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  • 625 Church StreetSuite 402Toronto, OntarioCanada M4Y 2G1

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    THESMOGPRIMER

  • June 2002

    Pollution Probe is pleased to present this primer on smog. We receive more telephone calls, e-mails,letters and media inquiries on smog than on any other subject. The Smog Primer has been developedto build public understanding of the sources of smog pollutants, their effects on human health, and thethings we can do to reduce smog pollution and protect ourselves and our children from harm.

    We are especially pleased to publicly release The Smog Primer on the tenth anniversary of PollutionProbes Clean Air Campaign and Commute. This annual event engages thousands of employees in aconcerted effort to leave their cars at home or to commute to and from work by cleaner forms oftransportation. The Smog Primer also complements our new workplace trip reduction programme,called S.M.A.R.T. (Save Money and the Air by Reducing Trips). The S.M.A.R.T. manual can be foundon our web site at www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Air.htm.

    Pollution Probe is dedicated to making positive, tangible progress in cleaning the air we breathe. Thisis essential for our health and well-being, and it is a goal that we can achieve. Please join us in advocatingfor a clean environment and make personal choices that show your commitment to this worthwhileendeavour.

    Ken OgilvieExecutive Director

    POLLUTION PROBE IS A NON-PROFIT CHARITABLE ORGANIZATION THAT WORKSin partnership with all sectors of society to protect health by promoting clean air and clean water.Pollution Probe was established in 1969 following a gathering of 240 students and professors at theUniversity of Toronto campus to discuss a series of disquieting pesticide-related stories that hadappeared in the media. Early issues tackled by Pollution Probe included urging the Canadian govern-ment to ban DDT for almost all uses, and campaigning for the clean-up of the Don River in Toronto.We encouraged curbside recycling in 140 Ontario communities and supported the development of theBlue Box programme. Pollution Probe has published several books, including Profit from Pollution Preven-tion, The Green Consumer Guide (of which more than 225,000 copies were sold across Canada) andAdditive Alert.

    Since the 1990s, Pollution Probe has focused its programmes on issues related to air pollution andhuman health, including a major programme to remove human sources of mercury from the environment.Pollution Probes scope has recently expanded to new concerns, including the unique risks that envi-ronmental contaminants pose to children, the health risks related to exposures within indoor environ-ments, and the development of innovative tools for promoting responsible environmental behaviour. Workhas also begun on building a comprehensive water programme that will update our understanding of watermanagement issues and define a set of goals and measures for achieving them.

    Since 1993, as part of our ongoing commitment to improving air quality, Pollution Probe has held anannual Clean Air Campaign during the month of June to raise awareness of the relationships amongvehicle emissions, smog, climate change and related human respiratory problems. The Clean Air Campaignhelped the Ontario Ministry of the Environment develop a mandatory vehicle emissions testing programme.

    Pollution Probe offers innovative and practical solutions to environmental issues pertaining to airand water pollution. In defining environmental problems and advocating practical solutions, we drawupon sound science and technology, mobilize scientists and other experts, and build partnerships withindustry, governments and communities.

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  • ii the smog primer iii

    Smog Primer Table of ContentsAcknowledgementsPollution Probe gratefully acknowledges the funding and/or in-kind support and technical review ofThe Smog Primer by the following organizations:

    ENVIRONMENT CANADAHEALTH CANADAJANEY S. MILLS P. ENG. MEMORIAL FUNDONTARIO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

    Pollution Probe is solely responsible for the contents of this report.

    This publication was researched and written for Pollution Probe by OLIVIA NUGENT. The updated materialon Air Quality Indices and Air Quality Advisories (pages 34 through 41) was researched and written byJOHN HEWINGS.

    We appreciate the work of staff members ELIZABETH EVERHARDUS for managing the project, KENOGILVIE, QUENTIN CHIOTTI and SANDRA SCHWARTZ for providing information and advice, and KRISTAFRIESEN for helping with production and logistical support.

    Special thanks are given to JOHN HEWINGS and WAYNE DRAPER for providing technical comments onthe primer.

    Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges SHAUNA RAE for design & layout and RANDEE HOLMES for editingthis publication.

    The LAIDLAW FOUNDATION is also specially acknowledged for its generous support of Pollution ProbesAir Programme.

    Prepared for Pollution Probe by OLIVIA NUGENT.

    Foreword..................................................iAcknowledgements .................................ii

    CHAPTER 1: What is Smog?......................2Introduction ............................................2What is Smog and How is it Formed? ......3Smog Pollutants and Their Sources..........4Transportation: A Major Contributor to Smog..................................................7

    CHAPTER 2: Why is Smog a Concern? .....12Smog and Human Health .......................12Health Effects of Smog Pollutants .........14Smogs Hazardous Journey Through the Body ..................................16Smog and Mortality...............................17Who is Affected by Smog? ....................18A Global Health Perspective ..................20Environmental Impacts of Smog.............20Economic Impacts of Smog ...................22Climate Change and Smog.....................23

    CHAPTER 3: Factors Affecting Smog .......26Seasonal/Daily Conditions.....................27Local Weather Conditions ......................27Topography............................................28Urban and Rural Factors ........................28Transboundary Air Pollution ...................29

    CHAPTER 4: Getting Information on AirQuality and Smog Pollutants..................32Air Monitoring Stations..........................33Air Quality Indices .................................34Air Quality Advisories ............................38Criteria Air Contaminants Emissions (CACE) Inventory ..................................42National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) ...................................42PollutionWatch......................................43

    CHAPTER 5: Whats Being Done About Smog? ........................................46What are the Federal and ProvincialGovernments Doing Jointly?...................47What is the Government of Canada Doing?......................................48What are Provincial Governments Doing? .............................49What are Municipal Governments Doing? .............................51What is Industry Doing? ........................52

    CHAPTER 6: What You Can Do To Reduce Smog........................................54Getting Around......................................55At Home ...............................................57At Work ................................................58

    References............................................61Useful Web sites ...................................63

  • the smog primer 2

    What is Smog?IntroductionEvery day, the average adult breathes about 15,000 to 20,000 litres

    of air. Air is a mixture of gases that makes up our atmosphere and is vital

    to life on earth. It largely consists of oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%).

    However, as a result of both natural and human processes, the atmos-

    phere also contains a number of gases that, at elevated concentrations,

    can be a health threat to people and animals and damaging to plants.

    These gases include ground-level ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx),

    sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as a range of

    organic gases and vapours referred to as volatile organic compounds

    (VOCs). The atmosphere also contains tiny particles, known as partic-

    ulate matter (PM), that may be either solid or liquid. All of these poten-

    tially toxic gases and substances are together referred to as air pollu-

    tants. Combined, they are the principal ingredients of smog.

    chapter one

  • 3 chapter one: what is smog?3 chapter one: what is smog? the smog primer 4

    The term smog was first used more than fivedecades ago to describe a mixture of smoke andfog in the air.Today smog refers to a noxiousmixture of vapours, gases and particles that oftenappears as a yellowish-brown haze in the air.

    Smog is formed in the lower atmosphere, justabove the Earths surface when a variety ofsources release smog forming pollutants into theair.These pollutants are usually warmer than thesurrounding air and tend to rise.While beingdispersed by the wind, heat and sunlight causechemical reactions to occur between pollutants,forming ground-level ozone. PM is also releasedinto the air or is formed later within the atmos-phere through chemical reactions.These particles,together with ground-level O3, are the two maincomponents of smog. Smog will remain in anarea until a weather system, such as a heavyrainfall, washes most of the pollutants out of thelocal atmosphere. High wind speeds can increasedispersion of pollutants, thereby lowering theconcentration levels of the pollutants in an area.

    Smog pollutants can be generated by either naturally occurring processes or by humanactivities. Natural sources of pollutants includeforest fires and volcanoes, which add particlesand gases to the air; trees, which emit VOCs;soil erosion, which produces dust; and biologicalprocesses in soil that create NOx.The largestsource of air pollution affecting human healthand the environment, however, is human activity,and primarily the burning (or combustion) offossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas and coal)to transport people and goods, heat and coolbuildings, make electricity and operate industries.

    What is Smog and How is it Formed? Smog Pollutants and Their Sources

    SMOG POLLUTANT WHAT IS IT? SOURCE

    Particulate Matter (PM)

    Relative Size of Particulate Matter

    PM includes microscopic liquid droplets and particlesof soot, ash, dirt, dust, metals and pollens. This matteris found everywhere around us in our homes, work-places, and outdoors. PM varies in size and chemicalcomposition. The size of the particle is of great impor-tance, determining how far into the lung it can gowhen inhaled. Particles are measured by their diameterand range in size from 0.005 to 100 microns (m).One micron equals one thousandth of a millimetre or1/50 of the width of an average human hair. Largerparticles (such as grains of sand) are heavy enoughto rapidly settle out from the air and fall to theground. Smaller particles often do not settle out butremain suspended in the air. These suspended partic-ulates may be as large as 40 microns. With respectto smog, two particulate sizes are especially of con-cern: those less than or equal to 10 microns (PM10 orcoarse particulates) and those less than 2.5microns (PM2.5 or fine particulates). Particles directlyemitted into the air from a source (e.g., smoke from afactory smokestack or dust from a construction site)are called primary. Secondary particles are formedin the atmosphere through chemical reactions involv-ing gases (most commonly NOx, SO2, VOCs andammonia [NH3]) and other particles. These particlesare mostly very small in size (PM2.5). Secondary parti-cles can also be formed when volatile heavy metalsthat are emitted into the air in vapour form condenseto form fine particles or attach onto the surface ofexisting fine particles.

    PM comes from both humanand natural sources. Humansources of PM include thecombustion of fossil fuelsand biomass, dust frommechanical processes, suchas mining and milling, andwind-blown road dust. Theburning of residential fuelwood (e.g., from home fire-places and wood stoves)also releases a significantamount of PM into the air.Natural sources include fog,dust, smoke from forest firesand volcanoes. SecondaryPM is not emitted directlyfrom a source as it isformed in the atmospherethrough chemical reactions.

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    Smog Pollutants and their Sources, contd

    SMOG POLLUTANT WHAT IS IT? SOURCE

    Ground-level Ozone(O3)

    Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

    Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOCs)

    Ground-level O3 is not emitted directly intothe air from a source, but is created througha chemical reaction between the pollutantsNOx and VOCs in the presence of sunlight.

    Almost all NOx come from combustion offossil fuels. Major sources are the combus-tion of fossil fuels by motor vehicles and atpower generating stations. Other sources ofNOx include fossil fuel combustion at indus-trial facilities, such as pulp and paper mills,oil refineries and natural gas plants, and asa result of waste incineration, wood burningand any other combustion process.

    VOCs come from both human and naturalsources. A large proportion of VOCs in Canadaare emitted naturally from plants and trees.In fact, vegetation contributes more than fivetimes as many VOCs to the Canadian environ-ment as do human sources. Human sourcesinclude the use of gasoline- and diesel-fuelledvehicles, evaporative emissions from vehiclerefuelling stations, emissions from industrialprocesses and the evaporation of fumes froma variety of solvents, including oil-based paint,barbecue starter fluid and household cleaningproducts.

    O3 is an odourless, colourless andhighly irritating gas that occurs in theatmosphere when three atoms ofoxygen combine. It is important notto confuse ground-level O3 withstratospheric O3 (see Box 1-2).(Throughout this document O3 isused to refer to ground-level ozone.)

    This group of nitrogen-oxygen com-pounds includes the gases nitricoxide, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), andnitrous oxide. NOx react with volatileorganic compounds in the presenceof sunlight to form O3. NOx play apart in the formation of secondaryparticulates when they combine withNH3. NO2 combines with water mole-cules in the air to form nitric acid,which contributes to acid rain, acidsnow and acid fog.

    Also referred to as hydrocarbons,VOCs are organic gases and vapours.They are defined as volatilebecause they easily and quicklyevaporate into the air. VOCs reactwith NOx in the atmosphere in thepresence of sunlight to form O3. Theyalso contribute to the formation ofsecondary PM.

    The principal source of SO2 is human activity,mainly from the processing of metal ores insmelters, the processing of natural gas andthe industrial use of fossil fuels in petroleumrefineries, pulp and paper mills and electricalgeneration plants. The emission of SO2 fromgasoline and diesel combustion, although nota large source of total emissions, is of par-ticular concern because of its concentrationin urban environments and its contributionto PM2.5 formation.

    CO is produced primarily from the incompleteburning of fossil fuels. The major human-made source of CO in Canada is fuel com-bustion in vehicles and stationary engines.Other sources are industrial, associated withburning fuel to generate electricity or heat.CO is also produced by natural sources,such as volcanoes, marsh and natural gasesand fires.

    SO2 is a colourless, gaseous pollu-tant that, like NOx, contributes tosecondary particulate formation bycombining with NH3 in the atmos-phere. The odour that comes fromstriking a match is SO2. As well asbeing a smog pollutant, SO2 is oneof the more persistent pollutants,combining with water molecules toform sulphuric acid, which contributesto the formation of acid rain, acidsnow and acid fog.

    CO is a colourless, odourless, taste-less and poisonous gas.

    Smog Pollutants and their Sources, contd

    SMOG POLLUTANT WHAT IS IT? SOURCE

    Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

    Carbon Monoxide(CO)

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    Transportation is the largest single human-produced source of outdoor air pollution inCanada. On average, each of the 16.8 millionvehicles registered across the country emitsapproximately five tonnes of air pollutants andgases annually, mainly CO, NOx,VOCs and carbon dioxide (CO2) (Figure 1-2).The intro-duction of the catalytic converter (Box 1-3) toautomobiles over 25 years ago, along with betterfuel-efficiency, resulted in a dramatic drop ofsmog-related emissions from cars. However,while cars are becoming more fuel-efficient andless polluting on an individual basis, the growingnumber of vehicles on the roads offsets some ofthe benefits of improved automotive technolo-gies. In addition, more people today are purchasing sport utility vehicles (SUVs), whichare considerably less fuel-efficient than passengercars, consuming anywhere from 1/2 to 2/3 morefuel.At the heart of the current air pollutionproblem is the single occupant vehicle (SOV).SOVs represent the most inefficient use of trans-portation energy. If more people carpooled andtook public transit, particularly for commutingto work, transportation emissions would be dramatically reduced.

    Emissions from non-road or off-road engines,such as those used in powerboats, lawn and gardenequipment and recreational vehicles, such as

    snowmobiles and all terrain vehicles, are respon-sible for approximately 20% of all smog producedby mobile sources in Canada. Unlike cars, non-road sources are not subject to emissions regula-tions and, as a result, are considerably more pollut-ing and less fuel-efficient. For example, the two-stroke engines that power the vast majority ofCanadas three million watercraft are majorenvironmental polluters, poisoning both themarine environment and the atmosphere.Accor-ding to estimates, a 70-horsepower, two-strokeoutboard emits the same amount of hydrocarbonpollution in one hour as the engine of a new cardriven 8,000 kilometres. In February 2001, Envi-ronment Canada stated that it intends to proceedwith the development of emissions control programs for off-road engines to align with theUnited States federal emissions control programs.

    Transportation: A Major Contributor to SmogBOX 1-1

    Historical Smog EpisodesAir pollution first became a serious problem inthe late 19th century. Throughout the first halfof the 20th century, heavy air pollution in anumber of cities resulted in the deaths ofhundreds, and on some occasions even thou-sands, of people. Three of the worst episodeswere the following:

    In 1930 in the Meuse Valley in Belgium, anindustrial area filled with steel mills and coal-firedindustry, an incident of air pollution caused thedeaths of 63 people, with hundreds of othersexperiencing respiratory symptoms.

    In 1948 in Donora, Pennsylvania anotherindustrialized valley 20 people out of a popu-lation of 14,000 died, and more than 40% ofthe population became ill, 10% of them severely,as a result of an air pollution episode.

    The most dramatic air pollution episode tookplace in London, England, in December 1952,when a stagnant air mass, combined withgreater-than-normal coal burning during a coldspell, was associated with 4,000 deaths.

    BOX 1-2

    Ozone Is Both Good and BadOzone (O3) occurs in two layers of the atmos-phere the troposphere (extending from groundlevel to about 15 km above the Earths surface)and the stratosphere (the layer between 20 and30 km above the Earths surface). O3 is thesame chemical in both layers, yet it has very different effects on life, depending upon where itis located. Within the lower troposphere, nearground-level, O3 damages human health andvegetation and is one of the key ingredients ofsmog. This bad O3 is created in this layer by achemical reaction between NOx and VOCs in thepresence of sunlight in a stagnant air mass. Inthe stratosphere, however, naturally occurring O3protects life on earth by screening out the sunsharmful ultraviolet rays, and is referred to asgood O3. The thinning of the stratospheric O3layer is a major concern; for more information onstratospheric O3 depletion, visit EnvironmentCanadas web site at www.ec.gc.ca.

    FIGURE 1-1In the year 2000, the average Canadian light-duty gasoline vehicle emitted approximately:

    4480 kg of CO2 200 kg of CO 20 kg of VOCs 22 kg of NOx .89 kg of SOx .14 kg of PM10 .13 kg of PM2.5

    m

  • 9 chapter one: what is smog? the smog primer 10

    BOX 1-3

    What is a Catalytic Converter?Catalytic converters are pollution control devicesinstalled directly in the exhaust system of vehiclesto reduce harmful emissions. First used in 1975,oxidation (or two-way) catalytic converters takehydrocarbons (HC) and CO and convert them intoCO2 and water vapour, which are then releasedinto the air. Three-way catalytic converters, intro-duced in the mid-1980s, convert CO, HC and NOxemissions into nitrogen, CO2 and water vapour.

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    Why is Smog a Concern?

    Smog and Human HealthSmog is a mixture of pollutants. When inhaled, it can be harmful to human

    health. The exact impact varies depending on the type and amount of

    air pollutants that are present in the air, the length of time over which

    individuals are exposed to those pollutants, as well as factors related to

    the individuals themselves, such as age, weight, activity level and health

    status. Recent health studies suggest that there is no safe level of human

    exposure to O3 and PM and negative health outcomes are associated

    with very low levels of exposure, even for healthy individuals.

    chapter two

  • Furthermore, medical studies have shown thatlong-term exposure to low levels of these pollutants may cumulatively contribute togreater overall damage than short-term exposureto high pollution levels, which is already knownto impact significantly on human health.

    The damaging health effects of short-termexposure to smog can range from eye, nose or throat irritation to decreased lung function (a decrease in the ability to move air in and outof the lungs). Smog can also aggravate respiratoryor cardiac disease, and, in some cases, cause premature death.The health effects of air pollution can be illustrated using a pyramid (see Figure 2-1) with the more serious and rare effects (e.g., death) occurring at the peakand cascading progressively down to milder but more common effects (e.g., respiratorysymptoms and eye, nose and throat irritation) at the base.The pyramid shows that, as theseverity of health effects increases, the numberof people affected decreases.

    Studies have shown that, when smog levels rise,there is an increase in the number of visits todoctors by people with breathing problems, aswell as increases in daily respiratory admissionsto hospitals (see Figure 2-2).

    FIGURE 2-1Health Effects of Air Pollution

    FIGURE 2-2Relationship Between Hospital EmergencyRespiratory Admissions and O3 Levels

    13 chapter two: why is smog a concern? the smog primer 14

    PM is made up of solid and liquid airborne par-ticles that vary greatly in size and in composition.Most particulates larger than 10 microns will becaught in the nose and throat, and never reachthe lungs. Smaller particulates, measuring lessthan 10 microns (PM10), can be breathed intothe lungs and are referred to as inhalable PM.Particulates that measure less than 2.5 microns(PM2.5) are able to penetrate deep into the lungsand are referred to as respirable PM. The smallerthe particulate, the deeper it goes into the lungsand the greater the damage it can cause.

    PM10 can stay in the air for minutes or hoursand travel as little as a hundred metres or as faras 50 km before falling to the ground. PM2.5,meanwhile, can stay in the air for days or weeksand travel for hundreds of kilometres, even as faras 800 km.As the particles are dispersed by thewind, other hazardous air pollutants may stick tothem, making them more toxic.

    One type of particulate matter is acid aerosols,minute water droplets containing dissolved acid.Acid aerosols are formed from the burning offossil fuels in which sulphur is present.Throughcombustion, SO2 and other oxides of sulphurare formed, along with particles.When airborne,SO2 is oxidized to form sulphuric acid as it dissolves in liquids (e.g., water particles) or

    adheres to the surfaces of particles in the air.This combination of SO2, sulphuric acid andparticles creates acid aerosols made up mostly offine particles.Acid aerosols, because of their smallsize, can penetrate deep into the lungs when theyare inhaled and are the most harmful type ofparticulates to the lungs.

    The damaging health effects that result fromexposure to particulate matter are specific to the cardiorespiratory (heartlung) system.The effects of small particles on the heart arestill being studied, but the lungs and heart areclosely connected.This means that stress in oneorgan can affect the functioning of the other.Cardiorespiratory problems observed in studiesof the effects of PM on human health includeimpaired lung function, lung infections, asthma,chronic bronchitis, emphysema and variousforms of heart disease.

    O3 is an intense irritant and a dangerous healththreat. Even low levels of O3 can sting the eyesand nose, and cause a burning sensation in thethroat. O3 is responsible for respiratory problems,such as coughing and wheezing, and can reducelung function, thereby making it difficult tobreathe deeply and vigorously. Such impacts canpersist for up to 18 hours after the time of lastexposure. O3 can inflame and damage the cells

    Health Effects of Smog Pollutants

    Source: Stieb, DM; Pengelly LD,Arron N,Taylor SM, Raizenne M. Health effects of airpollution in Canada: Expert findings for the Canadian Smog Advisory Program. CanRespir J 1995;2(3):155-60.

    Source: Health Canada

    Mortality

    Hospital admissions

    Emergency room visits

    Physician office visits

    Medication use

    Symptoms

    Impaired pulmonary function

    Subclinical (subtle) effects

    Mortality

    Hospital admissions

    Emergency room visits

    Physician office visits

    Medication use

    Symptoms

    Impaired pulmonary function

    Subclinical (subtle) effects

    PROPORTION OF POPULATION AT RISK

    SEVERITYOF

    EFFECT

    114

    112

    110

    108

    106

    104

    10210 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

    Daily

    Adm

    issi

    ons

    Daily maximum one-hour O3 level (parts per billion)

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    that line the air spaces in the lung.Within a fewdays after exposure to O3 has ended, affected cellsin the airways and lungs are replaced and the oldcells shed, much in the same way that skin peelsafter it is sunburned.This process of cell replace-ment, however, is not perfect, and the constantcycle of damage and repair may lead to prematureaging of the lung and cause long-term healtheffects. For example, children who experiencerepeated O3 impacts on their lungs during theirdevelopmental years may suffer from reduced lungfunction in adulthood.

    NOx are responsible for adverse health effects bothdirectly and indirectly. Directly, nitrogen dioxide(NO2), the main component of inhaled NOx,irritates the lungs, impairs lung function andlowers resistance to respiratory infection. In children and adults with respiratory disease, suchas asthma, NO2 can cause symptoms includingcoughing, wheezing and shortness of breath.Even short-term exposure to NO2 affects lungfunction. Indirectly, NOx are involved in theformation of O3 (by combining with VOCs andsunlight) and fine particulates (by reacting withNH3), both having their own adverse healtheffects as discussed previously.

    There are thousands of different types of VOCs.The health effects associated with them varyaccording to the specific compound.As discussedearlier,VOCs contribute to the formation of O3

    and PM and thereby play a role in the resultinghealth effects of those two pollutants.VOCsrange from relatively non-toxic chemicals tochemicals that can affect the brain and causecancer. Several VOCs, including benzene and1,3-butadiene, have been declared toxic underthe Canadian Environmental Protection Act,which means at certain concentrations theyendanger human life or health. For more infor-mation on VOCs, consult Environment CanadasCanadian Environmental Protection Act Registry(www.ec.gc.ca/CEPARegistry) or refer to the City ofToronto Public Health Report, Potential forOccupational and Environmental Exposure to TenCarcinogens in Toronto (2002) listed in theReferences section.

    Exposure to SO2 leads to eye irritation, shortnessof breath and impaired lung function.Wheninhaled, SO2 primarily stays in the nose, mouthand throat but can penetrate more deeply intothe lungs during physical activity.When combined with water, SO2 converts to sulphuricacid, which is highly irritating to the sensitivesurface lining the respiratory tract. Prolonged orrepeated exposure can cause long-term damageto the lungs.A study of 11 cities in Canadafound that sulphur dioxide was responsible foran average increase of 1.4% in risk of death.SO2 is also one of the main contributors to theformation of fine secondary particulates in theatmosphere.

    Air makes its way into the body as a result ofinhalation.The passage of air into the body beginsat the nose or mouth.The air then travels downthe pharynx (throat), through the larynx (voicebox) and down the trachea (windpipe), whichbranches into two bronchi leading to the lungs.Here, oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstreamand carried on to other parts of the body. If theinhaled air is polluted, it can trigger harmfulhealth effects anywhere throughout its journey.

    Upper Respiratory Tract (nose, pharynx, larynx andtrachea): The nose is very effective in trappingany pollutants that may be present in inhaled air.Approximately 50% of inhaled O3 and 90% ofSO2 will be filtered out by the nose. However,in the process, the pollutants can dry out theprotective mucus lining of the nose therebyinterfering with the bodys ability to fight infec-tion. If microscopic particles, such as PM10 andPM2.5, are present in inhaled air, they may escape

    the noses natural filtering system and penetratedeeper into the respiratory tract. Coughing andsneezing may occur in order to remove the build-up of trapped particles in the airways. BreathingO3 can inflame and irritate the upper airwayscausing a burning sensation in the throat.

    Lower Respiratory Tract (bronchial airways, lungsand alveoli): The bronchial airways of the lungshave an upside-down tree-like structure, branch-ing from a few airways at the top of the lungs tomillions of smaller ones deep in the lungs. Cellslining these airways are covered with tiny micro-scopic hairs called cilia. Moving rhythmically,the cilia transport harmful particles and bacteriaupward on a sheet of mucus to the throat, wherethey are coughed up or swallowed. O3 and PMthat are inhaled into the lungs can irritate thecilia, causing the cilia to move slowly or not atall.This disruption allows dirt and bacteria tobuild up in the mucus, thereby restricting the

    Smogs Hazardous Journey Through the Body

    CO is an air pollutant closely associated with harmful health effects and, in high concentrations, is deadly.CO binds with haemoglobin in the blood, reducing the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Consequently,the bodys tissues are starved of oxygen. People with heart disease are most vulnerable to the effects ofhigh CO levels. Other high risk groups include pregnant women (and their fetuses), infants, children, theelderly and people with anemia and respiratory or lung disease. Smokers may be even more at risk,because they already have higher levels of CO in their blood as a result of smoking.

  • amount of space available to move air throughthe respiratory passages.This, in turn, can causedifficulties in breathing and shortness of breath.Of equal concern is PM2.5, which is tiny enoughto penetrate deep into the lungs where there areno cilia present to help expel it.

    At the end of each branch of the bronchial air-ways are tiny sacs called alveoli.Adults have about300 million alveoli in each lung.These sacs playan important role in transporting oxygen which is needed to keep the bodys cells healthy to the bloodstream, and subsequently on toall parts of the body. O3 is very corrosive andcan damage the delicate thin-walled cells of thealveoli. Repeated exposure to O3 can inflamelung tissues and may lead to respiratory infections.In addition, any pollutants that enter the lungscan be absorbed into the bloodstream and trans-ported onwards throughout the body therebyaffecting not only the lungs directly, but also theheart and other organs.

    Smog and MortalityWhile the hazy yellow appearance of smog certainly makes our cities unattractive, reducingsmog is more than an issue of aesthetics. Forsome people, its a matter of life and death.TheCanadian government estimates that air pollutionis responsible for 5,000 premature deaths annuallyacross Canada.The Ontario Medical Association

    (OMA) estimates that more than 1,900 people inOntario die prematurely each year from the effectsof air pollution. Furthermore, every year, about9,800 people in Ontario are admitted to hospitalsand 13,000 visit emergency rooms as a result ofexposure to smog.As the population increases andages, the number of people affected by air pollu-tion will increase. For example, according to theOMA model, the number of deaths in Ontarioassociated with air pollution is expected to riseto 2,600 people per year by 2015.

    FIGURE 2-4Increase in Mortality on High Air Pollution Days,19801991

    Who is Affected by Smog? Everyone is exposed to air pollution and is there-by affected by it in some way.There are, however,some people who may be more vulnerable tothe harmful effects of smog.Those at higher riskinclude the elderly, children, individuals withallergies, asthma, or other respiratory diseasesand healthy individuals exercising outdoors on asmoggy day. Persons with existing heart diseasealso appear to be more sensitive to air pollutionexposure than the rest of the population.

    Children (15 years of age) inhale more air perkilogram of body weight than do adults and, as aresult, proportionately more pollutants. Childrenalso breathe more rapidly than do adults andtend to breathe through their mouths, thusbypassing the natural filtering system in thenose.This breathing pattern allows large amountsof polluted air to get directly into their lungs.Children are less likely than adults to be awareof symptoms, such as chest tightness, which canserve as a warning of pollutants harmful effects,such as lung tissue damage.

    In addition, the places in which children play,and the distance from ground level at which theybreathe, increase their chances of exposure topollutants. Specifically, children spend a lot oftime actively playing in urban parks and schoolgrounds that are situated near busy roadways,

    17 chapter two: why is smog a concern? the smog primer 18

    Source: Burnett et al.

    City

    National Mean

    Quebec City

    London

    Hamilton

    Calgary

    Montreal

    Vancouver

    Toronto

    Winnipeg

    Ottawa

    Windsor

    Edmonton

    7.6

    11.0

    0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0

    10.6

    9.7

    8.4

    10.3

    8.3

    6.5

    6.4

    4.8

    3.6

    3.6

    A Nasal Cavity

    B Pharynx

    C Larynx

    D Trachea

    E Alveoli

    F Bronchial Tree

    G Diaphragm

    FIGURE 2-3The Human Respiratory System

    A

    B

    C

    D

    E

    F

    G

    }}

    E

    Upper Respiratory SystemLower Respiratory System

    Percent Increase

    Source: www.howstuffworks.com

  • 19 chapter two: why is smog a concern? the smog primer 20

    and, as a result, are exposed to high levels ofvehicular pollutants. Furthermore, because oftheir shorter stature, children breathe closer tothe ground than do adults often close to the same level as tailpipes are located wherepollutants are found in higher concentrations.

    The health implications for a child exposed tooutdoor air pollution can be serious. Irritationcaused by air pollutants that would produce only aslight response in an adult can result in poten-tially significant obstruction in the narrower airways of young children.Air pollution candamage the development of a childs alveoli,thereby restricting the transfer of oxygen fromthe lungs to the bloodstream.As well, studies haveshown that long-term air pollution exposureduring infancy can reduce the rate of lung growth.

    The elderly ( 65 years of age) are also moreadversely affected by smog than the rest of thepopulation.They may be frailer and weaker thanyounger people, and therefore less resistant toinfection. Many older people suffer from chronicrespiratory or heart conditions, or other pulmon-ary and circulatory stress, all of which may beworsened by the inhalation of PM or other pollutants.A number of studies have linked PMwith increased hospital admissions for cardiovas-cular and respiratory problems in the elderly andeven premature death. In addition, the decline inlung function that occurs with elderly people aspart of the natural aging process can be acceler-ated by the damaging effects of air pollutants.

    People who exercise outdoors, such as cyclists andrunners, expose themselves to more pollutantsthan do those who dont engage in strenuousoutdoor exercise. Exercise results in increasedheart activity, which in turn requires deep andrapid breathing.When this happens, more pollu-tants are drawn deep into the lungs. Outdoorexercisers also often engage in mouth breathing,thus bypassing the natural nasal filtering systemthat can protect them from inhaling PM. SinceO3 decreases a persons lung function, athletesand outdoor exercisers may find it more difficultto breathe deeply and vigorously.This conditionis worsened during a smog episode when higherlevels of pollutants are present.

    People with asthma have bronchial tubes thatcan be easily inflamed. Particulates, which canirritate and inflame air passages, are likely tocause trouble for persons with asthma and otherrespiratory disorders.A number of studies havefound a strong association between increases inconcentrations of PM10 and a rise in the num-ber of emergency room visits and hospitaladmissions for asthma.When O3 levels are high,more asthmatics have asthma attacks that requirea doctors attention or the use of additionalmedication.Asthmatics are also severely affectedby the reduced lung function and irritation thatO3 causes in the respiratory system. Between1980 and 1990, hospitalization of young chil-dren in Canada for asthma increased by 28%among boys and 18% among girls. In Canada,asthma is now one of the most common child-

    hood respiratory diseases and is the number onecause of school absenteeism.With more than 2.4million Canadians suffering from asthma, thisrepresents a significant proportion of the popula-tion that is harmed by smog.

    Individuals with existing heart diseases may havehearts that are weakened as a result of poor oxy-gen delivery through blocked or narrow arteries.Since CO deprives the body of oxygen, smog mayworsen these individuals conditions by furtherdiminishing the oxygen supply to the heart.

    A Global HealthPerspectiveAir pollution is a major environmental healthproblem affecting developed and developingcountries around the world. Increasing amountsof harmful gases and particles are being emittedinto the atmosphere on a global scale, resultingin damage to human health and the environment.Every year an estimated three million people dieand an even greater number suffer serious healtheffects from air pollution, primarily respiratorydiseases, asthma and cardiovascular disease.Thismortality figure represents about 5% of the total55 million deaths that occur annually in the world.

    Globally, it is estimated that by 2020 a total of700,000 premature deaths from particulateexposure could be prevented each year if emis-

    sion reduction policies were implemented.Themajority, as many as 563,000 prevented deaths,would be in developing countries, while theother 138,000 would be in developed nations,such as Canada.

    Environmental Impacts of SmogSmog is not only a human health problem. Italso affects the surrounding physical environment.Two smog pollutants in particular have damagingeffects on the environment: O3 and PM.

    O3 affects vegetation (e.g., agricultural crops,trees and herbaceous plants) in several ways.When plants take in CO2 through tiny openingsfound on the surface of their leaves (calledstomata) during photosynthesis (the process bywhich plants produce and store food), O3 canalso enter. Once inside the leaf, O3 can reducethe size of the stomata by decreasing the firmnessor turgidity of the surrounding cells.While thisreduction in the size of the stomata can actuallyhelp to protect the plant from further inflow ofO3, the O3 already present within the leaf candestroy cells. Furthermore, the reduction of thestomatas size reduces the flow of CO2 into theleaf, thereby slowing down photosynthesis.Thesedamaging processes inhibit the plants growthand reproduction, and diminish the plants health,which, in turn, weakens its ability to survive dis-

  • 21 chapter two: why is smog a concern? the smog primer 22

    ease, insect attacks and extreme weather.Theplant as a whole may grow 1040% more slowlythan without exposure to O3, age prematurely,lose its leaves during the growing season andproduce pollen with a shorter life span.As aconsequence, O3 can reduce agricultural yields.Crops at greatest risk of damage due to O3exposure include dry beans, potatoes, onions, hay,turnips, tobacco, winter wheat, soybeans, spinach,tomatoes and sweet corn.A study of strawberryplants revealed that O3 reduces the number andweight of fruit, resulting in losses as high as15%. Leaves may become visibly flecked withsmall yellow, black or white spots, or developlarge bronze-coloured or paper-thin areas.

    O3 is also very damaging to both synthetic andnatural materials. It can lead to the developmentof cracks in products made of rubber, such astires, boots, gloves and hoses. Continued expo-sure can cause these products to disintegratecompletely. O3 accelerates the fading of dyes,damages cotton, acetate, nylon, polyester andother textiles, and accelerates the deteriorationof some paints and coatings.

    The most serious effect of PM deposition onvegetation is a physical smothering of the leafsurface.This reduces the leaf s exposure to sun-light, which, in turn, causes a decrease in photo-synthesis by hindering the flow of CO2 into theleaf.The chemical make-up of the particles mayalso have a direct effect on the plant and indirect

    effects on the soil. Particle accumulation on the leafsurface may also leave the plant vulnerable to disease.

    Some studies have been conducted on the effectsof PM on materials such as metals, wood, stone,painted surfaces, electronics and fabrics.Thedeposition of PM on these materials may causesoiling and discolouration, thus reducing theiraesthetic appeal. Exposure to PM can also causephysical and chemical degradation of materialsthat come in contact with acidic particles.

    An obvious and aesthetic environmental impactof PM is reduced visibility and presence of hazein the air. Haze is caused when sunlight hits tinyparticles in the air and is either absorbed or scat-tered, thus reducing the clarity and colour of whatwe see. Reduced visibility is usually a function oflight being scattered rather than absorbed.Thehumidity of the surrounding air also plays a role.As humidity levels rise, the particles absorbincreasing amounts of water from the air andthus grow in physical size.This, in turn, increasestheir ability to scatter light, thereby furtherreducing the colour and clarity of our perceptionof the surrounding landscape.

    According to the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, haze currently reduces visibility from144 km to between 22 and 38 km in parts ofthe eastern United States, and from 225 km tobetween 53 and 144 km in the western UnitedStates.Visibility generally is worse in the eastern

    than the western United States as it has higheraverage humidity levels and higher levels of PM from both human-made and natural sources.

    The size and chemistry of particles also influencetheir ability to scatter light. Particles in the sizerange of PM2.5 are the most efficient at scatter-ing light. Coarse particles, however, can alsocontribute to reduced visibility. Sulphates andnitrates, which can adhere to finer particles, aresimilarly very effective at scattering light.

    Economic Impacts of SmogSmog impacts the economy on several levels, themost serious being related to health-care costs.However, the smog problem in Canada alsoaffects the economy through reductions in agri-cultural yields and the potential loss of tourismdollars as a result of decreased visibility at scenictourist destinations.

    Health-Care Costs: The serious health effects ofsmog also have significant economic impacts.According to the Ontario Medical Association,air pollution is estimated to cost the provincemore than $1 billion per year due to hospitaladmissions, emergency room visits and absen-teeism.When the costs of pain, suffering and lossof life from polluted air are added to this figure,the total annual economic loss is estimated to be$10 billion a year.This amount is expected toincrease to $12 billion by the year 2015.

    According to two reports, however, it is possibleto significantly reduce these escalating health carecosts.A 1996 Ontario government report calcu-lated that reducing key smog pollutants by 45%would result in 190 fewer cardiac and respiratoryhospital admissions, 6,200 fewer emergency roomvisits for asthma, and between 3 and 4 millionfewer episodes of acute respiratory symptomsper year. Studies in Greater Vancouver have foundthat more than 2,700 premature deaths and33,000 emergency room visits could be avoidedover 30 years with a 25% reduction in PM.

    Agricultural Costs: As discussed earlier, smog dam-ages farm crops and vegetation, thereby reducingyields of economically important crops, such assoybeans, kidney beans, wheat and cotton. In theUnited States, agricultural losses due to O3 havebeen estimated to be between $1 and $3 billionannually.

    Tourism Dollars: With visibility reduced by asmuch as 80% in some areas as a result of air pollution, the loss of tourism dollars, particularlyin areas where people are drawn to the freshair and scenic landscapes of national parks andwilderness areas, could be substantial. If Canadasurban centres become more polluted, tourists maychoose to stay away for health and aesthetic reasons. Environment Canada recently completeda survey of tourist responses to poor visibility inthe Lower Mainland of British Columbia. Itconcluded that increased pollution would nega-tively impact tourism in the region.

  • 23 chapter two: why is smog a concern? the smog primer 24

    Climate Change and SmogOne connection between climate change andsmog lies in the burning of fossil fuels. Fossilfuel use contributes greatly to climate change byproducing two main greenhouse gases: carbondioxide and methane, neither of which directlycauses smog. However, burning of fossil fuelsgenerates other pollutants that do cause smog,including SO2, CO, NOx,VOCs and PM.

    There is another link between climate changeand smog: increasing temperatures associatedwith the former could magnify the effects of thelatter. Some scientists have suggested that, as themean annual temperature increases in Ontario,the formation of smog may also be increasing;specifically, NOx and VOCs will be reacting athigher temperatures and thus creating more O3.As a result, frequent and severe heat waves couldtranslate into more frequent high O3-level daysand air pollution advisories.With higher tem-peratures, greater amounts of fossil fuels will beburned to satisfy increased air conditioningdemand, thus producing more greenhouse gasesand smog causing pollutants.

    An accompanying increase in humidity couldalso mean a rise in production of mould spores,and a warmer climate would result in a prolifer-ation of trees and other vegetation that producepollens, thereby making the situation worse forthose suffering from asthma, emphysema andother respiratory illnesses.

  • the smog primer 26

    FactorsAffecting Smog

    People may wonder where in Canada they can live that is free of smog.This is not an easy question to answer, since the frequency and intensityof smog is dependent on a number of physical and geographic factors,such as weather conditions, time of year, topography, wind speed anddirection and proximity to urban centres or industrial regions. As a resultof one or more of these factors, three regions in Canada have a tendencyto experience more episodes of high level O3-related smog than others:the southern Atlantic region; the Lower Fraser Valley in British Columbia;and the Windsor, OntarioQuebec City Corridor. It is important to note thathigh levels of O3-related smog are not confined to these regions and thatthere are periodic problems in other parts of Canada as well.

    chapter three

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  • 27 chapter three: factors affecting smog the smog primer 28

    Seasonal/Daily FactorsCanadas official smog season is from May toSeptember when the sun is at its strongest. In thewinter, when the sun is weaker, O3 productionis reduced. However, smog is still a year-roundproblem. PM and other smog pollutants, such asNOx, SO2 and CO, are present in the air through-out the year as a result of ongoing emissionsfrom the industrial and transportation sectors.

    O3 levels tend to build over the course of a dayusually peaking during mid- to late afternoonwhen temperatures are highest and sunlight hashad time to react with vehicle exhaust andindustrial emissions. Because O3 requires sun-light to form, levels usually drop rapidly aftersundown. Levels of other smog pollutants, suchas SO2, NOx, PM and CO, are usually greaterduring the daytime as well, due to the frequentuse of cars and trucks, as well as to increasedconstruction and industrial activity.

    Local Weather ConditionsWeather plays a significant role in determiningsmog levels. Ideal conditions for the formationof smog are temperatures near or above 30C,calm winds and few clouds. NOx and VOCsneed sunlight to create O3, and therefore, O3levels are at their highest on hot, dry, sunny days.Calm winds prevent pollutants from being dis-

    persed rapidly, giving them a chance to mixtogether and undergo chemical reactions to formO3. Sunlight and warm temperatures are alsoconducive to the formation of secondary PM in the atmosphere.

    During the summertime, heavy smog episodeswill usually occur when a stagnant high pressuresystem moves into an area. In the northernhemisphere, winds in high pressure systems spiralclockwise and outwards, bringing warm air upfrom the south.The air tends to sink near high-pressure centres, warming as it descends andevaporating any clouds or precipitation that maybe present in the air.This is why high pressuresystems tend to bring bright and sunny days.These systems, combined with warm summer-time temperatures and little or no wind, willusually result in stagnant air being trapped closeto the ground.When trapped by high pressure,VOCs and NOx will bake in the hot sun,creating O3. In addition, stagnant air masses prevent pollutants from being dispersed.

    The severity of smog is also increased with theoccurrence of a temperature inversion (Figure3-1).When the air close to the earth is coolerthan the air above it, the lower, cooler air doesnot rise but remains still, with the warmer airabove it creating a lid.This may result from acold front moving through a region or fromcool sea air blown over land by an onshorebreeze. Under these conditions, the pollutants

    cannot rise and disperse; the smog is kept closeto the ground thus maximizing any damagingeffects.The severe inversion over Donora,Pennsylvania in 1948 was associated with respiratory illnesses in more than 6,000 peopleand the deaths of 20 people.

    FIGURE 3-1Temperature Inversions and Smog

    TopographyTopography (physical landscape of a region) canvastly influence air quality.A city in a valley, forexample, may experience air quality problemsdue to the restriction of air movement createdby the physical barriers of the valley walls.A citylocated on an open plain, however, does not havethese barriers, thus allowing for better dispersalof pollutants. British Columbias Lower FraserValley is bordered by the Coastal Mountains tothe north and the Cascade Mountains to thesoutheast.When sea breezes off the Strait ofGeorgia blow pollutants eastward from theVancouver region, O3 is gradually produced.The mountains then trap the pollution in theeastern part of the valley. Similarly, NewBrunswicks rolling terrain has many pocketswhere cool sea breezes blowing off the Bay ofFundy can become trapped and accumulate, cre-ating temperature inversions and poor air quality.

    Urban and Rural FactorsSmog is not just a problem in urban areas. Infact, smog levels can often be higher in ruralareas than in towns and cities for several reasons.Firstly, air pollutants move with the wind.PM2.5 can stay suspended in the air for weeksand travel up to 800 km with the help of thewind, and high concentrations of O3 can occurin rural areas downwind of major urban centres.

    Normal Pattern

    V V V

    Temperature Inversion

    cooler air

    cool air

    warm air

    cool air

    warm inversion layer

    cool air

  • 29 chapter three: factors affecting smog the smog primer 30

    For instance, in Ontario, rural communities along the shores of Lake Huron (e.g.,Tiverton, Grand Bend)and Lake Erie (e.g., Long Point) experience very high O3 concentrations during the summer. Secondly, thechemical reactions that produce O3 can take several hours, which means that O3 may be formed somedistance downwind of the original NOx and VOC sources, as far away as 500 km. Higher suburban/ruralO3 readings compared to urban downtown readings can also be attributed to a chemical process where-by NOx from vehicle tailpipes, known as scavenging NOx, breaks down O3 molecules converting theminto oxygen (O2).The result is that, when traffic pours into downtown cores during smog episodes, adoughnut effect can take place with the citys core showing low readings of O3 and outlying areasshowing high readings. Of course, this does not solve the smog problem in downtown areas as O3 is onlyone of several harmful smog pollutants.

    Transboundary Air PollutionA common problem in some regions of Canada is transboundary air pollution from the United States.A significant proportion of the O3 pollution in the WindsorQuebec City corridor is carried up by thewind from the cars and industrial facilities in the Midwestern United States. It is estimated that 50% ofthe O3 present in Southern Ontario during smoggy periods comes from transboundary sources. SouthernNew Brunswick and southern Nova Scotia receive a significant portion of North Americas air pollution,with approximately 80% of the smog in those regions originating in the eastern United States, the OhioValley, southern Ontario and Quebec.

  • the smog primer 32

    Getting Informationon Air Quality and

    Smog PollutantsAlthough the air around us may at times seem clean, with no visible brown

    smoggy haze or unpleasant smell, appearances can be deceiving. To know

    for certain what is present in the air, it must be monitored. This informa-

    tion then needs to be communicated to the public in an up-to-date, easily

    accessed and clear manner. Having access to accurate information is key

    to developing a better understanding of the environmental and health

    effects of smog. By being properly informed, you can become more aware

    of the need for clean air and the actions you can take to improve the

    quality of the air in your community.

    chapter four

  • 33 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

    There are several ways to get information aboutsmog pollutants across Canada, including datafrom air monitoring stations, air quality indices,the Criteria Air Contaminants EmissionsInventory, the National Pollutant ReleaseInventory and PollutionWatch.

    Air Monitoring StationsAir pollutants across Canada are measured continuously by monitoring stations operated by both federal and provincial agencies.Concentrations of air pollutants are measured in tiny amounts, usually in parts per million(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). One ppbmeans that there is one part pollutant to everybillion parts of air.This is comparable to onedrop of water in an in-ground swimming poolor, in terms of time, one second in 32 years.

    The federal monitoring and reporting networksare the National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS)network and the Canadian Air and PrecipitationMonitoring Network (CAPMON). NAPS,established in 1969, is a joint program of the federal and provincial governments to measureand report outdoor air pollutant levels inCanadian urban centres. It currently includes271 air monitoring stations in 163 municipalities.

    The number of pollutants measured, as well asthe type, varies from station to station dependingon the region.The most common contaminantsmonitored are SO2, CO, NO2, O3 and PM.Data from the NAPS monitoring stations can be accessed through the networks annualreports found on the following Web site:www.etcentre.org/naps.

    CAPMON is a rural network with 21 air monitoring stations in Canada and one in theUnited States. It has been in operation for morethan 20 years. Its initial focus was on acid rain,but now smog pollutants (NOx, PM and O3) arealso measured at some sites. Plans are underway toestablish an interactive Web site where data fromCAPMON sites can be accessed by the public.

    The provinces of Ontario, Quebec,Alberta andBritish Columbia operate their own air monitoring stations independently of NAPS andCAPMON. Data from these sites can usually beaccessed through the provincial environmentministries Web sites or through the provincesannual air quality reports.

    the smog primer 34

    Air Quality IndicesIn addition to forming the basis for annual reportson air quality issued by various levels of governmentin Canada, air quality data are widely used inproducing environmental assessments, impactstatements, policy positions and environmentalhealth indicator reports. In these contexts, airquality is generally reported as concentrations ofpollutant in the air (e.g., parts per billion (ppb),micrograms per cubic metre (g/m3)).

    The public usually sees the results of air qualitymonitoring in the form of air quality indices andsmog advisories.These convert large quantities ofdata into simple numbers that convey meaningfulmessages about air quality in a timely fashion.Typically, such messages offer both advice onhow air quality can be improved and on howindividuals can reduce their personal exposure onoccasions when air quality is poor.When indexlevels are high, for example, people might beencouraged to reduce air emissions by takingpublic transit or by avoiding the use of gasolinepowered equipment, such as lawn mowers or leafblowers. Similarly, industries might be urged tomake temporary cutbacks in production orswitch to less polluting fuels.The public mightalso be told that poor air quality events can present greater health risks, and encouraged tomodify their activities accordingly; for example, byreducing outdoor exercise or by staying indoors.

    Canadian Air Quality Indices

    In 1980, the federal and provincial governmentsjointly published an air quality index for nationaluse, known as Index of the Quality of theAir/Lindice de la qualit de lair (IQUA).Thisindex, in turn, prompted the development of airquality indices in several provinces during the1980s. Each of these indices evolved in slightlydifferent ways in response to local factors.Typically, all of the Canadian air quality indicesproduce single number index values from rawdata available for various contaminants that areaveraged over varying time periods to providesnapshot perspectives of community air quality(see Box 4-1 for the methodology typically usedto calculate an index value).

    Pollution Probe gratefully acknowledges the funding of this

    insert by the JANEY S. MILLS P. ENG MEMORIAL FUND.

    The updated material on Air Quality Indices and Air QualityAdvisories (pages 34 41) was researched and written byJOHN HEWINGS.

    Pages 34 through 41 have been updated as of June 2004.

  • Air quality indices have been used relatively successfully in Canada as informational tools.They are regularly included by all of the mainmedia outlets in their normal forecast information.On occasions when there have been air pollution episodes they have received majornews coverage.

    35 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants the smog primer 36

    Despite the relative success of air quality indices,concern has been expressed for a number of yearsby various groups, including representatives ofindustry, environmental groups, health professionalsand government air pollution experts, about fundamental flaws in the assumptions used intheir calculation.These include:

    Scientific concerns about the basis for the National Ambient Air Quality Criteria that are used to establish numeric values for eachof the contaminants in air quality indices;

    The lack of a scientifically valid set of statements explaining the linkage between index numbers and the effects of air pollution;

    Discrepancies between observed effects fromair pollution, such as hospital admissions dueto respiratory problems, and actual index levels;

    A lack of correspondence between public perception and air pollution index levels, partlycaused by the fact that the current indices are environmental indices rather than health based indices; and,

    The failure of current indices to deal effectivelywith the effects of combinations of air pollutants.

    Air Quality Indices The Way Forward

    In June 2001, Environment Canada and HealthCanada began supporting a process to addressthe shortcomings of the methodologies used tocalculate and report air quality indices.This wasin response to a call by the Medical Officers of Health from Toronto and other Ontariocommunities, as well as from other agencies(e.g., Ontario Lung Association) to improve theAQI so that it better reflected health risks.Representatives from some of the major stakeholders both inside and outside

    BOX 4-2

    Protecting Your HealthDuring a High Smog DayProtect yourself from the hazards of smog.Follow some of the advice given below whenyour region is experiencing a high smog day.

    Avoid outdoor strenuous work or exercise.

    Stay indoors in a cool, well-ventilated place.

    Avoid being outside around high traffic areas and during peak rush hour times to minimize your exposure to smog.

    If you must be outside, stay out of the sun and drink lots of water.

    FIGURE 4-1

    Air Quality Index: Toronto West

    This example of a Toronto West AQI reading, taken from the Ministry of the Environments Web site (www.airqualityontario.com) is colour-coded with a visual air quality meter for easy interpretation.Health effects for the top pollutant are also given.

    Date Friday, February 22, 2002Time 11:00 AMAQ 18

    Reason Ozone (O3)Health Effects No known harmful effects

    Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very PoorVery Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor

    BOX 4-1

    Typical Method forCalculating Air QualityIndices in Canada Assemble raw data at each monitoring station

    typically includes two or more of the followingcontaminants: sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide,nitrogen dioxide, ozone, total suspended particulate or fine particulate matter (< 2.5 m in diameter).

    Conversion of the raw data for all contaminantsto a common scale index values of 25, 50 and 100 related to various standards, air qualityobjectives, interpolated and extrapolated values,and recommended objectives.

    Calculation of index values for each contaminant(known as sub-index values) for each appropriate time interval.

    Identification of the maximum sub-index valuefor each appropriate time period for each location.

    This value is the index value for the location for the appropriate time period.

    Index values for smog related contaminants areoften used in smog forecasts and the issuing ofsmog advisories.

  • calculation of air pollution indices will make theseindices more reflective of threats to human health.

    Proposed Long-term Improvements toExisting Canadian Air Quality Indices

    Since 2001, a variety of stakeholders under thesponsorship of Health Canada and EnvironmentCanada have also been engaged in detailed discussions on producing a new index thatreflects the overall health risk associated with alltypes of air pollution. Mathematical models arebeing developed to establish the relationshipsbetween air pollution levels and rates of certaintypes of illness.Work is also underway toimprove messaging used in association withCanadian air quality indices, air quality monitoring networks across the country, and airquality forecasting techniques used with airquality indices. It is anticipated that a new indexformat will be implemented nationally by the endof 2005.

    Air Quality AdvisoriesBecause of the potential that exists for pollutants,such as ozone, to affect peoples health, even atindex levels indicating moderate air quality,several jurisdictions are now combining the components of their indices with air quality forecasts.When index levels are expected to riseabove predetermined levels, warnings are issued tothe public, with the advice tailored to the actualand expected air quality.Warning systems are nowin operation in Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland,Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince EdwardIsland and British Columbia.Typical advice to thepublic used in connection with smog advisories isshown in Box 4-3. Governments also recommendon actions that industry and government operations can take to try and reduce emissions.Table 4-1 summarizes the different methods used to report on current and impending smogconditions across Canada.

    the smog primer 38

    government were engaged to improve the stateof Canadian air quality indices. One of the keydrivers for this process was a challenge by theHon. David Anderson, the federal Minister ofthe Environment, in his speech to the 2001Toronto Smog Summit. Expressing a sharedcommitment by the federal, provincial andmunicipal governments to improve air quality,Minister Anderson asked index stakeholders todefine a path forward to improve the state ofCanadian air quality indices and to report backon this progress within one year.

    Shortly after the smog summit, a group of stakeholders from across Canada met in Torontoto deliver a consensus position on a direction toimprove the state of Canadian air qualityindices.The group decided that an index wasneeded that would:

    Accurately reflect the levels of health risk associated with the current and forecasted levels of common air contaminants on an ongoing basis;

    Provide publicly credible information to allow individuals to protect themselves and those in their care from the effects of high air pollution;

    Contribute to public information and understanding of air pollutants, their effects and the availability of actions to limit these effects; and,

    Reflect the total effects of all the major air pollutants.

    To reflect the groups deliberations, EnvironmentCanada and Health Canada decided to initiatemeasures to immediately improve existingCanadian air quality indices, and at the same time,to proceed with a long-term plan to develop anew multi-pollutant, health-risk based index.

    Short-term Improvements to ExistingCanadian Air Quality Indices

    Several Canadian jurisdictions have alreadyimplemented remedial measures to ensure thattheir indices more accurately reflect the effectsof current air pollution levels. Most notableamong the changes that have been suggested oradopted is the inclusion of fine particulate matterin several indices, including those used in theProvinces of Alberta and Ontario, and in theadoption of a three-hour average time for PM2.5by the City of Montreal. Ontario, which has basedits index values for fine particulate matter onthe PM2.5 twenty-four hour average numericalvalue (30g/m3) that is used within the nationalCanada Wide Standards criteria, has also incorporated new health messages relating tofine particulate matter that reflect increased concern over the entire range of values of thiscontaminant. It is anticipated that including fineparticulate matter as one of the pollutants in the

    37 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

  • 39 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants the smog primer 40

    Table 4-2 summarizes the different methods used to report on current and impending smog conditionsacross Canada.

    TABLE 4-1Alerts, Advisories, Watches and Forecasts

    Air Quality Index Readings In most urban centres, an Air Quality Index (AQI) reading is issued by the province or local municipality to provide daily readings on various air pollutants.

    Smog Alert (also Federal, provincial and municipal governments issue advisories or alerts in somereferred to as an smog-prone Canadian communities. These advisories are issued only if high levels ofAir Quality Advisory) O3 are expected to occur within the following 24 hours (i.e., a poor index value

    reading) or if conditions are currently in the poor range.

    Smog Watch The government of Ontario issues a Smog Watch when there is a predicted 50% chancethat smog conditions will occur within the next three days.

    Smog Forecasts In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, smog forecasts are issued to provide daily infor-mation on expected levels of O3, ranging from good to very poor, over a period of 48 hours during the smog season of May to September.

    Smog Termination In some provinces, including Ontario, a smog termination notice is issued following a smogNotice advisory when the weather changes and O3 concentrations decrease to the moderate

    range levels.

    BOX 4-3

    Provincial Uses of Air Quality IndicesALBERTA: Public access to index levels, which are calculated and issued hourly, can be accessed by phoning780-427-7273 or toll-free by dialing 1-800-310-0000(within Alberta). AQI values are currently produced forthree stations in both Edmonton and Calgary, and forBeaverlodge, Fort Saskatchewan and Red Deer. Data canalso be accessed via the Clean Air Strategic AllianceWeb site (www.casadata.org) and from the WeatherNetwork Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.

    BRITISH COLUMBIA: Outside the Lower Fraser Valley:Provincial monitors (currently in 55 locations) are polledhourly and posted directly to the Ministry of Water, Landand Air Protections Web site (http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/air/airquality). When hourly levels of the index go above25 and 50, the computer system automatically issuesemail alerts to users who have indicated a wish to bekept informed. In addition, the Ministry can use the IQUAto issue air quality advisories, episode alerts and burningbans. Within the Lower Fraser Valley: Data are collectedevery minute from over 25 sites. An index is calculatedand distributed hourly to the public via the GreaterVancouver Regional District (GVRD) Web site(www.gvrd.bc.ca) and by telephone at 604-436-6767or toll free at 1-800-665-1118. In cooperation with itspartners, the GVRD may also issue air quality advisorieswhen the index is predicted to approach or exceed 50.All British Columbia index sites are accessible on theWeather Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.

    MANITOBA: Manitoba uses an air quality index, but only atone station located in Winnipeg. Data from this monitoringlocation are reported hourly and are sent to the media aswell as to the weather information channel on local cabletelevision. Environment Canada reports on Winnipegs airquality on their weather information telephone line at204-983-2050. Index values can also be obtained on theWeather Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.

    NEW BRUNSWICK: The Air Quality Index prepared by theNew Brunswick Department of Environment and LocalGovernment is available for 15 locations in the province.It is updated three times daily at the Departments Website at www.gnb.ca. Hourly updates are available at theregional Environment Canada Web site www.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality, through the Weather Networks Web site atwww.weathernetwork.ca and by way of EnvironmentCanadas automated weather phone lines for Fredericton(506-451-6001), Moncton (506-851-6610), Saint John(506-636-4991), Bathurst (506-548-3220), Miramichi(506-773-7045), Acadian Peninsula (506-726-5288)and Edmunston (506-739-1814).

    NEWFOUNDLAND: Newfoundland currently does not provide air quality index readings. However, in 2002 theybecame a partner in Atlantic Canadas Smog PredictionProgram (now called Atlantic Canadas Air QualityPrediction Program). Information on air quality is available on Environment Canadas Web site atwww.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.

  • 41 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants the smog primer 42

    NORTHWEST TERRITORIES: The NWT does not currentlyprovide air quality index readings to the public.

    NOVA SCOTIA: The Government of Nova Scotia hasproduced an air quality index for Halifax-Dartmouth andSydney that provides daily smog forecasts, availabletwice a day, through the media, including the WeatherNetwork Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca. Indexvalues can also be accessed by telephone in Halifaxat 902-424-2775. The Province is a partner in AtlanticCanadas Smog Prediction Program (now calledAtlantic Canadas Air Quality Prediction Program).Information on air quality is available on EnvironmentCanadas Web site at www.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.

    NUNAVUT: Nunavut does not currently provide air qualityindex readings to the public.

    ONTARIO: The Ontario Ministry of the Environment currently calculates and publishes an index for 37 urbanand rural sites in the province, which goes by the nameAir Quality Index (AQI). Historical AQI readings for 3:00 pmare provided for all reporting sites since January 1, 2003.During the traditional smog season, May 1 to September 30,AQI values are released to the media seven times per dayand during the October 1 to April 30 period they arereleased at least five times per day. Two-day histories arealso reported for all reporting times. Air quality forecastsare provided all year round. This data can be accessedonline at www.airqualityontario.com. Air quality readingscan also be accessed through a toll free line at 1-800-387-7768 (English) and 1-800-221-8852(French), at a local Toronto number at 416-246-0411,

    and on the Weather Network Web site at www.weathernetwork.ca.

    PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND: The PEI Smog ForecastProgram forecasts the concentration of ground-levelozone, the main component of smog. This forecast isissued twice daily at 5:00 am and 4:00 pm from thebeginning of May to the end of October. PEI is a member of Atlantic Canadas Air Quality PredictionProgram. The PEI regional smog forecast can beaccessed through Environment Canadas Web site atwww.atl.ec.gc.ca/airquality.

    QUEBEC: Responsibility for air pollution control inQuebec is split between the Montreal Urban Community(MUC), which has jurisdiction on the island of Montreal,and the Quebec government, which is the responsibleauthority in the remainder of the province. The smogforecasting program run by MUC provides air qualityforecasts and can be found at www.rsqa.cum.qc.ca.Air quality forecasts can be found atwww.qc.ec.gc.ca/atmos/dispersion and smog advisories can be found from May to September athttp://weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca. To date, in the provinceof Quebec, only MUC has developed an air quality indexto provide information on air quality to the public.

    SASKATCHEWAN: Saskatchewan does not currentlyuse the IQUA or any other air quality index.

    YUKON: Yukon currently does not provide air qualityindex readings to the public.

    Criteria AirContaminants Emissions(CACE) InventoryAnother useful way to obtain data on smog pollutants in your community is through theCACE inventory.While the AQI is successful inconveying information on the actual levels ofsmog pollutants in the atmosphere over a certainarea, the CACE inventory conveys data on theactual emissions of various air pollutants (measuredin tonnes per year) that originate from a number of sources located across the country.These sources are organized in categories thatinclude industrial production, fuel combustion,transportation vehicles, incineration, paved andunpaved roads and forest fires, among others.Every five years, Environment Canada issues anational inventory of air contaminant emissionsfrom polluting sources in Canada of the fivecommon smog pollutants: SOx, NOx,VOCs,CO and PM.This information is used as a basisfor other air issue programs, including acid rain.Summary data for provinces and industrial sectors are available on Environment CanadasGreenLane Web site, found at www.ec.gc.ca.

    National PollutantRelease Inventory (NPRI)The NPRI was created in 1992 to provideCanadians with national, facility-specific information regarding on-site releases and off-site transfers of polluting substances listed on theinventory. Companies that manufacture, processor otherwise use one of the listed substances,and meet the reporting thresholds, must reporttheir releases or transfers to EnvironmentCanada annually.The NPRI provides Canadianswith access to information for specific substancesbeing released from specific facilities located intheir communities. For example, members of thepublic can find out what the power plant or factory in their neighbourhood emits each yearfor a certain pollutant.Almost 2,000 facilitiesacross Canada report to the NPRI on a yearlybasis. Currently, industry is required to report tothe NPRI on 268 pollutants that are of concernbecause of their potential toxic effects tohumans and the environment.

    In 2002, as part of an NPRI expansion, polluterswill also be required to report on contaminantsthat contribute to smog, namely, SOx, NOx,VOCs, CO and PM.

    The best way to obtain information on releasesof NPRI pollutants nationally, provincially andat the local community level is through the

  • 43 chapter four: getting information on air quality and smog pollutants

    Environment Canada Web site (www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/).The site includes all non-confidentialNPRI information and data. In addition, theWeb site allows the user to query the NPRIdatabase on specific facilities in each of thereporting years.This interactive querying featureallows the user to select a specific facility reportingto the NPRI, a specific geographic area, and therelease of any NPRI-listed pollutant. Data canalso be obtained through the NPRIs publishedannual national overview reports, an NPRI datadisk, requests to an NPRI office, or by directlycontacting a reporting facility or industry association.

    PollutionWatchPollutionWatch is an environmental Web-basedinformation service partnered by the CanadianInstitute for Environmental Law and Policy,Canadian Environmental Law Association,Environmental Defence Canada and Environmental Defense U.S. Located at www.pollutionwatch.org, the system allowsCanadians to easily access important informationabout local polluters. By entering a postal code,users can learn who is polluting in their community, the type and quantity of pollutionbeing released, and the associated health risks.PollutionWatch also ranks and compares communities across Canada with regards totoxic air pollutants emitted in that region. Userscan take immediate action by faxing or e-mailinga pre-written letter of complaint straight to thepolluters. PollutionWatch data were based on1999 NPRI data (245 substances) at the timethis primer was published.

  • the smog primer 46

    chapter five

    Whats Being DoneAbout Smog?

    Canada faces the challenge of reducing harmful emissions while con-

    tinuing to serve public and private needs in cost-effective ways. The need

    for clean air must be addressed by taking action on transportation emis-

    sions, industrial emissions and transboundary pollution, and by encour-

    aging emission-reducing behaviour at both the corporate and individual

    levels.

  • 47 chapter five: whats being done about smog? the smog primer 48

    What are the Federaland ProvincialGovernments DoingJointly?The Canadian Council of Ministers of theEnvironment (CCME) is a body composed of13 provincial/territorial environment ministersand the federal environment minister. Membersof the Council co-operate on issues such as airpollution, waste management and toxic chemicalproduction.The members propose nationallyconsistent environmental standards and objectivesfor application across the country.The CCME isresponsible for the recent establishment of theCanada-wide Standards (CWS) for O3 and PM(Box 5-1).All jurisdictions except Quebec havecommitted to meet these new standards (or theQuebec equivalent standard) by year 2010 orsooner.A range of actions to reduce emissionsfrom vehicles, products and industry will beimplemented to meet the standard.

    What is the Government of Canada Doing?

    Over the past four years, the federal govenmenthas passed several new regulations to reduce airpollution from tailpipe emissions, includingreducing the level of sulphur in both diesel fueland gasoline, and reducing the level of benzenein gasoline. In 2000, Environment Canada alsoannounced a national program that involves tak-ing immediate and long-term action to reducepollutants that contribute to smog, and declaredPM to be toxic under the new CanadianEnvironmental Protection Act (CEPA 1999). In2001, Environment Canada announced a 10-year regulatory plan for cleaner vehicles andfuels, initial measures to reduce smog-causingemissions from industrial sectors, improvementsto the cross-country network of pollutant moni-toring stations, and expansion of public reportingby industry of pollutant releases.To complementthis plan, the federal government recentlyannounced an action plan called Interim Plan2001 on Particulate Matter and Ozone, whichincludes actions under way or contemplated toreduce emissions of pollutants that contribute tothe formation of PM and O3. For example, cur-rent regulated vehicle standards will be replacedby new standards that will further reduce NOxemissions by approximately 88% from passengercars and up to 95% from light-duty trucks,including SUVs. New regulations are expected

    to be introduced to reduce sulphur in on-roaddiesel fuel to 15 ppm starting June 1, 2006.

    As an active participant in global efforts to con-trol transboundary air pollution, Canada hassigned international protocols to reduce SO2emissions and stabilize NOx emissions. Canadahas also signed an agreement with the UnitedStates that will reduce air pollution flows fromthe United States and thus improve air qualityand the health of Canadians living in downwindareas in eastern Canada. It also commits toreducing flows of pollution from areas inOntario and Quebec into the United States.

    BOX 5-1

    CWS for O3 and PM2.5The basic goal of the Canada-wide Standardsfor O3 and PM is to minimize the negativeimpact these pollutants have on human healthand the environment. Accordingly, the CWS forPM is focused on PM2.5 which is recognizedas having the greatest effect on humanhealth. The agreed-upon standards for the twopollutants are shown in the chart below:

    Pollutant Averaging Target to be Time attained by 2010

    O3 8 hours 65 ppb

    PM2.5 24 hours 30 g/m3

  • BOX 5-2

    Canadian Federal/Provincial Environmental Departments/Ministries

    49 chapter five: whats being done about smog? the smog primer 50

    CanadaEnvironment Canada27th floor, 10 Wellington StreetTerrasses de la ChaudireHull QC K1A 0H3phone (819) 997-4203fax (819) 953-6897Web: www.ec.gc.ca/

    AlbertaDepartment of Environment9915-108th Street, 10th floorEdmonton AB T5K 2G8phone (780) 427-6236fax (780) 427-0923Web: www.gov.ab.ca/env/

    British ColumbiaMinistry of Water, Land and AirProtection2975 Jutland Road, 5th floor Victoria BC V8T 5J9P.O. Box 9339 Stn. Prov. Govt.Victoria BC V8W 9M1phone (250) 387-5429fax (250) 387-6003Web: www.gov.bc.ca/wlap

    ManitobaDepartment of ConservationRoom 327, Legislative Building450 BroadwayWinnipeg MB R3C 0V8phone (204) 945-3785fax (204) 945-2403Web: www.gov.mb.ca/environ/

    New BrunswickDepartment of Environment andLocal Government20 McGloin Street, Marysville PlaceP.O. Box 6000Fredericton, NB E2A 5T8phone (506) 453-3095fax (506) 453-3377Web: www.gnb.ca/0009/index.htm

    Newfoundland and LabradorDepartment of Environment4th floor, Confederation Building,West BlockP.O. Box 8700St. John's NF A1B 4J6phone (709) 729-2572fax (709) 729-0112Web: www.gov.nf.ca/env/

    Northwest TerritoriesDepartment of Resources, Wildlifeand Economic DevelopmentSuite 600, 5102-50th AvenueP.O. Box 1320Yellowknife NT X1A 3S8phone (867) 920-8048fax (867) 873-0563Web: www.rwed.gov.nt.ca

    Nova ScotiaDepartment of Environment andLabour6th floor, 5151 Terminal RoadP.O. Box 2107Halifax NS B3J 2T8phone (902) 424-4148fax (902) 425-0575Web: www.gov.ns.ca/enla/

    NunavutDepartment of SustainableDevelopmentBrown BuildingP.O. Box 1340Iqaluit, NT X0A 0H0phone (867) 975-5922fax (867) 975-5980Web: www.gov.nu.ca/sd.htm

    OntarioMinistry of the Environment andEnergy12th floor, 135 St. Clair Avenue WestToronto ON M4V 1P5phone (416) 314-6753fax (416) 314-6791Web: www.ene.gov.on.ca/

    Prince Edward IslandDepartment of Fisheries,Aquaculture and EnvironmentP.O. Box 200011 Kent Street, 4th floorCharlottetown PE C1A 7N8phone (902) 368-5340fax (902) 368-6488Web: www.gov.pe.ca/te/index.asp

    What are Provincial Governments Doing? Provincial governments across Canada have avariety of air quality initiatives in place, includingimplementation of vehicle inspection and main-tenance (l&M) programs, emissions caps forindustrial polluters and various public informa-tion and education programs. Below are a fewexamples of provincial clean air initiatives thatare taking place across Canada. For furtherresearch on what specific provinces are doing tocombat smog, contact the provincial environ-ment ministry directly (see Box 5-2).

    British Columbia and Ontario have implementedmandatory I&M programs for specified parts ofthe provinces that identify polluting vehicles,with the goal of having them repaired to reducesmog-causing emissions. In its first two years, theOntario Ministry of the Environment claimsthat its I&M program Drive Clean reducedNOx and VOCs from vehicle emissions in theToronto and Hamilton areas by 11.5 per cent.Drive Clean was expanded in May 2002 beyondsouthern Ontario to include other cities, such asOttawa and Cornwall. British Columbias I&Mprogram, known as AirCare, requires light dutyvehicles to undergo emissions tests. If they failthe test, the vehicles must be repaired.AirCarewas the first vehicle I&M program implementedin Canada. In its first seven years of operation(19921999) the program found one in three vehicles to be faulty and in need of repair. Repair-

    ing polluting vehicles has resulted in a 30% reduc-tion in total vehicle emissions.

    The Province of Quebec, through the Associationqubcoise de lutte contre la pollution atmosph-rique (AQLPA), announced an Action Plan onClimate Change, which included a commitmentto introduce an I&M program by the spring of2002.This program, however, had not beenimplemented at the time of publishing this primer.

    The Ontario governments Smog Patrol is anon-road campaign that targets grossly pollutingvehicles on Ontarios streets and highways. Duringon-road inspections, Smog Patrol officers workwith local enforcement agencies to spot, test andticket vehicles that do not comply with regulationson exhaust emissions.The Smog Patrol also rais-es public awareness that driving a vehicle with aproperly tuned e


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