on-road and nonroad sources. "On-road" or highway sources include vehicles used on roads for transportation of passengers or freight. On-road sources include light-duty vehicles (LDVs, also referred to as passenger cars), heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), and motorcycles that are used for transportation on the road. On-road vehicles may be fueled with gasoline, diesel fuel, or alternative fuels, such as alcohol or natural gas. "Nonroad" sources include gasoline and diesel powered vehicles, engines, and equipment used for construction, agriculture, transportation, recreation, and many other purposes. These sources emit both criteria pollutants and other hazardous air pollutants.


Mobile sources account for more than half of all the Mobile sources account for more than half of all the air pollution in the United States. The primary air pollution in the United States. The primary mobile source of air pollution is the automobile. EPA mobile source of air pollution is the automobile. EPA studies show that today's cars emit 75 to 90 studies show that today's cars emit 75 to 90 percent less pollution (for each mile driven) than percent less pollution (for each mile driven) than their 1970 counterparts, thanks largely to their 1970 counterparts, thanks largely to advancements in vehicle and fuel technology. But advancements in vehicle and fuel technology. But today's motor vehicles are still responsible for up to today's motor vehicles are still responsible for up to half of all the emissions released into the air. The half of all the emissions released into the air. The specific pollutant categories include 45 percent of specific pollutant categories include 45 percent of the volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions, 50 the volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions, 50 percent of the nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions, percent of the nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions, approximately 60 percent of the carbon monoxide approximately 60 percent of the carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and 50 percent of the hazardous air (CO) emissions and 50 percent of the hazardous air pollutants in urban areas. pollutants in urban areas.

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Mobile sources pollute the air through Mobile sources pollute the air through combustion and fuel evaporation. These combustion and fuel evaporation. These emissions contribute greatly to air emissions contribute greatly to air pollution nationwide and are the primary pollution nationwide and are the primary causes of air pollution in many urban causes of air pollution in many urban areas. areas. CombustionCombustion is the process of is the process of burning. Motor vehicles and equipment burning. Motor vehicles and equipment typically burn fuel in an engine to create typically burn fuel in an engine to create power. Gasoline and diesel fuels are power. Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons, which are mixtures of hydrocarbons, which are compounds that contain hydrogen and compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In "perfect" combustion, carbon atoms. In "perfect" combustion, oxygen in the air would combine with all oxygen in the air would combine with all the hydrogen in the fuel to form water the hydrogen in the fuel to form water and with all the carbon in the fuel to form and with all the carbon in the fuel to form carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air would carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air would remain remain

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unaffected. In reality, the combustion process is not "perfect," and engines emit several types of pollutants as combustion byproducts. Evaporation is the process by which a substance is converted from a liquid into a vapor. "Evaporative emissions" occur when a liquid fuel evaporates and fuel molecules escape into the atmosphere. A considerable amount of hydrocarbon pollution results from evaporative emissions that occur when gasoline leaks or spills, or when gasoline gets hot and evaporates from the fuel tank or engine. Perfect CombustionFuel (hydrocarbons) + Air (oxygen and nitrogen) Carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) + unaffected nitrogen Typical Engine CombustionFuel + Air Unburned Hydrocarbons + Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) + Carbon monoxide (CO) + Carbon dioxide + water More information on mobile sources can be found at http://www.epa.gov/air/topics/comotaq.html


Sources of Pollutants in the Ambient Sources of Pollutants in the Ambient Air - Stationary SourcesAir - Stationary Sources

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Stationary sources are non-moving sources, fixed-site producers of pollution such as power plants, chemical plants, oil refineries, manufacturing facilities, and other industrial facilities. There are hundreds of thousands of stationary sources of air pollution in the United States. Stationary sources emit both criteria pollutants and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Air pollution from stationary sources is produced by two primary activities. These activities are stationary combustion of fuel such as coal and oil at power generating facilities, and the pollutant losses from industrial processes. Industrial processes include refineries, chemical manufacturing facilities, and smelters.


Stationary sources have many possible emission points. An emission point is the specific place or piece of equipment from which a pollutant is emitted. Air pollutants can be emitted from smokestacks, storage tanks, equipment leaks, process wastewater handling/treatment area, loading and unloading facilities, and process vents. A process vent is basically an opening where substances (mostly in gaseous form) are "vented" into the atmosphere. Common process vents in a chemical plant are distillation columns and oxidation vents. Emissions from storage tanks are due to pollutants that can leak through the roofs, and can leak through tank openings when liquids expand or cool because of outdoor temperature changes. Also, air pollutants can escape during the filling and emptying of a storage tank. Air pollution produced from wastewater occurs when wastewater containing volatile chemicals comes in contact with the air. Volatile means that it can be evaporated, or pass from a liquid state to a gaseous state.


Large, stationary sources of emissions that have specific Large, stationary sources of emissions that have specific locations and release pollutants in quantities above an locations and release pollutants in quantities above an emission threshold are known as emission threshold are known as point sourcespoint sources. Those . Those facilities or activities whose individual emissions do not qualify facilities or activities whose individual emissions do not qualify them as point sources are called them as point sources are called area sourcesarea sources. Area sources . Area sources represent numerous facilities or activities that individually represent numerous facilities or activities that individually release small amounts of a given pollutant, but collectively release small amounts of a given pollutant, but collectively can release significant amounts of a pollutant. For example; can release significant amounts of a pollutant. For example; dry cleaners, vehicle refinishing and gasoline dispensing dry cleaners, vehicle refinishing and gasoline dispensing facilities, and residential heating will not typically qualify as facilities, and residential heating will not typically qualify as point sources, but collectively the various emissions from point sources, but collectively the various emissions from these sources are classified as area sources. these sources are classified as area sources. Stationary sources are also classified as major and minor Stationary sources are also classified as major and minor sources. A sources. A majormajor source is one that emits, or has the potential source is one that emits, or has the potential to emit, pollutants over a major source threshold. A to emit, pollutants over a major source threshold. A minorminor source is any source which emits less pollutants than the source is any source which emits less pollutants than the major source threshold. major source threshold.

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Indoor Air PollutionIndoor Air Pollution


Another source of air pollution is indoor air. The levels of pollutants in the air inside homes, schools, and other buildings can be higher than the level of pollutants in the outdoor air. Indoor air pollution comprises a mixture of contaminants penetrating from outdoors and those generated indoors. In the last several years, the amount of scientific evidence has indicated that the air within homes and other buildings can be more seriously polluted than the outdoor air in even the largest and most industrialized cities. Other research indicates that people spend approximately 90 percent of their time indoors. In addition, people who may be exposed to indoor air pollutants for the longest periods of time are often those most susceptible to the effects of indoor pollution. Such groups include the young, the elderly, and the chronically ill, especially those suffering from respiratory or cardiovascular disease.


Figure: Stationary sourcesThere are many sources of indoor air pollution in homes. These sources of indoor air pollution include combustion sources (oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, tobacco products), building materials, wet or damp carpet, cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; household cleaning products, central heating and cooling systems, humidification devices, and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution.


The relative importance of any single source depends on how much of a given pollutant it emits and how hazardous those emissions are. In some cases, factors such as how old the source is and whether it is properly maintained are significant. For example, an improperly adjusted gas stove can emit significantly more carbon monoxide than one that is properly adjusted.


Radon and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) are the two indoor air pollutants of greatest concern from a health perspective. Radon is a naturally occurring gas that is odorless, colorless, and radioactive. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is the smoke emitted from the burning of a cigarette, pipe, or cigar, and smoke inhaled by a smoker. It is a complex mix of more than 4,000 chemical compounds, containing many known or suspected carcinogens and toxic agents, including particles, carbon monoxide, and formaldehyde.


Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants

Figure: Sources of CO


Carbon Monoxide (CO), is a colorless, odorless gas formed when carbon in fuel is not burned completely. Motor vehicle exhaust contributes about 60 percent of all CO emissions nationwide (Latest Finding on National Air Quality 2002). Other non-road engines and vehicles (such as construction equipment and boats) contribute about 22 percent of all CO emissions nationwide. Higher levels of CO generally occur in areas with heavy traffic congestion. In cities, 95 percent of all CO emissions may come from motor vehicle exhaust. Other sources of CO emissions include industrial processes (such as metals processing and chemical manufacturing), residential wood burning, and natural sources such as forest fires. Woodstoves, gas stoves, cigarette smoke, and unvented gas and kerosene space heaters are sources of CO indoors. The highest levels of CO in the outside air typically occur during the colder months of the year when CO automotive emissions are greater and nighttime inversion conditions are more frequent. In inversion conditions the air pollution becomes trapped near the ground beneath a layer of warm air.


Sulfur Oxides (SOx) are colorless gases formed by burning sulfur. SOx gases are formed when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil or metals are extracted from ore. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the criteria pollutant that is the indicator of sulfur oxide concentrations in the ambient air. SO2 dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interacts with other gases and particles in the air to form sulfates and other products that can be harmful to people and their environment. Over 65% of SO2 released to the air, or more than 13 million tons per year, comes from electric utilities, especially those that burn coal. Other sources of SO2 are industrial facilities that derive their products from raw materials like metallic ore, coal, and crude oil, or that burn coal or oil to produce process heat. Examples are petroleum refineries, cement manufacturing, and metal processing facilities. Also, locomotives, large ships, and some nonroad diesel equipment currently burn high sulfur fuel and release SO2 emissions to the air in large quantities.


Figure: Sources of SOx


Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), is the generic term used to describe the sum of NO, NO2 and other oxides of nitrogen. NOx is a group of highly reactive gases that play a major role in the formation of ozone. Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) along with particles in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas. Nitrogen oxides form when fuel is burned at high temperatures, as in a combustion process. The primary sources of NOx are motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels.


Ozone (O3) is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is a colorless compound that has an electric-discharge-type odor. It is a unique criteria pollutant in that it is exclusively a secondary pollutant. It is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at ground level is created by a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of heat and sunlight. The concentration of ozone in a given locality is influenced by many factors, including the concentration of NO2 and VOCs in the area, the intensity of the sunlight, and the local weather conditions. Ozone and the chemicals that react to form it can be carried hundreds of miles from their origins, causing air pollution over wide regions. Figures: Lead emission sources 1970 & 1997


Lead (Pb) is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products. Because of unique physical properties that allow it to be easily formed and molded, lead has been used in many applications. The major sources of lead emissions have historically been motor vehicles (such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. Due to the phase out of leaded gasoline, metals processing is the major source of lead emissions to the air today. The highest levels of lead in air are generally found near lead smelters. Other stationary sources are waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers.


Particulate Matter is the general term used for a heterogeneous mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. Particles can be suspended in the air for long periods of time. Some particles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke. Others are so small that individually they can only be detected with an electron microscope. PM can be a primary or secondary pollutant. "Primary" particles, such as dust or black carbon (soot) are directly emitted into the air. They come from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks, buses, factories, construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and burning of wood. "Secondary" particles are formed in the air from the chemical change of primary gaseous emissions. They are indirectly formed when gases from burning fuels react with sunlight and water vapor. These can result from fuel combustion in motor vehicles, at power plants, and in other industrial processes. PM2.5 describes the "fine" particles that are less than or equal to 2.5 µm in diameter. PM10 refers to all particles less than or equal to 10 µm in diameter (about one-seventh the diameter of a human hair).

More information on criteria pollutants can be found at http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/6poll.html


Hazardous air pollutants or air toxics are those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects. Air toxics may also cause adverse environmental and ecological effects. The presence of hazardous air pollutants in the air is more localized than are the criteria pollutants, and they are usually found at highest levels close to their sources. Examples of air toxic pollutants include benzene, found in gasoline; mercury, from coal combustion; perchloroethylene, emitted from some dry cleaning facilities; and methylene chloride, used as a solvent by a number of industries. Most air toxics originate from man-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, construction equipment), stationary sources (e.g., factories, refineries, power plants), and indoor sources (e.g., some buildings materials and cleaning solvents).

Hazardous air pollutants


Effects of Air Pollutants

Air pollution has a detrimental effect on nearly all phases of our lives. Along with the health effects there are many welfare effects of air pollution. These include effects on vegetation, soil, water, manmade materials, climate, and visibility.

Figure:Health Effects caused by Air Pollutionhttp://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/eog/course422/ap7a.html


Exposure to air pollution is associated with numerous effects on human health, including pulmonary, cardiac, vascular, and neurological impairments. The health effects vary greatly from person to person. High-risk groups such as the elderly, infants, pregnant women, and sufferers from chronic heart and lung diseases are more susceptible to air pollution. Children are at greater risk because they are generally more active outdoors and their lungs are still developing. Exposure to air pollution can cause both acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) health effects. Acute effects are usually immediate and often reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some acute health effects include eye irritation, headaches, and nausea. Chronic effects are usually not immediate and tend not to be reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some chronic health effects include decreased lung capacity and lung cancer resulting from long-term exposure to toxic air pollutants. The scientific techniques for assessing health impacts of air pollution include air pollutant monitoring, exposure assessment, dosimetry, toxicology, and epidemiology.

Effects of Air Pollutants - Health Effects


Although in humans pollutants can affect the skin, eyes and other body systems, they affect primarily the respiratory system. Air is breathed in through the nose, which acts as the primary filtering system of the body. The small hairs and the warm, humid conditions in the nose effectively remove the larger pollutant particles. The air then passes through the pharynx, esophagus, and larynx before reaching the top of the trachea. The trachea divides into two parts, the left and the right bronchi. Each bronchi subdivides into increasingly smaller compartments. The smallest compartments of the bronchi are called bronchioles, which contain millions of air sacs called alveoli. Together, the bronchioles and alveoli make up the lungs.


Both gaseous and particulate air pollutants can have negative effects on the lungs. Solid particles can settle on the walls of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Most of these particles are removed from the lungs through the cleansing (sweeping) action of "cilia", small hairlike outgrowths of cells, located on the walls of the lungs. This is what occurs when you cough or sneeze.

Figure:Human respiratory system


A cough or sneeze transports the particles to the mouth. The particles are removed subsequently from the body when they are swallowed or expelled. However, extremely small particles may reach the alveoli, where it takes weeks, months, or even years for the body to remove the particles. Gaseous air pollutants may also affect the function of the lungs by slowing the action of the cilia. Continuous breathing of polluted air can slow the normal cleansing action of the lungs and result in more particles reaching the lower portions of the lung. The lungs are the organs responsible for absorbing oxygen from the air and removing carbon dioxide from the blood-stream. Damage to the lungs from air pollution can inhibit this process and contribute to the occurrence of respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, emphysema, and cancer. This can also put an additional burden on the heart and circulatory system.


Hazardous air pollutants may cause other less common but potentially hazardous health effects, including cancer and damage to the immune system, and neurological, reproductive and developmental problems. Acute exposure to some hazardous air pollutants can cause immediate death. Human health effects associated with indoor air pollution are: headaches, tiredness, dizziness, nausea, and throat irritation. More serious effects include cancer and exacerbation of chronic respiratory diseases, such as asthma. Radon is estimated to be the second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. Environmental tobacco smoke causes eye, nose and throat irritation, and is a carcinogen. Asthma, particularly in children, is associated with poor indoor air quality.


Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants. Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants. Pollutan

t Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects

Carbon Monoxide

(CO)

Colorless, odorless gas

Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor sources include kerosene or wood burning stoves.

Headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired fetal development, death.

Contribute to the formation of smog.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Colorless gas that dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interact with other gases and particles in the air.

Coal-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, manufacture of sulfuric acid and smelting of ores containing sulfur.

Eye irritation, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, lung damage.

Contribute to the formation of acid rain, visibility impairment, plant and water damage, aesthetic damage.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Reddish brown, highly reactive gas.

Motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels.

Susceptibility to respiratory infections, irritation of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g., cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing).

Contribute to the formation of smog, acid rain, water quality deterioration, global warming, and visibility impairment.

Ozone (O3)

Gaseous pollutant when it is formed in the troposphere.

Vehicle exhaust and certain other fumes. Formed from other air pollutants in the presence of sunlight.

Eye and throat irritation, coughing, respiratory tract problems, asthma, lung damage.

Plant and ecosystem damage.

Lead (Pb)

Metallic element Metal refineries, lead smelters, battery manufacturers, iron and steel producers.

Anemia, high blood pressure, brain and kidney damage, neurological disorders, cancer, lowered IQ.

Affects animals and plants, affects aquatic ecosystems.

Particulate Matter

(PM)

Very small particles of soot, dust, or other matter, including tiny droplets of liquids.

Diesel engines, power plants, industries, windblown dust, wood stoves.

Eye irritation, asthma, bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, cardiovascular effects.

Visibility impairment, atmospheric deposition, aesthetic damage


Effects of Air Pollutants - Welfare Effects

Long before pollutant effects become manifest in human health, they are first seen in the environment. Air pollution impacts in the ecosystem form and function are also a serious concern. Damage to ecosystems from air pollution can exact a significant economic as well as an environmental cost. There are many harmful environmental effects of air pollution: acid rain, the greenhouse effect, depletion of stratospheric ozone, smog, and decreased visibility.


Welfare Effects - Acid RainWelfare Effects - Acid Rain

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"Acid rain" is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Acid deposition occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compounds. These compounds fall to the earth in either dry form (gas and particles) or wet form (rain, snow, and fog). In the United States, about 63 percent of annual SOx emissions and 22 percent of NOx emissions are produced by burning fossil fuels for electricity generation (Latest Findings on National Air Quality, 2002). Because it typically takes days to weeks for atmospheric SO2 and NOx to be converted to acids and deposited on the earth's surface, acid deposition occurs in a multistate scale hundreds of miles away from its sources. Acidity is measured in terms of pH on a logarithmic scale from 1.0 to 14.0. A pH of 1.0 indicates high acidity, whereas a pH of 14.0 indicates high alkalinity; a pH of 7.0 indicates a neutral solution. Precipitation falling through a "clean" atmosphere is normally somewhat acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. Acid rain, however, can have a pH values below 4.0.


"Acid rain" is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Acid deposition occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compounds. These compounds fall to the earth in either dry form (gas and particles) or wet form (rain, snow, and fog). In the United States, about 63 percent of annual SOx emissions and 22 percent of NOx emissions are produced by burning fossil fuels for electricity generation (Latest Findings on National Air Quality, 2002). Because it typically takes days to weeks for atmospheric SO2 and NOx to be converted to acids and deposited on the earth's surface, acid deposition occurs in a multistate scale hundreds of miles away from its sources. Acidity is measured in terms of pH on a logarithmic scale from 1.0 to 14.0. A pH of 1.0 indicates high acidity, whereas a pH of 14.0 indicates high alkalinity; a pH of 7.0 indicates a neutral solution. Precipitation falling through a "clean" atmosphere is normally somewhat acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. Acid rain, however, can have a pH values below 4.0.


AAcidity is measured in terms of pH on a logarithmic cidity is measured in terms of pH on a logarithmic scale from 1.0 to 14.0. A pH of 1.0 indicates high scale from 1.0 to 14.0. A pH of 1.0 indicates high acidity, whereas a pH of 14.0 indicates high acidity, whereas a pH of 14.0 indicates high alkalinity; a pH of 7.0 indicates a neutral solution. alkalinity; a pH of 7.0 indicates a neutral solution. Precipitation falling through a "clean" atmosphere is Precipitation falling through a "clean" atmosphere is normally somewhat acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. normally somewhat acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. Acid rain, however, can have a pH values below 4.0.Acid rain, however, can have a pH values below 4.0.

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More information on acid rain can be found at: http://www.epa.gov/air/acidrain.html


In the environment, acid deposition causes soil and water bodies to acidify (making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife) and damages some trees, particularly at high elevations. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our national heritage. The nitrogen portion of acid deposition contributes to eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water bodies, the symptoms of which include algal blooms (some of which may be toxic), fish kills, and loss of plant and animal diversity. These ecological changes impact human populations by changing the availability of seafood and creating a risk of consuming contaminated fish or shellfish, reducing our ability to use and enjoy our coastal ecosystems, and causing economic impact on people who rely on healthy coastal ecosystems, such as fishermen and those who cater to tourists.


Air PollutionAir Pollution• Air pollution is the modification of the natural Air pollution is the modification of the natural

characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent. The particulate matter, or biological agent. The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.Earth's ecosystems.

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• Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory numbers of deaths and cases of respiratory disease. While major stationary sources are often disease. While major stationary sources are often identified with air pollution, the greatest source of identified with air pollution, the greatest source of emissions is actually mobile sources, mainly emissions is actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained contribute to global warming, have recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis.for plant life through photosynthesis.

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Sources of Air PollutionSources of Air Pollution• Air can be polluted by many sources in many

ways. One is by burning carbon-rich fuels in motor vehicles, commercial boilers, and power plants. Another is by using paints, cleaning agents, and countless other products that contain volatile, petroleum-based solvents.(http://www.conservamerica.org/cleanair)

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Sources of Air PollutionSources of Air Pollution• How pollutants affect us depends on who we are

and where we live: our age, genetic inheritance, general state of health, and by our exposure to a variety of harmful pollution sources.As a general rule, children and older adults are more vulnerable to air pollution than others. Children breathe more air per pound of body weight. They tend to be more active outdoors, on the school playground or in city parks. The lungs of infants and small children are still developing.

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Sources of Air PollutionSources of Air Pollution• Older adults may experience lowering of their immune

and respiratory defenses as they age. Their lungs may be injured from previous exposure to pollution or tobacco smoke.But everyone, even the youngest and healthiest, is vulnerable to air pollution.America has made a lot of progress reducing air pollution from power plants and other sources. But much work remains to be done. More than half the nation’s population lives in counties with air polluted by ultra-fine particles and low-level ozone.

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Sources of Air PollutionSources of Air Pollution• A key issue is not that air is necessarily getting dirtier,

but that recent research shows that certain types of pollution cause more health harm than was earlier thought.

There are moral and economic reasons for reducing air pollution.

Air pollution infringes on individual freedom. No one has the right to impose harmful substances on our bodies without our consent.

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Sources of Air PollutionSources of Air Pollution• Air pollution harms the economy through

premature deaths, hospitalizations, and lost workdays.

Air pollution issues can be very complex. They involve atmospheric chemistry and physics, human physiology, and ecological sciences. Regulatory policy issues are as complex as the science.

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