Semantics and LexicologySVEM21 3. Structuralist SemanticsJordan Zlatev
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General characteristics
Semantic approaches can be:
Onomasilogical (from concept/domain to lexeme) vs. semasiological (from lexeme to concept/meaning)
Have diachronic vs. synchronic focus
“Maximalist” vs. “minimalist” Mentalist vs. non-mentalistStructure vs. usage -oriented
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Historical-philological, mostly:Semasiological (from lexeme to
concept/meaning) - though Stern (analogy)
Diachronic focus – though change between A and B requires analysis of A and B
“Maximalist” – “the emotional value of words” (Erdmann on Nebensinn)
Mentalist – though different notions of “psychological”?
Structure-oriented (little use of texts)
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Saussure’s chess analogyStructuralism: language as a
system
We can describe the rules of chess, without (a) particular games, (b) individual mentalities (c) material properties of the chess figures
“the fact that we describe the linguistic sign as being part of the system implies that we characterize the sign within the system, in its relations to other signs in the system” (: 49)
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Weisgerber’s critique of historical-phylological semantcis
Asking for an approach that is:Non-mentalist: Linguistic meaning
is “part of the system”, not “in the head” of the user
Has synchronic focus: Languages form self-contained systems in particular times
Privileges onomasiology: “from a semsiological interest in polysemy, to a onomasiological interest in naming” (: 50)
Example: kinship terms
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Types of structuralist semanticsLexical fields: Weisgerber, Trier,
Ullmann
Componential analysis: Goodenough, Hjelmslev, Coseriu, Pottier
Semantic relations: Lyons, Cruse
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Lexical fields
The “moasic” metaphor
Trier (1931: 3) “The fact that a word within a field is surrounded by neighbours with a specific position gives it its conceptual specificity” (: 54)
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Lexical fields: ExampleGerman 1200
Wîsheit (General)Kunst (for Nobles)
List (for others)
German 1300Wîsheit (Religious)
Kunst (Science and Art)Wizzen (Skills)
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Semantic change as restructuring of the lexical field of “Knowledge”, according to Trier (1934)
Lexical fields: ExtensionsSyntagmatic relations: gå vs. åka
“essential meaning relations” (Porsig 1934)
“collocations” Firth (1957) “selection restrictions” Katz and Fodor
(1963) “lexical solidarities” Coseriu (1967)
“Distributionalist method” (Bloomfield, Harris, Apresjan):
Formal relations (in historical change) Similarity of forms (folk etymology:
hangmat) Contiguity of forms (“ellipsis”: the rich)
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Lexical fields: ExtensionsLexical gaps (see Figure 2.5)
“the conception of a closed system has been generally abandoned” (: 65)
Discrete core + vague periphery (cf. Figure 2.6): a precursor of prototype semantics
Overlapping fields: the deficiency of the “moasic metaphor” 10
Componential analysis
“If the semantic value of a word is determined by the mutual relationships between all the lexical items in a lexical field, how do we get started? (: 70)
Analysis in terms of semantic “components” or “features”: On the model of structuralist phonology Europe: A natural development from
lexical field analysis USA: Anthropological “ethnosemantics”
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Componential analysis: European tradition Hjelmslev: “content figurae” Coseriu (1964): “Lexical field theory has to
be supplemented with the functional doctrine of distinctive oppositions” (: 75)
The structural method [of oppositions] cannot be applied to the whole lexicon” (: 78): Not to: Idioms (“repeated discourse”) Specialized vocabularies “Purely associative” fields (e.g. beauty) Referential (real-world) distinctions
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Coseriu: a pure structuralist? “a deliberate and methodical attempt to draw
the consequences of a structuralist theory of meaning” (: 77)
“A strict implementation of the Saussurean view that languages have their own, non-encyclopedic conceptual structure seems to come with a price: a severe reduction of the descriptive scope of the theory” (: 79)’
But: Coseriu (1985) make an explicit, three-level distinction of the concept of language - and meaning: (1) denotation, (2) meaning and (3) sense – emphasizing the need for “integrating” the three (cf. Zlatev in press)
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“Semantics” vs. “pragmatics”? depends on the definitions…
Encyclopedic LexicalLyons (1977) “meaning”, “content” “sense”
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Context-independent
Context-dependent
Coseriu (1985) “meaning” “sense”Paul (1920) Usuelle Bedeutung Okkasionelle
BedeutungWorld-knowledge(Pragmatics 1)
Context-independent
Context-dependent (Pragmatics 2)
Lyons (1977) “meaning” “sense”Coseriu (1985) “denotation” “meaning” “sense”Paul (1920) Usuelle
BedeutungOkkasionelle Bedeutung
RATHER:
Relational semantics: “senses”Lyons (1963): not just relations of
opposition (like Coseriu), and not deriving word meaning from a separate and independent set of “components”, but:
“… the meaning of a given linguistic unit is defined to bet the set of (paradigmatic) relations that the unit in question contracts with other units of the language” (: 81)
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“Sense relations”
Hyponymy – hyperonymy (a transitive relation) Taxonomical (X is a kind of Y): dog-
puddle Non-taxonomical (X is a Y): Fido-puddle
“the definition of the more general term is included in the definition of more specific term” (: 83)
bird > penguin (a problem for componential analysis, but not necessarily for sense-relations)
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“Sense relations”
Synomymy “In context” (pragmatics)
▪ Total: picture-film▪ Partial: movie-film, prostitute-whole
In general (semantics)▪ Total: “in all relevant contexts” – do such
words exist?▪ Partial – “near synonyms” (as above)
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“Sense relations”: Antonymy Gradable antonyms
Polar antonyms (entailment of neg, markedness): tall-short
Committed antonyms (entailment of neg, no markedness): ferocious-meek
Asymmetrical: good-bad, clever-stupid (“evaluative meaning”)
Non-gradable antonyms Complementaries (strong entailment): dead-alive Converses: parent-child (of) Reverses (directional opposition): up-down, give-take
Multiple oppositions Scale: hot-warm-tepid-cool-cold Ranks: general-colonel-major-captain-lieutenant Cycles: morning-lunch-afternoon-evening-night Multidimensional: left-right-above-below-infront-behind
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“Sense relations”Meronymy (non-transitive)
Part-whole: head-body Membership: soldier-army Ingredient: wood-table Action-Activity: pay-dine
Derivational relations (cf. Saeed 2003) State-Inchoative: open – opens / öppen -
öppnas State-Causative: open (A) – open (V) /
öppen - öppna State-Resulative: open – opened / öppen
– öppnad
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“Sense relations”: ProblemsOn the level of structure (“sense”
sensu Lyons), rather then usage?A “natural set”, excluding “typically
referential, encyclopedic relations”? (meronymy, “causonymy”)
Presuppose analysis of polysemy (different “senses”), and more generally: content analysis
Murphy (2003): sense relations are “meta-linguistic” 20
Structuralist semantics: Contributions
Geeraerts:Giving synchronic description its
proper duesBy focusing on languages as
“systems”, focusing on onomasiological analysis
Furthermore:Giving credit to the social/communal
level of language and meaningThe idea that languages may differ
considerably (though not “arbitrarily”)
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Structuralist semantics: Problems Underestimating the need for
semasiology: “In the extreme… semasiological analysis would be superflous”:
the need for content analysis (problems with “components”, see also next lecture)
dealing with polysemy in a systematic way
Making a “sharp distinction” between lexicon/encyclopedia, semantic knowledge/world knowledge; even if possible, “how relevant would the results be”? (: 95) Open question!
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Structuralist semantics: Problems
Also: “Languages may still have their structuring of encyclopedic knowledge” (: 96)
Two different types of onomasiology: yes!(a) structuralist: “what are the relations among the alternative expressions?”(b) pragmatic: what are “the actual choices made among a set of expression” by a specific speaker in a specific situation?
But (b) was not an explicit concern of structuralism
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