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Darfur
Facts, Interpretations, and Possibilities
Presentation material for educators and activists
developed by: UnderstandingSudan.org
latest version: February 13, 2007
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Hamudi Abdullah Mohammedin Kalma IDP Camp, South
Darfur
UNICEF/2004/Westerbeekhttp://www.unicef.org/emerg/darfur/index_24605.html
Dedicated to the future of Sudan
UNICEF/HQ05-0943/Ron Haviv
http://www.unicef.org/childalert/darfur
Cover Photo from UNICEF Darfur Emergency SeptemberOctober 2005 Report
http://www.unicef.org/emerg/darfur/files/DARFUREMERGSEPT_OCT2005.pdf
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Objectives Complicate the picture
There are many causes to the conflict and humanitarian
catastrophe, many actors involved, and much vocabulary tobe learned and debated
The conflict is not just local, but can be seen as extendingover many scales: from farmers and nomads fighting overwater to the great powers of the U.N. Security Councilnegotiating the international order
Highlight how discourse shapes understanding andaction and encourage self-reflection
Ethnicity and race are ideas constructed by peoples actionsand discourses
Genocide is debated in legal and policy circles
Intervention without a context can be a pretext
Emphasize Importance of knowing history
Importance of committing to long run involvement
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Geography
Sudan in the Region2Darfur1
Sudan in the World
1. http:// rightsmaps.com/html/sudmap1.html and
2. http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L03772791.htm
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Ethnicity in Darfur:Multiple andMutable
Academics prefer the phraseethnic group over tribe
Darfurians tell a variety ofhistories
Darfurians explain theirethnic identities in differentways
Identities can becomesimplified, polarized and
cemented throughcommunal and especiallysexual violence
But experiences as refugeesand displacement can havethe opposite effect
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Current Situation in Darfur(October/November 2006)
Multiplicity of rebel groups: Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) fractured; Minni Minawi faction
signed Darfur Peace Agreement with government Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) fractures
Several groups have formed loose alliance called NationalRedemption Front
Government-backed militia,janjawid, est. 20,000 persons 200,000 deaths estimated overall since February 2003. 218,000 refugees in 12 UNHCR camps in Chad2
Not all refugees in Chad are in camps 2 million persons internally displaced (IDPs)3
4 million persons in need of humanitarian assistance. 3
1. Coalition for International Justice, 5/05; 2. UNICEF, 12/20/05; 3. UN, Darfur Humanitarian Profile, 10/1/06
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis(Framing Stories)
Anti-government positions
Arab supremacism Arabs against blackAfricans (Musa Hilal)
Regime in-fighting by proxy Turabi versusBeshir and Taha
Straight up scorched earth response to rebelthreat; Regime has little legitimacy but much oilmoney, response is massive retaliation that may or
may not be controllable- like warlordism Pro-government positions
Farmers versus herders because of desertification
Me-too spoilers of the main peace agreement
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
1. ArabsupremacismArabs against black Africans-Little is known about importance of ethnic identities among ordinary
persons in DarfurOne famous study by Frederick Barth suggested that ethnic labbels
were very fluidSome suggest a recent hardening of identities
Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit, Tunjur, Meidob farmers => called by
others, in colloquial Arabic: zurga or zunji (translated into Englishas black)Rizeigat, Hamar, Humr, Bani Halba nomads => Arab (groupsclaiming descent from Arabian groups and typically practicingpastoralism)
-Regional conflict Chad, Libya) in 1970s and 1980s generated Tajamu al-Arabi Arab Gathering, a group of Darfurians espousing Arabsolidarity against other groups
Ideology of supremacy adapted by marginalized Arab (nomadic)groups with Musa Hilal as leader
-Encouraged by Islamicist, Arab regime in Khartoum, supported withweapons and mobility, and inflamed by international currents (waron terror, clash of civilizations)
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Musa Hilal A Janjawiid Leader
Son of Sheikh HilalMusa, Nazir of Um Julul,sub-clan of Abbala (camel-herding) Rizeigat, claimingdescent from Juhayna Arabnomads who came into Darfur
from the West between the 14th
and 18th Centuries.
In 2002 jailed because ofviolence in Darfur.
Government of Sudan released him to lead militia counter-attacks after SLA April 2003 surprise attacks on El Fasher.
Claimed in 2004 HRW interview that GOS military officers leadPDF militias.
Human Rights Watch, 2004 http://hrw.org/video/2005/musa/
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
2. Regime in-fighting by proxy:
Hasan el Turabi versus Omar el Beshir and Ali Osman Taha
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
2. Regime in-fighting by proxy:Turabi versus Beshirand Taha- June 1989 Coupfollowed by Islamicization
-Overthrew government of
Prime Minister Sadiq el MahdiGrandson of Mahdi
Leader of Umma Party
Turabis brother-in-law
-Continued civil war withSPLA in the South of thecountry.
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The Mahdi
Mohamed Ahmeddefeated the Turco-Egyptians along withBritish mercenaries(Charles Chinese
Gordon) in 1885. Hedied soon after, but hissuccessor, the KhalifaAbdullah al-Taaishi,established an
independent state thatlasted until British with Egyptian help re-conquered much ofSudan in 1898.
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
3. Straight up scorched earth response to threat
Regime has little legitimacy but much oil money Many soldiers in regular military who had fought
in the South came from west so could not easilydeploy them in Darfur.
Other rebels based in Darfur had in the 1980soverthrown Chad regime
Resort to militias out of habit Used PDFs in South and Nuba Mountains in long
running civil war
Jihad in mid-1990s in Nuba Mountains Response to rebel threat in western Darfur was
proxy militias who may or may not be controllable
Counter-Insurgency on the Cheap- A. de Waal
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Anglo-Egyptian CondominiumBritish defeated Sultan Ali Dinar in 1916 by force and used
local nomads as militias in process. The Sultanate of Darfur wasthen incorporated into Sudan. Aerial bombing was also part of theBritish campaign to subdue recalcitrant natives.
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SPLA
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
4. Farmers versus herdersbecause of desertification
Ecology of region The Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ)
North to South increase inprecipitation
Transhumant RoutesVariation in arability of terrian and
soil The Dar Fur Sultanate had
established the Hakura system ofland tenure, where tribal leaders
controlled large tracts of land1980s: Drought/Desertification pressures on land increase
conflicts
Rainfall Analysis - Cumulative Amounts inrelative terms : % of long term average
Sudan Agromet Dekadal Bulletin, Vol 2, Issue 19, 11-20September 2004 http://www.mundo.u-net.com/samis/
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
5. Me-too spoilers of the main peace agreement
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Five Ways of Seeing the Crisis
5. Me-too spoilers of the main peace
agreement How to get respect: The SPLA got concessions only
after 23 years of fighting.
The Comprehensive Peace Agreement splits oil
revenues between the GOS and the South. Whatabout the rest of the country?
US, UK, Norway specifically choose to limitnegotiations to North-South talks
SLA in Darfur has origins in SPLA took OneSudan of Garang to heart.
Pick up weapon to get attention February 2003
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Why Intervene in Darfur?
Continued child mortality among thedisplaced
Continued insecurity and loss of
capability for livelihoods in the camps
Insecurity persists with no politicalsolution
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Variants of Intervention Peacekeepers and monitors work in cooperation
with Sudan government, recognizingsovereignty
Safe havens around towns with guaranteed
relief corridors, with no government authority bad idea; Makes displacement more permanent
Darfur declared autonomous region under U.N.Authority
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Current Interventions in Darfur Humanitarian Intervention
13 UN agencies and 83 NGOs and Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies 13,869 Staff (12,895 national; 974 international as of Nov. 2005)
Peace-monitoring/Protection Forces African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) with support from European Union's
African Peace Facility, UN and US (though US House just voted to cut funds 1/3/06.) Currently 6,848 personnel in Darfur (peacekeepers, civilian police and military
observers). Many say should be double or as much as 45,000.
International Political Actions UN Resolutions International Criminal Court March 05 UN SCR 1593 referred situation to ICC AU led peace process
Negotiations in Abuja, Nigeria Five point agenda agreed to: 1) The general principles; 2) security arrangements for an
enhanced humanitarian ceasefire; 3) comprehensive ceasefire and final security arrangements:4) social reintegration; 5) and time line for implementation,
January 06 mini-Summit in Libya -- Now postponed Regional Involvements
Chad, President Idriss Deby faces internal threats and supposedly is quite ill;recently diverted money from Chad oil pipeline to military uses, promptingWorld Bank and donors to cut-off assistance
Libya, Egypt, Uganda, DR Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia are involved in complicatedways
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Further interventions? Regime Change?
Negotiated Peace?
Nation building?
Multilateralism?
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Genocide? Declaration triggers intervention?
Varying Definitions
1948 Geneva Convention
Lay and Customary international usage
Political equivocations Political will (e.g. US House defunding AU mission)
Uses by parties GOS selective denigration of Arabs (re Iraq, Palestine).
Double standards: Why not DR Congo?
Internalized locally contributes to hardening of identities
Mobilizing international action
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Conclusions Be wary of African and Arab labels
What histories are they hiding?
How are they being used
Locally?
Internationally?
Historically inaccurate, yet incredibly
powerful in the present The power of discourse, of labels, of names
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Conclusions continued Be committed to the long term
Educating ones self History, languages, cultures
Larger regional scene (Chad, Libya, Uganda Lords Resistance Army)
Getting back to normal will take a longtime. Return of IDPs and Refugees?
Truth and Reconciliation?
Justice? Re-establishing basic routines of production,reproduction of life.
Who will decide access and control overresources?
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Conclusions continued Be committed to the long term
International aid how to be part of asustainable solution?
Jan Egelund, Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs andEmergency Relief Coordinator
Dont wait for emergencies, create funds upfront beforehand.
Tony Blair and G8: Aid commitments to Africa?
AU and NEPAD African solutions?
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Conclusions continued Rethink aid and development
Interdependencies
Consumption and Production
Oil, Gum Arabic, Livestock, Water
Political Frameworks
War on Terror
Small arms proliferation
Peace-keeping, Peace-making. Gendered aspects of violence, justice,
recovery?
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