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8/12/2019 The Future of Nostalgia

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TH FUTUR OF NOST LGI

SVETL N BOYM

I\ \ \ t

page 3 to 32


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Copyright 200 I by S\ etlana BoymPublished by Basic Books

A Member of the Perseus Books GroupAll rights reserved . Printed in the United tates of America. No par t of this book may berep rod uced in any manner whatsoe\ er withou t written permission except in the case ofbrief quotations embod ied in critical arti cles and reviews. For in formation, address Basic

Books, 10 Ea st 53rd Stree t , ewYork, Y 10022- 5299.Designed hy Elizabeth Lahey

Tex t Set in Perpe tua 11.5

Library of Congress Cataloging- in -Publication DataBoym, S\ etlana, 1959-

The future of nostalgia/Sve tlana Boym.p. cm. Includes ind ex.ISB1 0 46 5 00707-4

1 Ci,ilization, Modern- 1950- 2. Nostalgia- Social aspects.Men10r) Social aspects. 4. Nostalgia in literature. 5. Authors, Exiled .

6. National characteristics. 7. Biograph). 8. Iden tit y (Ps)cho logy)9. Post communism snci 11 .ispl ( lS

1.Titl l .CIH 27 .1167 )()tll

l() I x . i.) 00 4 5 4 ~1 i lOIOI l l l > S / 1 , , 1

To n 9 parents,Yuri and Mu sa oldberg


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ONTENTS

, lcknowfedgmcnts ix111roduc1 ion: llihoo on Nostalgia xii i

PART I HYPOCHONDRIA OF THE HEART

NOSTALGIA HISTORY AND MEMORYI I 111111 Cu red Soldiers to Incu rable Romantics:

Nos talg ia and Prog ress 31 11 \11gcl ol' 1 istm y: Nostalgia and Mod ern ity 19

t < I >1110\.lllr: lo stalgia and Po pular C ulture 33I l{ .,1n1-.1li\1 Nostalg ia: Co nspiracies and

llt turn lo Origins 4 1 l{1ll1Ttin Nostalg ia: Virt ual Rea li ty and

Co ll1T til'l' Memory 491. Nc" l.".L i.t .111d Post Communi st Memory 57

PART 2 ( l[S AND RE INVENTED TRADITIONS

11 1 H ll logv of' Ml'lropol is 75S /\ lo\1O\ \ llw IZ11ssi.rn {01111 X {

I l '1 l11 , J g, lit" ('11s 1


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INTRODU TION

Taboo on Nostalgia

lt1 .1 Russian news paper I read a story of a recent homecomin g. Afte r the openingi 1hv Soviet bo rders, a couple fro m Germ any wen t to visit the native ci ty of their

11.1rn1ts, Konigsbe rg, fo r the first t ime. O nce a bas tion of med ieva l Teuton ick111 ghts, Konigsberg dur ing the postwar years had been transformed into Kali- g rJd, an exempl ary Soviet constr uc tion site . A single go thic cathed ra l without,, 1upo la, where ra in was all owed to dr izzle onto the tom bstone of Im manuel1 .1111, remained among the ru ins o f the city's Prussian past. T he man and the


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N I tt l ll \ I I N

a douhk l'xposurl', o r, \ su p1 11111pns1 l1rn1 ol l\\o 1m .1gl'' ol 11111111 .111d .1hrnad ,t pas t and prese nt , drcJm .rnd ~ l l lik. Tlw moment \l l ' tr y lo li>rtT it into a~ g l image, it breaks the frame or burns the surface.

It would not occur to us to demand a prescription for no stalgia. Yet in these\enteenth century, nos talgia was co nsidered to be a curable disease, akin to th ecommon co ld . Swiss doctors bclie\'ed that opium , leeches and a jo urn ey to th eSwiss Alps would take care of nostalg ic sy mp toms. By the twen ty-first century,th e passing ailmen t turned into the incurable modern condition. The twenti ethcentury began with a futur istic utopia and ended with nostalgia. O ptimistic belief'j.n the future was discarded like an outmoded spaceship sometim e in the 1960s.1ostalgia itself has a utopian dimension, only it is no longer di rected toward th efuture . Sometim es nos talgia is not direc ted toward the past either, but rathe rsideways .Th e nostalg ic feels stifled within the conventional conllncs of tim e andA contemporary Ru ss ian saying claims that the past has become much mo reunpredictable than the future. Nostalgia depends on this strange unpredictability.In fact nosta lgics from all over the world would llnd it difficult to say what exactlythey yearn for- St. Elsew here , another tim e, a be tter life . The alluring object ofnostalgia is no toriously elusil'e. The ambivalent sentiment perm eates twentie thcen tu ry popular culture, where technolog ical advances and specia l effects arc fre qu entl y used to rec reate visions of th e past, from the sinking Titanic to dyinggladiato rs and extinct din osaur s. Somehow progress didn 't cure nostalg ia but ex r b a t it. Similarly, globa lization encouraged stronger local attachmen ts. Incoun terpoint to o ur fascination with cybe rspace and the virtual global vi llage,there is a no less global epidemic of nostalgia, a n affecti ve yearning for a comm u nity with a co llecti ve memory, a long ing for continui ty in a fragment ed world .Nos talgia inevita bly reappears as a dcrense mechanism in a tim e of acceleratedrhythms or life and historical uphea\'als.

Yet th e mo re nostalg ia there is, the mo re heatedly it is denied. No stalg ia issomething of a bad word, an affectionat e insult at best. No stalg ia is to memoryas kitsch is to art , writes Charles Maie r. ' Th e wo rd nosialsia is frequently used

... dismissively. Nostalgia is essentially history without guilt . 1 critage is something that suffuses us with pride rather than with sham e, writes Michael Kam

._ me n. ' Nosta lg ia in this se nse is an abdi ca ti on o f persona l respo nsibility, aguilt-free homeco ming, an ethical and aesthetic failure .

I t oo had long held a prejudice against nostalgia. I remember when I had justemigrated from th e Soviet Union to the United States in 198 1, strangers oftenasked , Do you miss it? I ne1e r quite knew how to answe r. No, but it 's not what

I N I Ht l l l l N

1., 11 th111k," I'd ,,11, r )' ' hul it \ no t \\ h.1l vou thi nk. I \\"1S told at the Sovk tl11 inlcr th .11 I \\0;1 ld 1w11r lw ahil' to return. ;o a l g i a . ~ c c r n c c L . l . i k c a waste111H and an un;ilfordabk luxury. I had only just learned to answer the quest ionhm\ arl' YOU ? with an efficient fine inst ead of the Russian ro undabo ut discus

' ' of' life's unbearable shades of gray. At that time , be ing a res ident alien,n mcd the onl y appropriate form of ide nti ty, which I slowly began to accept.

I ,\ler, when I was in ter v iewi ng immigrants, espec ially those who had left under.J il'firnlt personal and political circumstances, I real ized that for some nosta lgia\\ a taboo: it was the pred icament of Lot 's wife, a fear that looking back might11.1r.1ly;1e you forever, turning you into a pillar of salt , a pitiful mon um ent to your, I\ n gr ief and the fu ti lity of departure . First-vvave immig rants are often notor i' .u,lv unsentimental, leaving th e search for roots to their children and grandchil' 1 ~ unburdened by visa pro blems. Somehow t he deeper the loss, the harder it to engage in public mo urning. To g iYe name to this inner longing seemed to

1 ... profanation that reduced th e loss to little more than a sound bite.Nostalgia caugh t up w ith me in unex pec ted ways. Ten years after my departure

I 1durncd to my native city. Phantoms of famil iar faces and facades, the smell of11 1 ing cutlets in the clutte red kitchen, a scent of ur ine and swamps in the deca'1111t ha llways, a gray dr izz le over the Neva Ri ve r, the rubb le o f recognit ion- it allt 111t heel me and left me numb. What was most striking was the different sense of111111 . It fe lt like tra veling into another tem pora l zone where everybo dy was lateI 111 , 0 111ehow there was always time. (For bet ter or worse, th is sense of temporalJ11, 111y quickly disappea red during perestroika . The excess of time for conversa-111 > ,1nd re flec tion was a per ve rse ou tcome of a soc ial ist economy: ti me was not,, J>ITcious commodity; the sho rtage of pr ivate space allowed people to make pri' .111 u ~ l of the ir t ime. Retrospectively and most likely nosta lgically, I thought that111 , loll' rlwthm of reflective tim e made possible the dream of freedom .rl'a lizccl tJ1at nostalgia goes beyond individual psychology. At first glance, nos-1.ilg i.1 is a longing for a place, but ac tually it is a xear n i :Jg_for a the1111 1 of our childhood, the slower rhythms of our dreams. In a broader sense, nos_-1 dg 1.1 is rcbcllioD-ag.ainsL h c _ m o . e - r n - i of-timc,- th.e_ im e of historyI ' t - . r ~ s s The nostalgic .to a t e history a.nd turn it into pr ivate or.1 , l1\v myth ology, to rev1s1t time like space , refusmg to sur render to the 11 re-' ' 1hility of time that plagues the human condition.

-< 1st,1lgia is paradoxical in the sense that longing can make us mo re empatheticI , , \ 1rd fd lm\ humans, yet the moment we tr y to repair longing with bel onging,1111 .ipprC'hension of loss with a rediscovery of identity, we often part ways and put11 , 11rl to mutual understanding. Als ia- long ing- is what we share, yet n st s


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\\ I I N I I 11111 I I ll

thl' re t ur n holll\' is lt .11 di, us. 11 1, 1ltv p101111M In 11h11 ild llw idea l homethat lies at the Co re of ll l ,111)' l)Ol\V rfu l i d 1 o o o i ( ' o f 1od ,JV tl'l11lllin11 US lO 1clin-, ,gu ish cr itica l thinking for emotional bond ing. Th l da nger o f nos talgia is tha t ittends to confu se the act ual home and t he imag inary one. In ex treme cases it cancrea te a p hanto m homeland , for the sake of which one is ready to die or kill . Un ~ c nostalgia breeds monste rs. Ye t t he sen timent itsel f, t he mo urning place me nt and te mp o ral ir reve rsibility, is at th e ve ry core o f th e moderncondition .

Th e nostalgia t hat interes ts me here is not m ere ly a n individual sickness bu t asymp to m of our age, a histo rical emotion. It is not necessaril y o ppose d to moder nity and indi vidual respon sibility. Rather it is coeval w ith mode rnity itself. Nosta lg ia an d prog ress arc like Jeky ll and Hyde : alter egos. Nos talg ia is no t merely anex press ion of loca l long ing, but a result o f a ne w understanding o f time and spacethat made the dh ision in to " local" and "uni ver sal" poss ible.

Outbreaks o f nosta lg ia often follow revo lu t io ns; t he Fre nch Revo lutio n of1789, t he Russ ian Revo lution and rece nt velvet revo lu tions in Easte rn Eu ropewe re accom panied by political and c ultural m an ifestat ions o f lo ng ing. In Fran ce itis not only th e ancicn regime that produced revo lu tio n , but in some res pect there ,olu tion produced the ancien r egim e, g hing it a shape, a sense of closure and ag ilded aura. Similar ly, the revolutionary epogu e of perestro ika and the end of theSoviet Uni o n p rodu ced an i mage of the last Soviet d ecades as a tim e o f stagnation ,or a ltern ati vely, as a Soviet gold en age o f sta bility, strengt h and "normalcy," theI iew l c n ~ in R ussia today. th e nostalg ia ex plored here is not always forth e anc1en reg ime or fallen empire but also for the un realized dreams of the pastand visions of t he future that becam e obso lete. The hi story of nos talg ia might allow us to loo k b ack at modern histo ry not so lely sea rching fo r n ewness and tech-

r o log ica l p rog ress bu t fo r un re a li zed poss ibil iti es, unpredi ctable turns andcrossroads.Nosta lg ia is not always abo ut th e past ; it can be ret rospec t ive but also prospccthT. Fa ntas ies of the past de te rmined by needs of the prese nt have a direct impacton reali ties of the fu ture. Consideration of the fu t ure makes us take respons ibi li tyfor o ur nos talg ic talcs. Th e future of nos talgic lo nging and prog ressive thinking is

I at t he cente r of thi s inquiry. Unl ike me lanc ho lia, which co nfines its e lf to t heplanes of individ ual co nscious ness, nostalg ia is abo ut the rela tionship be tween in di vidu al biography a nd t he biog raphy of gr oups or nations, between p er sonal andco llec tive memory.

Th er e is in fact a tradition of critical reflec tio n on the mod ern condition thatinco rpor ates nos talg ia, which I will call dJmod;;;; T he adverb ?ff co nfuses our

I N I H i tl\ 1 1 N I

, 11 w 111 cl11 n t1011 ; 1t 111 1 kl ' ' us l :>. plo1l' ' uk , li .1clo \ .11u l li.1l k ,dkys rathl'r than thl'11.1t th1 ro.HI ol pm .',r\'ss; it ,1 10 \ \ s us to t J k ~ u r lrom thl' deterministic nar-

1 111\ 1n l 1 \l 'll ti l't h y ~ o rffercd a C.-itigue of the l l11 11 ,, l,111 f a ~ c ,,ith lll'\ \ness and no less modern rcuwenllon of t rad1t10n. In Ji1111 11 11 mockrn tradition , reflec t ion and long ing, es trange ment and affection go1 .1, 1hl'r. Moreover, for some twent iet h-centur y off-modernists who came from, , 1 111ri(' t radit ions ( i.e., those of ten co ns ider ed ma rg inal or pro\'incial with re-l , 1 10 the cul tural mai nstream , from Eastern Europe Lo Latin Amer ica) as well, 1111 many disp laced peo ple from all over the wo rld , c reat ive reth ink ing of nos-1di1 .1 ,, as not merely an artistic dev ice but a strategy of sur vival, a way of making' ' r the impossibili ty of homecoming.

I li1 most co mm on currency of the globalism export ed a ll over the wor ld is111 Il l ' \ .rnd po pular cul tu re. Nosta lgia too is a feature of global culture, but il de-111.11 uI, .1 diffe re nt c ur rency. Af te r all , the key words de fining globalism I" " 'I ~ s , mod er n ity and vir tual rea li ty were inve nt ed by poets and1i1i111 , ophers: progress was co ined by Immanue l Kant; the noun moJernity is a cre-1111111 of Char les Baudelaire; and l wal rcalir.y was first imag ined by Henri Berg IH>l Bill Gates. O nly in Ber gso n 's definition, 1irwal rea/11.Y referred to planes, i , 1111sc iou sness, potential di mensions of time and creat ivi ty that are d istinctly11111 11mitably hu man. As far as no stalgia is co nce rned , e ighteenth-century doc-1 .1 l,1ili ng to uncover its exact locus, recommended seeking hel p from poets and11,, 1,, nphcrs. poet no r phi losopher, l never the less decided to 'vvrite a his-11", nl" nosta lgia, a lternating between cr itical reflect ion and storyte lling, hopingI, i11sp the rhy thm o f long ing, its ent icements and l'ntrapme nts. No stalgia speaks111 11ddks an d puzzles, so one m ust face t he m in o rder not to beco me its next vic -11111 or its next victimizer.

t lw of' nostalgia docs not hc long to any spec ific disc ip line : it frustratesI' 1 , liologists, sociologists, lite rary theo ri sts and philosopher s , eve n comput er, 11 11t"ts w ho thought t hey had go tten away from it all un t il they too_ tookJ-J

1. 1111>1 in the ir h o me pages and the cyber -pastora l \'Ocabulary o f the globa l village .11 O\'Crabundancc of nostalg ic artifacts market ed by th e e nt er tai nment in-, 1.t1,, most of them sweet ready-mades, re flec ts a fear of un tamable longing and11 111 1>mmod ified t ime. O vcrsatu rat ion, in this case, underscores nostalgia 's fun- I 11111 11tal insa tiabil ity. W ith the dimi n is hed ro le of ar t in Western societies, the111 Id or Sl' lf-consc io us explo rat ion of lo ng ing without a qu ick fix and sugar' .. i1n l p;illiati vcs had sign ifican tly dwi nd led.

l\i , ,..,ta lgia ta nta lizes us with its fundam en tal ambivalence; it is about t he repc ti-11 . ,, , , r the un repeatable, materialization of t he immater ia l. Susan Stewart writes


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ll I N I Ht 11111 ( I I l I N

lhal "nostalgi.1 is tlw rl'pd1ti1>11 tl1.1t 1111111111' th 111.111tl11 11tH 111 n l .di rq >'l1t1011sand denies th e rc1wtition s capacity l o dvii1w idn11it;."' Nost.1lg i.1di.1rls space ontime and lime on spacl' and hinders the dist inction lwlwtTn su bjl'l'l and object ; itis Janus-faced, like a double-edged sword. To unear th th e fragm ents of nostalgiaone needs a dual archeology of memory and of place , and a dual historv of ill u-sio ns and of actual pra ctices. ,

Part I, Hypochondr ia of the Hean, tra ces the history of nostalgia as an ailment its tr ansformatio n from a cur able disease int o an incurable conditionfr om maladie du pays to ma du siecle. We will follow the co urse of no stalgia f r o ~the pastoral sce ne o f' romantic nationali sm to the urban ruins of mode rnity, frompoetic land sca pes of the mind into cy berspace and outc 1- space.

Instead o f' a magic cure for nostalgia , a typology is o ffered that mig ht illuminatesome of nostalgia 's mechanisms of sedu c tion and manipulation. Herc two kinds ofnostal ia arc distin guished: the restora tive and the reAectiYe. Rcstorati1e nostal

g ~ e s s e s nosws an attempts a transhist orical reconstructio n of the los t home.I Rcllecti1'e nostalgia thri1es in algia, the longing itself, and de lays th e homecoming - w istfully, ironically, desperately. R


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PART I

HYPOCHONDRIA OF THE HE RT NOSTALGIA HISTORY ND MEMORY

he ruin of a monument and shadow of the author Photo by Sl etlana Boym


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FROM CURED SOLDIERSTO INCUR BLE ROM NTICS NOST LGI ND PROGRESS

ll word nostalgia co mes from two Gr eek roots, yet it did not or ig inate in an-' 11nt Greece. Nos109ia is only pseudo-Greek, or nostalgically Gre ek. The word ]

co ined by the ambitious S\\'iss doctor Johannes Hofer in his medical disscrta-111111 n He believed that it was possible from the force of the sound os-1. tlg ia to d efi ne the sad mood originating from the desire for return to one's nativel.111d . 1(Hofer also suggested nosom nia and p ilop tri o m n ia to de scribe the sam e' 111ptoms; lu ckily, Lhe latter fai led to enter common par lance.) Co nt rary to our

1111ui tion, nostalaia came from medicine, not from )OCtr or )O litics. Among th elin t vic tims of the new ly diagno sed disease were various disp laced peo ple of the,,q 'ntcc nth century, freedom -loving students from Lh c Repub lic of Berne study-111g in Basel, domesti c he lp and servants working in France and Germ any and

iss so ldiers fighting abroad. Nostalg ia was said to produce erroneo us represe ntations that caused the af'llu ll'd to lose tou ch with the present. Longing for their nat ive land became the ir

111gk -mind ed obsession. The patients acquired a lifeless and haggard co un tc-11.11Hc , and indiff to rnrds eYe rything, confusing past and present , real and11 111ginary events. One of the ea rly symptoms of nostalg ia was an ability to hear

' TS or sec ghosts. Dr. Albert Yon Haller wrote: One of Lh c ea rliest symptoms l hv sensation of heari ng the 1oiee o f a person that one loves in Lhe voice of an ' 1 -r with whom one is conversing, or to sec one's fami ly again in drcams.2 It, 111lll 'S as no surprise th at Ho fer 's fe licitous bapti sm o f t he new disease both111 l1wd to identify the exjsting condition and en hanced the epidemic, mak ing it a11 1dvspread European phe nomenon. The epid emic o f nosta lgia was accompanjedI 1 .Ill even mo re dangerous epidemi c of feigned no sta lgia, particularly among


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J 11 1 I II I C t I j t N 11\ \ I f \

so ldi l' rs ti rn l ol' Sl ' I \ i11g .1l1n1.1d , nn.1li11g tlw co11t ,1g iou.\ ,itui l o l' th< er ro neousrepresenta ti ons.Nos talg ia, the disease ol an alll ictcd imag ination , incapa citated th e body. Hofer

th ought t hat the co ur se of the disease \\'as myste rious : t he a il ment spread alonguncommon rou tes through the un to uched co ur se of t he channels o f the brain toth e body, aro using an unco mmon and eve rp rescn t idea of th e recalled na li\'cland in the r ~ i n d . ' Longing fo r home exha usted the ' \ ita l spir its, ca using nause a,loss o f appe tite, patho log ica l changes in the lungs, brain inflammat ion , ca rdiac ar res ts , high fe ,cr, as we ll as ma rasmus and a propensity for suici de.

Nostalg ia operated by an associationist mag ic ," by means o f w hich all aspe ctso f c v c r life rdated to o.nc s ing le o bsess io n . In thi s res pec t nostalg ia was aki nto only mstcad of a per sec uti on mania , th e nos ta lgic was possessed bya ma ma of .lo ng ing. On th e o ther hand , the nosta lg ic had an am az ing capacity fo rrcmcmb e rmg se nsati ons, tastes, sounds, sme ll s, the m inutiae and tri\'ia o f thelos t paradise that those who rema in ed ho me never no ticed Gas tio l. . no m1 c an au-dito ry nostalg ia we re o f par ticular impo rta nce . Sw iss sc ienti sts found that 1u st icsou ps, t hick l'i ll age mi lk and the fo lk melodics of Alpine \'alleys we reparticularly conduch c to t ri gge ri ng a no sta lg ic react io n in Swiss so ld ie rs. Suppo s.cd ly sou.nds of a ce r tain ru stic canti lcna that acco mpanied sheph erds inthc 1. d r ll'l ng of the herds to pastu re im med iate ly provoked an epidemic of nosta lg ia am ong S\\'iSs so ld ier s scr\'ing in France. Simi larly, Scots, par t icular ly Highland ers, .were known to succumb to inc:apacitating nos ta lg ia \\'hen heari ng the

the bagpipes so m uch so, in fa c t, that the ir m il ita ry s upe riors had tob 1 t t hem from playing , s ing ing o r even whistli ng nat ive tun es in a suggcs

tJ\e ma nner. Jean -Jacgucs Ro usse au talks abo ut the e ffec ts of c o\\'be lls the ru stic sound s that e xcite in the Swiss the ys of life and yout h and a bitt ; r so r ro\\'fo r ha,ing los t the m . The music in this case do cs not act precise ly as music, bu tas a m.cmo rat ive sig n ."1 Th e m usic of home , whe ther a rustic cantil ena or a popsong , is the perm ane nt acc om pani ment o f nostalg ia its ineffable charm thatmakes the nos talg ic teary-eyed and tongue- tied and o ften clouds cri ti cal reflect ion on the subjec t.

In the good o ld days nostalgia was a cura bl e d isease, dangero us bu t no t alwaysle thal. Leec hes, warm hypnotic em u lsions, opium and a re turn to th e Alps usua llysoo tJicd the symptoms. Purg ing of he s to mach was also reco mm ended but no th ing to th e ret urn lo the mot herland bc lie\'Cd to be the best fornos talg ia. ~ 1 l c propos ing t he t reatm ent for the disease , Hofer see med pro ud ofso me o f hi s pati en ts; for him nostalg ia was a demonst ration of the patTiot ism o fl11S compa triots who locd the c harm of the ir nathe land to th e point of sickness.

I 1\11 ( 111t1 Ii 1111lt l l11 \ I I N i l l H \ ll I H1 1\1 \N I I t

o s t sh.1n d so 111 l' 'Yllll>to 111 ' \\ 1l1 111 1-l.11Hl ,l11 .1 11d h) podumdr i.1. Md,111, l1o li.1 . 1 1 ~ to the (; ,1cnic l'OIH 'l' IHion , \\ ,ls .1 disl',\Sl' o f till' hlat'k h ik that al'-' bIn tcd th e blood and produced such physical and emotiona l symptoms as ver t igo,1111Hh wit , headache, . much waking, rumbling in t he guts . . . t roublesome, 111.ims, heaviness of the heart . . . con tinuous fear, sorrow, d isconten t , superflu - ' cares and anxiety. Fo r Ro bert Burton, melancho lia , far from being a mere11liysical or psyc hological co nd itio n , had a ph iloso phical dim ensio n . T he m elan- I, h;1l ic sa\\' th e \rnrlcl as a theater ru led by cap;:icio us fate and demo nic play. Of - /1111 mi s taken for a m ere mi san t h ro pe, th e m elancho lic was in fac t a ut o piand1 amcr w ho had higher hop es for human ity. In th is respec t , mel ancho lia was an.ilflTl and an ailment o f in tellec tua ls, a doub t , a s id e effec t of cr itica l, 1son; in melancho lia, ~ fee ling, sp irit and matter, soul and body were1wrpetual ly in co nflict . Unlike melancho lia, whi ch \\'as regarded as a n ailmen t o f111011ks and philoso phers, nos ta lgia was a mo re democ ratic disease that th reat - ~, lll'cl to affect soldier s and sa ilors d isp laced fa r from home as wel l as many coun-t 1, peo p le \\' ho began to m ove to the citi es . Nos talg ia was no t merely an111clh idu al but a publi c . that revealed th e co ntrad ictions of m odcr-11 11y and acg mred a g reater po li t ical impo r tance .

T he o u tb urst of nostalgia bo th enforced and challenged the e mer ging conccp-111111 o f patri otism and nati onal spir it. It was unclear at first wha t was lo be done111 th the alll icted so ldie rs who lo\'ecl the ir mo the rland so much that they never11 .111 ted to lea \'C it , o r fo r that matter to die for it. Wh en the epidemi c of nostal l1 s1 read bevo nd the Sw iss g ar r ison , a more rad ical treatm ent was under taken .I hl' f-renc h docto r Jo urdan Le Co inte suggested in his boo k v\'r iltc n du r-ing tl1eI rrnch Revol utio n of 1789 that nos talg ia had to be cured by inc iti ng pain and te r-1 "" As sc ie ntific e vidence he offer ed an account of drastic trea tment o f nostalgia' lTCssfu lly unde rtaken by the Russians. In 1733 l'l1e Russian ar my was str ickeni,, nos ta lgia j ust as it ve ntu red into Germany, the situation beco m ing dire enough1k it the genera l was co mpe ll ed to come up w ith a rad ical treatm e nt of tJ1c nos-1.il . ic dru s. He th reatened t11at the first to fall sick wi ll be bur ied a li \'e. This wasi kind o f li teralizat io n of a me tap ho r, as life in a fo re ign co un tr y see med like

,l,,1 th . T his punishment was re port ed to be carried ou t o n two or three occasio ns,11 hi ch happ ily cured the Russian ar my o f co mplain ts o f no stalg ia. 7(No wonderlnging becam e such an impo r tant par t o f the Ru ssian national identi ty.) Russ ian11il pro ,ed to be a fertile g round for bot h nati,c and for eign nos talg ia. The au

lnpsics perfo rmed on the French so ld ie r s w ho perished in the proverb ial Russian, 11m\ du r ing th e m ise r able retreat of the Napole o nic Arm y fro m Mo scow re' 1


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I 111 I ti I H I Il l N 4 , \ 1. 1

While l:urnpl',lllS (\\ itl1 tlw l'X\'qllio 11 ol' tl w llr111 sl1 ) n 1Hirhd f'rnlLIL' lll L'pi dcm ics o f' nostalg ia stJrtin g l'rom the se\'t'llll'l'nth n ntury, A11wrican doc to r sproud ly dec:la red that the young nation remained heal thy and didn 't succumb tothe nostalgic vi ce until the American Civil War." {'the Sw iss do ctor Ho fer be-li eved that homesickness exp ressed love for freedom and one's native land, twocenturi es later th e Amer ican military do cto r Th eodo re Ca lhoun co nce ived ofnostalgia as a sham eful disease that revealed a lack of manliness and unprogrcs-sivc attitudes. He suggested that this was a disease of the mind and of a weak will(the co ncept of an "afflic ted imagination" wou ld be profoundly alien to him ). Innineteenth -century Ameri ca it was believed that the main reasons for homesickness were idleness and a slow and inefficie nt use of time conducive to day dream ing, cr otomania and onanism. "Any influence that will tend to render thepat ient more manly w ill exer cise a curative power. Jn boarding schoo ls, as perhaps many of us remem ber, rid icule is wholly relied upon [The nosta lgic]patient can often be laughed out o f' it by his co mrades, or reasoned out of it byappeals to his manhood; but of all potent agents, an ac tive cam paign, with attendant ma rches and mo re parti cular ly its battles is the best curativc.'19 Dr. Ca lhoun proposed as trea tment publi c ridicule and bullying by fellow so ldiers, anincreased number of manly marches and battles and improvement in pe rsona lhygiene that would make so ldiers' living conditions mo re modern. (He also wasin fav or of an occasio nal fur lough that wo uld al low so ldier s to go home for abrief period of time.)

For Calhoun, nos talg ia was not conditioned entirely by indiddual s' healtl1 , bu talso by their strcngtl1 of' character and social background. Among the Americansthe most susceptible to nostalgia we re so ldiers from th e rural dist ricts, particularly farm ers, while merchants, mechanics, boatm en and tr-ain conducto rs fromthe same area or from the city were mo re like ly to resist the sickness. The so ldier from the city car es not wh ere he is o r where he ca ts, while his countrycousin pines for tlie o ld ho mestead and his father 's groaning board," wrote Calhoun . In such cases, the o nly hope was that the advent of prog ress would somehow alleviate nostalgia and the e ffi cient use of tim e wou ld eliminate idleness,melancholy, procrastinati on and lovcsickness.

As a ublic c idemic, nostal ia was based on a sense of loss not limited to personal history. Such a sen se of loss do cs not necessarily suggest that what is lost isproperly remembered and that one s till knows where to loo k for it . Nostalg ia became less and less curable . By the end of the eighteenth cen tu ry, do cto rs discovered that a re turn hom e did not always treat the symptoms.The objec t of longingoccasionally mig rated to faraway lands beyond the confines of the mother land.Just as ge ne ti c researcher s today hope to identify a ge ne not on ly for medical con -

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l'crw lopl'\ l,ll ior of'lml' and l'11dur.11H1 tlw doth th.1t .. lw l l l < l l i ~ hy day and unrave ls by night represents a mythical time of' everyday loss and renewa l.Odysseus's is not a story of indi1idual sentimental long ing and subsequent returnhome to fam ily values; rather, this is a fable about human fate.. A f t e ~ all , O dysseus's homecoming is about nonrecognition. Ithaca is plungedinto m ist and the roya l wanderer arrives in disguise. The he ro recognizes neitlierhis homeland divine protcctrcss. Even his faitlifu l and long-suffering wifedo cs not sec lum for who he is. On ly his c hildhood nurse notices the scar on t hehero 's foot- the tentative marker of phys ical identity. Odysseus has to prove hiside11t ity in ac ti o.n. He shoo ts the bow that belongs to him, at that momen t trigge ring recollccuons and gaining recognition. Such ritual ac tions help to erase thewr inkl es on the faces and the imprints o f age . Odysseus's is a representa tivehomecoming, a ritual eve nt that neither beg ins no r ends witJ1 him.

The seduction of non - return hom e- the allure of Circe and the sirens- playsa more .impo rtant role in some ancient versions of Od ysseus's cycle, where thestory of hom eco min g is not at all clearly crystallized. The archaic tales aro und themyth, not reco rd ed in the Homeric rendering of' th e st o ry, sugges t that theprophecy will co me tr ue and Odysseus w ill be ki ll ed by his son-no t

by the son he bo re with Circe who would late r end up marrymg. Odysseus s. wife, Penelope. Thus in the po tential world of' myt hi cal sto rytc llmg there mig ht be an inces tuo us connection between the faithful wife and theenchantress t11at de lays the hero's hom ecom ing. After all , Circe's island is an ultimate u top ia of regressive pleasure and di vine best ial ity. One has to leave it to be-co me hum an again. Circe's tr eacherous lullabies arc echoed in the melo dics ofhome. So if we explore the potentia l talcs of Odysseus's homecoming, we riskturning an ach-cnture story with a happy ending into a Greek tragedy. Hence eventhe mos t classica l Wes tern tale of hom ecom ing is far from circu lar; it is riddledwith co n tradictions and zigzags, fa lse homecomings, misrccognitions.

Modern nostalgia is a mourning for the impossibility of mythical return , forthe loss of an enc hanted world with clear borders and ,alucs; it cou ld be a secular expr ession of a spiritual longing, a nos talgia for an abso lute, a home that is

b ~ t h ph sica l and spi ritual , the edc nic uni ty of time and space before entry intohisto ry. fh c nostalgic is looking for a spi ritual addressee. En countering silence, heloo ks for memorabl e signs, despera tely misreading them.

- The d iagnosis of the disease of nostalgia in the late seventee nth century tookplace roughly at the histo rical moment w hen the co nception of time and histo rywe re undergoing radical change. Th e re lig io us vvars in Europe came to an end butthe much prophes ied end of the world and doomsday d id not occur. It was on ly

I I( ( 111\ I II .., I ' I( ' I I ' II II I II I I \ N 111 ' .

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hw N0\,1 li.-. " l'h iloso ph v is n .. 11 ) ,1 ho11w"1 k11" : 11 is .111 111 g1 to he al ho meeve rywhen: .""'

Like the docto rs before them, ) Ocls_and Jhilosophers fa iled to find a prec ise lo ca tion for nosta lg ia. They focused on the quest itse lf.\'\ po etic lang uage and ame taphorica l journey see med like a 10meopa ic trea tment for human longing,ac tin g through sym pathy and similarity, toge ther with the aching body, ye t notpromising a hallu cinatory total reca ll. He inrich Heine's poe m of prototypicallong ing is abo ut symp athetic mirroring of nos talg ia.

A spruce is standing lonelyin the No rth on a barren height.He drowses; ice and snowflakeswrap him in a blanket or white.He dreams about a palm tree

in a distant, eastern land,that languishes lonely and silent

upon tJ1e scorching sand ."The solitary nort hern spr uce dr eam s about his nosta lg ic soulmate and an

tipode- the south ern palm . Thi s is no t a co mforting national lo\'C affair. The tworathe r ant hropomor ph.ic t rees share so li tud e and dream s, not roots. Long ing fo ra fe llow nostalg ic, rather t11an for the landscape of the hom e land, thi s poem is along-distan ce romance between two internal immigr ant s," displaced in the ir ownnative so il.

Th e first generation of romantics we re not politic ians; the ir nostalg ic worldview was weltanschauimg not a olitik. Wh en nosta lgia turns po litical r ~is co nnected to nation building_anclru1Jive songs arc p11rificd Th e offi cial mem oryof t11c nation-state does not to le ra te useless nostalgia, nostalg ia for its m.vn sake.Some Alpine me lodies appeared to o fri"olous and ideologica lly inco rrec t.

Wh ose nostalgia was it ?What used to be an individu al emotion ex pressed bysick so ldie rs and later romantic poets and philoso phers turned in to an inst itu tional or state po licy. With the development of Swiss nati onalism (t hat co incidedwith t he cr eation of a federal sta te in the ninetee nth century), na ti, e songs wererewritten by schoo lteachers who found peasant melodics vulgar and not sufficiently patriotic. They wrote for the chora l re pertoire and tr i.-feats in the past figure as prominently as victories in uniting th e nation . The11 ,11 on -slat e at best is based on the soc ial contract that is also an emot ion al con-- .11 .Ht, stamp ed by the charisma o f the past .In the mid -nineteenth century, nos talgia hecanw inst itutiona lized in national

111 .i proYincial museum s and u rba n mem orials. The past was no longer unknown, ,1 unknowable The ast beca me "heri taoe.' In the nin eteenth ce ntury, for the fir st111111. in history, old monuments were restored in th eir origina l image. " Th ro ugh, ,111 Italy churches were stripped of the ir baroque layers and eclectic additions and, , , reated in the Renaissa nce image, so me thing that no Renaissance architect, iuld e\er imagine doing to a wo rk of antiquity. .J1c sense of histo ricity and dis' 1, l\ness o f the past is a new nin e teenth -ce ntury scnsibilitY:. By the encl o t the

~ l l e n t h century there is a d ebat e between the defenders of compl ete restora-1,.11 that proposes to remake h is torica l and ar tistic monuments o f past in1111 11 . and wholeness, and the love rs of unintent iona l memorial s o f the past : ru ms,, , ln ti c co nstr uctions, fragments that carry "age ,aluc." Unlike total reconstruc-

they all owed on e tc; expe ri ence his toricity affectively, as a n atmosphere, aI'" 1for reflection on the passage of time. _

111 the late nineteen th century no sta lgia acquired publi c style and space. 1 he11 , hiH' of traditions that Herder found in folk songs was no lo nger to be left lo

, 111111T . The cvasi\'e loc us of nostalg ia, the nomadic hearth of the n a t i ~1,, lw l i x ~ d for the sake o f prese rvation . Memorat ivc signs of the nat ion we re to1 . lound in card catalogues. Th e elusive tcm pora lity or long ing was e ncased and, l.is ilied in a t i t u d o f' archival drawers, display cases and curi o cabin ets. Pri -

11,. n>l lec tions allow o ne to imagine other tim es and places and plunge in to.1 111 ws ti c daydreaming and arm chai r nosta lgia. T he bo urge o is ho me in nin e-1,, 111 h century Paris is desc rib ed by Wa lter Benjam in as a miniatu re theater and

' um that privatizes nostalgia while at the sa me time replicating its public1111, iure, the national and pri\'ate ho mes thus beco ming intertwined . Publ ic nos -

1 ,,11,u:quires distinct styles, from the e mpire sty le favored by Napo leon to th e

I 111 I I 11 < I Ill N , , , \ \


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new historic.ii styll's mo Coth ic, Ill' Hr1.11ll11H', .111cl so on as the cycles o frevo lutionar y change arc accompanied by resto r 1 tio 11s that end up with a recovery of a grand style.

Nostalg ia as a hjsto rical emotion came of age at the time of Romanti cism andis coeva l w ith the birth of ma ss cultu re. It bega n with th e ea rly-nineteenthcentury memory boom that turned the salon culture of educated urban dwellersand landowner s int o a ritual commemoration of lost you th , los t springs, los tdances, lost chances. With the pe rfec tion of album art, the pract ice of writingpoems, drawing pictu res and leaving dr ied Aow ers and plants in a lady 's album,every Airtation was on the verge of becom ing a memento mo r i. Yet this souvenirizat ion of the salon culture was la fu l, d nami c and interactive; it was part of asocial theat ricality that turned eve ryday life into art, even if it wasn't a maste rP-iece. Art ificial nature begins to play an n t ~ t in the European imaginat ion since the epoc h of baroque- the word itse lf signifies a ra re shell. In themiddle o f the nineteenth century a fondness for hc rba ri ums, g reenhouses andaquarium s became a di stinctive feature of the bourgeo is home; it was a piece of

[nature transplanted in to the urban home , framed and domesticated. 14 What wasche rished was the inco mpl eteness, the foss il , the ruin, the miniature, tJ1e souvenir, the total rec reation of a past paradise or hell. As Celeste Olalquiaga observed for the nineteenth-century imag ination, Atlanti s was not a golden age tobe reconstructed but a lost civilization to engage with through ru ins , traces andfragments. The melancholic sense of loss turned into a style, a late ninetecnth century fashion.

Despite the fact that by the encl of the nineteenth century nostalgia was pervading bo th the publi c and private sphe res, th e word itse lf was acquiring negativeconnotations. Apparently there was little space fo r a syncre tic co ncept of nosta lg ia during a time in which spheres of ex istence and division of labor were und er going further co mpartme ntalizat ion . The wo rd appeared o utmod ed andunsc ientific. Public discourse was about progress , community and he r itage, butconfigured differen tly than it had been earlier. Private discourse was about psychology, where doctors fo cus on hysteria, neurosis and paranoia.

The rapid pace of industrial ization and modern ization incre ased the intens ity ofpeople's longing for the slower rhythms o f t he past, for continuity, social cohe sion and tradition. Yet this new obsession with the past reveals an abyss of forgetting and takes place in inve rse proporti on to its actua l preservation . As Pierr e

[- Nora has suggested , memorial sites, or lieux de memoire , are established insti

tutio nally at the t ime when the environments of memory, tJ1e milieux de memoire,fade. 15 It is as if the ritual o f com memorat ion co uld help to patch up the ir rc-

ll ( l l 1 I \ 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 r J 1 It \ 111 I I{ ' ' \ N 1 1 t ' I/

' I .d> d1t y or tinw. I ll ' ('Oll icl :irgu l' th.11 Nrn -.1s O\ \ l l \l l'\\ ru11d,11mnL.:illy nos-1 J1 11 l rn: the Lime\\ lwn l'11\'ironmcnts or lll l' ll1ry Wl'l ' l ' J par t or lire and no offi-

1 i 11.1t ion.:il traditions were necessary. Yet this po in ts to a paradox of11 111111 on.:i lizcd no stalgia: the stronger the loss, the mo re it is overcomp ensated

11 11, om memo rations: the starker the distance from the past, and the more it is1,, , ., ,.. lo idealizations.( 'J o, t.d ia was erceivcd as a Euro can disease. Hence nations that came ofI t ,111d wished to dist inguish themse lves from aging Europe developed th e ir1 j, 11111 1 on an antinostalgic premise; for better or worse they claimed to have11111 ,,11lI Lo escape the burden of histo rical time. We, Russians, like ii.legitimate

1 i1 .1 1,.11 , come to this wo rld without patr imony, withou t any links with peo pleJ, ,. li d on the earth before us. Our memor ies go no further back than yester-

1, .ire as it we re strangers to ou rselves, wrote Petr Chaadacv in the first halfI 11i, ninetee nth cent u ry. 16 No t acc id en tally, this se lf-critica l statemen t cou ld, II lj>ply to the young American nati on too, only with a i 1 ~ tone th at,,11 1,i -;upplant Russian eternal fatalism with American ete rn al op t1m1sm. Ignor-

111 ,. 1 ,1 ,1 moment the mass ive political differen ces betwee n an abso lute monarchy11.i .1 11,.11. democracy, we can obser ve a simi lar resistance to rustorical memory'ill11 t i \\'ith a different acce nt). Amer ic.ans perce ived1iJ1 ,_,.hl 's as Nature's Nation, something that lives 111 the present and has no11 , , .i 1.,1the past- what Jefferson called the blind ,eneration of antiquit)', fo r

1 1,111 , .:ind nam es to overrule the suggestions of our own good sensc. 11 The lack,1 1,111 irnony, legitima cy and memory that Chaadaev laments in state of thet 11 .1. 111 consciousness is ce lebrated in the American case as the spirit of the ne1.v,,1 , ,,11 ,. naLur al and pr ogress i1c. Intellec tuals of both new nations share an inferi -' 11 , , 11 periority compl ex vis-a-vis old Europe and its cultural heritage-_Both arc

1111 ,i 11 , 10 rical in their self-definition, only Russians lag beh ind and Americans run.i,. id 11 r it. Chaaclaev, discoverer o f the nomadic Russ ian spirit , was declared a., , 1 111.111 upo n his return f'rom abroad and became an in tern al immigran t in his111 .11 11 1 .rnd. SlaYophilcs appropriated Chaadae1 s critique of the Russian men tal-111 111.j turned spiritual longing r ska and the lack o f historical co nsciousness111 1, 1 .itures of th e Russian soul and a birthmark of the chosen nat ion.' , ,111 case this youthful forge tfulness allowed for the nationaliza t ionI ,, ,., , ,rnd the creation of another uasi-metaphysica l entity ca lled the' or life. On the surface, little co uld be mo re c i erent than t e celeb ra tion.i 1 11 1111 spiritual longing and the American dream. What they share, howeYer,

1 11,, dr lam of transcending histo ry and ~ n the Ru ss ian nineteenth -, 111 , 11 , 1 ,u lition it is the writer and peasant who become car riers of the natwnal

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clrca1n , 11 hil1 i11 tlw \ .. . . I. -. .- 11 . n11 11( ,111 ( 1sv l H' \\'hO)' Jrc the ulti malJI 1sts Ill 1 Unlik , ti I{ '. l ll ll uss11n co unt c rpJ rt s thl')' arc st ro I 1not to o ood wi h . . . . . ' ng anc s1ent typesg t o1ds. W hcrcrn rn Russia classica l lite rature of th .centu d h h e nmetcentI . I y ie\\'C t roug the prism of centralized schoo l pr ograms bee c( at1 on of the nat i , ame a ioun. . . on s canon and repos ito ry o f nos talg ic m ths in the Unit

Stlatcs it is popular culture that helped to spread the m e r i c a ~ wa'y of life So ev 1l-re on the fronti er t h f me. , ie g ost o Dostoevsky mee ts the ghost of Micke MLike the characters from The Possessed they exchange wry s miles. y ouse THE ANGEL OF HISTORY:NOSTALGIA AND MODERNITY

. w to beg in again? I low to be happy, to inve nt ourse lves, shedding the inertia of11 ... 1rnst? lj_ow to ex pe rience life and li fe alone, that dark , driving, insat iabl :;l H' r that afte r itse lf? ' Th ese were the ques ti ons th at bo thered the mod -1 1m . I lappiness, and not merely a longing for it , mea nt fo rgetfu lness and a new ]I 1nption of tim e .

J"h e mode rn opposition between tradition and re\'olution is treacherous. Tradi -111111 mea ns both deli ve r y- handing dow n or passing on a doc tr ine- and sur r en.i. 1 or be tr ayal. Traduttore uaditore t rans lator, trait or. The wonl revolution1111 rl arly, means both cyclical repe tition and the rad ical break. Hence tradition111d revolution incorpo rate each other and rely on their o ppos itio n . Preoccupa-111 11 with tradi tion and inte rp re ta tion of trad ition as an age -o ld ritual is a dis-1111 1tly m od e rn ph eno menon , born out o f' anxie ty abo ut th e va nishin g past .2111 11110 Latour points out that the mod e rn t ime of progress and the anti-modern111111 of ' tradit ion ' arc twins who fa iled to recognize one another: Th e idea of an

11 1 tica l repetition of the past and that of a radical ruptu re with any past arc two1111rnct rical r esult s o f a single conception of time. 'Thus there is a codependency

1. l 11 t'Cn the mo de rn ideas of progress and newness and anti modern claims of rel 1111-ry of' nation al community and the stable pas t , wh ich bec omes particularl y 11 1r at the end of tlie t'vventi eth century in light of its painful histo ry.

I he wo rd modernic_y was fir st ex plo red by the poets, not political scient ists;1 l11rlcs Baudela ire elaborated this term in his essay The Painter of Mod e rnI ii i ( 1859- 60).4 Baudelaire g ives a dual image of mode rn beauty an d the cx peri -1 ' of modernity: Mode rnity is the hansitory, the fugitive, the contingent, theI1ill ol art of which the o ther half is e terna l and the immu table. Baudelaire's pro -11 1 is to rep rese nt the prese nt , to capture the trans ience, the excitement , theI 11t1 ,rn qual ities of the mode rn ex perience. Modernity is imp ersonated by an un-

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