Download - RESEARCH INTO LEADERSHIP Literature review: coaching ...organisational development approach has only been recognised in the last few decades. The NHS Leadership Centre commissioned

Modernisation Agency�Leadership Centre

RESEARCH INTO LEADERSHIP

Literature review:coaching effectiveness –a summary

A summary of a report for the NHS Leadership Centre by Dr Sandra Fielden of Centre for Diversity and WorkPsychology, Manchester Business School, University ofManchester


DH Information reader box

Document purpose For information

ROCR ref Gateway ref 4524

Title Literature review: coaching effectiveness– a summary

Author NHS Leadership Centre

Publication date March 2005

Target audience Directors of HR

Circulation list

Description A summary of a systematic review ofleadership development literature

Cross ref N/A

Superseded docs N/A

Action required N/A

Timing N/A

Contact details Neil OffleyNHS Leadership Centre5th Floor, 11 Belgrave RoadLondon SW1V 1RB0845 607 [email protected]

For recipients use

Partnership workingFinanceIM&TPerformanceEstates

ClinicalPlanningManagementHR/WorkforcePolicy

1Literature review: coaching effectiveness – a summary

ContentsIntroduction 2

What is coaching? 3

The reasons for the increasing popularityof coaching 4

Coaching and mentoring 5

Being an effective coach 6

Types of coaching 7

Selecting a coach 9

Internal versus external 10

Forms of coaching delivery 11

The coaching relationship 12

A coaching model for leadership development 13

Organisational requirements 14

Unsuccessful coaching 15

Benefits to organisations 16

Barriers to coaching 17

Diversity within coaching 18

Summary 19

2 Literature review: coaching effectiveness – a summary

This literature review demonstrates the importance ofcoaching relationships and provides practical examplesof how effective coaching can be established, rangingfrom individual requirements to organisational needs.However, an extensive review of this area has revealedthat there is limited empirical evidence available andthe literature is almost entirely based on authors’experiences of delivering coaching programmes andtheir personal and professional experience of coachingrelationships. Models of coaching do not take accountof the diversity inherent in organisations that seek toemploy coaching as a management developmentstrategy. For individuals and organisations to create andsustain effective coaching relationships a wide-rangingnon-linear model is required, which is based onheterogeneous rather than homogenous methodsof development. Establishing effective coachingrelationships requires an in-depth examination of theneeds of individuals, as it is necessary to determineexactly what is required from a coaching relationshipin order to ensure that the intervention is designedeffectively and appropriately. Whilst it is essentialto examine the effectiveness of coaching it is alsoequally important to examine dysfunctional coachingrelationships. Examining the impacts of dysfunctionalrelationships will help to highlight where potentialproblems can occur and how such problems canbe overcome.

Coaching has a long history, which can be traced backto Socrates, who believed that individuals learn bestwhen they have ownership of a situation and takesome form of personal responsibility for the outcome.In more recent times, coaching has played a crucialrole in sports. But the potential of coaching as anorganisational development approach has only beenrecognised in the last few decades. The NHS LeadershipCentre commissioned this review as part of its Researchinto Leadership series.

The aim of this literature review was to provide adetailed analysis of the literature and empirical researchaddressing coaching, with particular focus on theliterature available from the UK. It establishes what isalready known about effective coaching and the variousforms of coaching currently in operation and provides anevaluation of these approaches in terms of their success.The review then addresses the requirements for effectivecoaching, including, the process of coaching, theorganisational requirements and the individuals involved.Finally, a conceptual framework for understanding thecurrent approaches to coaching is presented, with thegaps in current knowledge highlighted.

Introduction


A recent CIPD survey of more than 500 respondentsdemonstrated that organisations are now movingaway from classroom-based training and placingincreasing importance on other forms of learning anddevelopment, such as coaching. The survey highlighted:

• a 51 per cent increase in the use of coaching overthe last few years

• a 47 per cent increase of e-learning

• a 42 per cent increase in the use of mentoring andbuddy schemes

• and 96 per cent of respondents agreed thatindividuals required advice and support if they wereto take on more responsibility for their own learning.(Source: Parsloe and Rolph 2004)

Coaching is centred on unlocking a person’s potentialto maximise his or her own performance. A focus onimproving performance and the development of skillsis the key to an effective coaching relationship.

There are generally two accepted forms of coaching:directive and non-directive. Directive is a form ofcoaching whereby the coach teaches and providesfeedback and advice. In contrast, non-directivecoaching requires the coach to listen, ask questions,explore and probe and allows the person coached tofind solutions to problems. In practice, this means thatsome coaches merely assert their expertise, whereaseffective coaches enable individuals to go beyond theirprevious boundaries.

Coaching can be applied to a variety of areas, suchas motivating staff, delegating, problem solving,relationship issues, teambuilding, and staffdevelopment. It focuses on what people beingcoached want, what their goal is and how they canachieve it. Coaching is a collaborative relationshipwhich encourages people to know their values andlive them while achieving their goals. Effective coacheschallenge limiting beliefs and reinforce positive beliefsby providing tasks followed by feedback.

What is coaching?


Features of the modern organisation, such as flatterorganisational structures and lower job security, oftenresults in employees, particularly newly promotedindividuals, having to progress and develop quickly,adjusting to substantial changes in terms of skills andresponsibility (Jarvis, 2004). Coaching can help tosupport these individuals, as it has the adaptability andflexibility to support a range of individuals with differentlearning styles. The development needs of individuals arediverse and the ‘one size fits all’ model of developmentis often inappropriate. Thus, coaching has the potentialto provide a flexible responsive development approachthat can used to support an increasing number ofindividuals within the organisation than traditionalforms of training (Jarvis, 2004).

Over recent years, there has been an increasing trendof individuals taking greater responsibility for their owndevelopment (Parsloe and Rolph, 2004). If individualsare to do this they need support and advice and thecoaching relationship appears to provide employeeswith the appropriate support they need in order toachieve their developmental aims (Whitmore, 2000).Individuals are also now demanding different types oftraining and development and people tend to be moremotivated when training is increasingly relevant totheir job and responsibilities (Jarvis, 2004). Coachingfocuses on particular work issues and improving jobperformance, thus it can be tailored to relevantaspects of work. Coachees ideally receive direct advice,assistance and attention which fits with their own timeschedules and objectives and, unlike one off trainingactivities, coaching can provide continuing support forpersonal development plans (Jarvis, 2004).

A study conducted by Arnott and Sparrow (2004)of 1,153 organisations across the UK, found thatorganisations used coaching for three main reasons:supporting a strategic initiative, supporting leadershipdevelopment, responding directly to individual request.This is further supported by a recent CIPD Training andDevelopment survey (2004), which demonstrated thatorganisations are now placing increasing importanceon creating and fostering cultures that support learningand development. Encouragingly, more than 70%of organisations rated this among the three mostimportant factors when supporting effective learning.The survey findings also showed that respondents feltthat it was imperative for line managers to play a

significant role in advising on and supportingdevelopment activity. However, the survey concludedthat 66% of respondents claimed that there was noformal written strategy for their coaching activitiestaking place in their organisation, and only 6% claimedto have one that covered all staff. Furthermore, only5% claimed to have line mangers who had beentrained to coach their team members, and a worrying49% only had a minority of trained line managerswhich were usually as part of a wider managementtraining programme. These findings suggest that,whilst organisations claim to recognise the importanceof coaching, they do not necessarily develop theappropriate culture that is required for coaching tobe effective.

The reasons for theincreasing popularityof coaching


While the functions of mentoring and coachingrelationships invariably overlap, they are separatetypes of developmental work relationships. Coachingis directly concerned with the immediate improvementof performance and skill by a form of tutoring orinstruction. Mentoring is, in effect, one step removedand is concerned with the longer term acquisition of

skills. Effective coaching requires both the coach andthe person coached to fulfil their relative roles. Thedegree to which this is achieved depends on a numberof variables, including the experience of both partiesin coaching relationships, their interpersonal skills,motivation and commitment.

Coaching andmentoring

Table 1 – Differences between Coaching and Mentoring relationships

Coaching Mentoring

Relationship generally has a set duration Ongoing relationship that can last for a long period oftime

Generally more structured in nature and meetings Can be more informal and meetings can take place are scheduled on a regular basis as and when the mentee needs some advice, guidance

or support

Short term (sometimes time-bounded) and focused More long-term and takes a broader view of the personon specific development areas/issues

Coaching is generally not performed on the basis Mentor is usually more experienced and qualified than that the coach needs to have direct experience of the mentee. Often a senior person in the organisation their client’s formal occupational role, unless the who can pass on knowledge, experience and open coaching is specific and skills focused doors to otherwise out of reach opportunities

Focus is generally on development/issues at work Focus is on career and personal development

The agenda is focused on achieving specific and Agenda is set by the mentee, with the mentors immediate goals providing support and guidance to prepare them

for future roles

Coaching revolves more around specific Mentoring revolves more around developing the development areas/issues. mentee professionally

Source: Jarvis (2004: 20)

The main differences between the functions of a coach and a mentor are outlined in the following table:

Table 2 – Comparative Coach and Mentor Roles

Coach Mentor

Protégé learning is primarily focused on abilities Learning is focused on attitudes

Technical or professional focus Technical, professional and political focus(e.g., introduction into influence networks)

Effective use of the protégés existing competencies Helps the protégé to realise his/her potential

Professional interaction with the protégé More interaction with an affective component

Coach usually guides a team Privileged relationship with one person

Inspires respect for his/her professional competencies Is a role model

Short-term training Long-term development

Source: Benabou and Benabou (2000:2)


The coaching relationship A coach has several roles to perform. The mainobjective is to develop the person being coached. Thiscan be achieved through increasing self-confidence,identifying suitable topics for coaching and developingplanned tasks as part of job knowledge. Coaching isnot, however, telling someone what to do and how todo it. Occasionally, it involves overseeing what is beingdone and advising how to do it better.

Coaches need to be patient, detached, supportive,interested, perceptive, aware, self-aware and attentive.They must also have knowledge, credibility, experienceand authority. They require various core skills: the abilityto create rapport; paying attention to content andprocess; keeping an open mind; paraphrasing andreflecting; asking probing questions; identifying limitingassumptions and beliefs; and giving and receivingfeedback. However, research shows that coaches feelit is not necessarily the skills that are important, butrather the way the skills are used.

Being an effective coacheePeople being coached also have an important role toplay in establishing a positive coaching relationship.They must: participate in the identification of suitabletopics for coaching; jointly set realistic performancetargets and creative methods of achieving them; takeresponsibility for their own development; undertakecomprehensive preparations before coaching meetingsto maximise the development process; be open anddirect in discussion with coaches; and acceptconstructive feedback on skill acquisition anddevelopment progress.

Benefits to coacheesThey can gain a huge amount from an effectivecoaching relationship. It not only helps to improvetheir performance and their effective use of skills andabilities, but it can also help to increase job satisfactionand motivation. However, this relationship is not one-sided and has advantages for both parties. There aremany advantages of an effective coaching relationshipfor the coaches, such as improved communication,increased staff involvement, more effective delegationand teams, and higher levels of achievement.

Boundaries in coaching In the initial stages of the coaching relationship it isimperative that the coach and the coachee establishboundaries. This requires the coach and coachee towork together to determine exactly what the coachingrelationship is and what the objectives are. Researchconducted by Kenton and Moody (2001) found thatthere was a mixed response when asking whethercoaches saw a distinction between mentoring,counselling and coaching. Some coaches were veryclear when specifying to their client (coachee) that thiswas not to be a counselling relationship, as they did nothave the relevant skills or experience. However, othercoaches stated that they would allow the discussion andrelationship to be directed by the coachee. It is evidentthat before a coaching relationship begins the coachand the coachee must establish exactly what is expectedand define the boundaries of the relationship.

Being an effectivecoach


There are a number of different approaches to coachingthat have been developed over the last few years, mainlyderived from the sporting model.

Individual approachesGoal orientated coaching

Coaching is an important tool to support organisationalchange. When developing strategies to manage change,coaching is now viewed alongside facilitation andtraining implementation. Many organisations still believethat coaching is really counselling within the workplace,although there are many fundamental differencesbetween counselling and coaching. One of the maindifferences is the use of goal setting within coaching.Within goal orientated coaching there are fundamentalquestions that need to be addressed, such as who issetting the goals, what type of goals are of most value,how the goals can be achieved and how feedback canbe incorporated.

Executive coaching

Executive coaching is centred on developing fast-trackand high-performing leaders and focuses on technicalissues and psychological considerations. It is basedon the dynamics of being near or at the top of anorganisation and fully recognising the need forconstant improvement. It is important that executiveshave a neutral, objective individual with whom theycan discuss opportunities and challenges.

Transactional and transformational coaching

Coaches need to go beyond the transactional model,which is primarily concerned with competencies,learning skills and techniques, and move to atransformative model, which is focused on shiftingindividuals’ views, values and sense of purpose.There are three core skills for facilitating effectivetransformational coaching – building awareness,building commitment and building practice.

Self-coaching

Self-observation is a fundamental aspect of self-coaching. It is necessary for coaches to ask themselvesquestions regarding their experience, views, opinionsand beliefs regarding coaching.

Team approachesDuring times of organisational change, coaching canprovide the impetus for building and motivating teams.Team coaching establishes a group of individuals into afunctioning business network. The team is then askedto brainstorm the options available to them and agreean action plan formulated by the group. Developing aset of ground rules which are acceptable to all teammembers is vital, because this will ensure that the groupis working to the same agenda. Regular meetings areneeded, and team members may also want to structuresocial time together.

The six-step model for team coaching

Source: (Zeus and Skiffington, 2003: 143)

Step one – management meetings

It is essential that the team coach sets the coachingwithin the context of the organisation’s circumstances,agenda needs and available resources. To do so, theymust establish with the management team a numberof factors: is team coaching an appropriate format, arethere sufficient resources to support this approach, andis the organisation able to support change? They mustalso establish assessment, benchmarking, reportingand feedback procedures. The size of the team is alsoimportant, with six to eight the preferred number.

Step two – individual meetings with eachteam member

An individual briefing session of 20-30 minutes witheach team member can enable the coach to allay anyfears or reservations, hostile behaviour or barriers.

Step three – first team meeting

During the first team meeting, it is essential that thecoach fosters a culture of trust, and openness. Thecoach needs to define his/her role and set objectivesfor the coaching sessions.

Step four – second meeting

The coach should provide feedback from assessment,and review and encourage the commitment of theteam to the agreed visions and goals, and exploreany resistance to proposed goals.

Step five – begin formal coaching sessions

The workshop format is regarded as the most effective.These workshops will include groups of six to eight(one coach) or 10 to 12 (two coaches).

Types of coaching


Step six – management feedback

The performance and progress of the team needs to beregularly reviewed, and management feedback providedas agreed.

The 14-step process to team coaching

Many organisations and their leaders face a dilemma– they need to build effective teams, but the timeavailable to build such teams is decreasing. A parallelapproach to building effective teams has been shownto enable leaders to build teams without wasting time.In essence, the process revolves around identifyingbehavioural changes and implementing them, withmonthly progress reports. The 14-step process modelcan be found in the full report.


One study (Arnott & Sparrow 2004) found a numberof selection criteria for choosing a coach, includingcoaching experience, track record, personal style,culture fit, structured approach, costs, professionalstandards, knowledge of organisation, issue fit,evidence of CPD, line management experience,experience of the industry, coaching qualifications,scalability, supervision of coach, presentation andmaterials, and geographic coverage. The study alsofound that building an effective coaching relationshiprested on hard factors, such as expertise, and softfactors, such as trust and relationship fit.

When deciding on a coach, the organisation andthe person coached must assess the individual’sdevelopment needs and, from this, develop a desiredcoach profile that will include both organisational andindividual requirements. A shortlist followed byinterviews will give the person to be coached someinsight into the coach’s experience and skills. Thematching of individuals in a coaching relationshipis critical to its success. [Source: Jarvis 2004]

Selecting a coach


The coaching process can support a key facet ofleadership – the requirement to be engaging beyondthe boundaries of the organisation. However, anorganisation that simply views coaching and particularlyexecutive coaching as a process provided by externalconsultants can have problems when attempting toestablish a climate of leadership. Today’s leaders mustnot set themselves apart from the rest of theorganisation but should seek to replicate their bestleadership practices and behaviours in those workingaround them. A coach internal to the organisation doesnot require any learning curve to absorb andunderstand the culture.

Two international studies, however, provide empiricalsupport for the use of an external coach and havedemonstrated that self-coaching achieves greaterperformance compared with peer coaching. Theyconcluded that an external coach was superior and thefindings highlighted the importance of coaching by acredible source.

Yet another study suggests that internal coaches aresuperior when a quick intervention is needed and whendetailed knowledge of the corporate culture is required.External coaches are most effective when there arehighly sensitive or confidential issues that need to beaddressed within the relationship, or when extensive ordiverse experience is required.

Internal versus external

Table 3 – External and internal coaches

External coaches are preferable: Internal coaches are preferable:

For providing sensitive feedback to senior business When knowing the company culture, history leaders. For political reasons, this can be difficult for and politics is criticalan internal coach

For bringing specialised expertise from a wide variety When easy availability is desiredof organisational and industry situations

When an individuals are concerned about ‘conflict of For being able to build up a high level of personal interests’ and whether confidentiality will be observed trust over a period of time

For providing a wider range of ideas and experience For not being seen to be ‘selling’ consulting time

For being less likely to judge and being perceived For keeping costs under control – and may be as more objective less expensive

Source: Jarvis (2004: 45)


Coaching can be delivered in numerous forms, such asface to face, via telephone and online.

Face-to-face coachingThis is the traditional form of coaching delivery,reminding both parties that words are only one aspectof communication. Unspoken issues can be accessedthrough a face-to-face encounter, for example throughbody language. However, there can be disadvantages.This form of coaching can be immensely impracticalwhen considering busy schedules and locations.

Telephone coachingTelephone coaching is now used extensively. It is morecost effective for the client/coached as they only haveto pay for the focused coaching session and not fortravelling. However, there is a loss of appearance,facial expressions and gesticulations when conductingtelephone coaching. One researcher believes individualscommunicate at about 40 per cent of their abilitywhen on the telephone because facial expressions andgesticulations cannot be seen. However, anecdotalevidence has suggested that people find other ways ofcommunicating effectively, for example by using vividdescriptive language. Telephone coaching also enablesindividuals to become much more effective listeners.

Online coachingThere are many advantages to online coaching, suchas cost and time savings and increased flexibilitywhen choosing the time for learning. It can all beorganised through email, discussion groups, chat roomsand visual tutorials. It is essential that organisationshave a strategy for e-learning to ensure that onlinecoaching is effectively implemented. Creating a learningenvironment is important. Many organisations find thebest way to motivate employees and achieve the bestresults is by enabling learners to choose where andhow they learn. Programmes such as e-coaching aremore widely accepted when the organisation has aculture of trust and empowerment. In a command andcontrol style culture, managers do not feel comfortableallowing employees to use the internet freely andorganise their own work schedules, responsibilities,learning and development.

Forms of coachingdelivery


Phases of coachingIn general, the process of coaching includes four distinctphases. Firstly, the coach and coachee must establishsome form of contract. Secondly, action plans need tobe formulated so to ensure that the coachee is meetingtheir objectives. Thirdly, live action where the coachand coachee begin the coaching process and finally,debriefing, whereby the coach and coachee reflect onperformance and evaluate effectiveness.

The coaching structureA coaching structure has been developed thatdemonstrates how the coach and coachee worktogether throughout the coaching process, exploringnot only tasks but attitudes and behaviours. The useof a structure provides a clear direction for the coachingrelationship and the various tasks and objectives whichneed to be achieved at each distinct stage.

The coaching frameworkA framework has been developed which furtherexplains the various elements of the coaching processand coaching relationship. The model is primarily non-directive, whereby the coachee/client has the potentialto achieve more and takes responsibility for their ownactions. It provides the coach and coachee with atoolkit and structure which can be applied to anyindividual coaching relationship. The framework canbe found in the full report.

The phases, structure and framework provide thecoach and the coachee with direction to ensure thatthe coaching relationship is both effective and efficient.Ensuring that the coaching relationship is based oneffective communication and commitment will help thetwo parties to understand the key objectives of therelationship. It is important to understand the needs ofboth individuals in the coaching relationship before itbegins. One study by Hardingham et al (2004) identifiesthree types of social needs that should be noted andattended to in order to ensure that the coachingrelationship is effective:

Belonging

The focus here is on whether the person being coachedfeels the coach is sufficiently ‘like’ him or her.

Controlling

In a one-to-one coaching relationship, the control needsare less intense than they would be in a group. But theystill make an appearance. Having some form of controlenables an individual to feel competent and able to dealwith responsibilities. So it is important that there is asense of ‘power-sharing’ in the coaching relationship.

Closeness

Coaches must consider whether they prefer to have‘close and personal’ relationships or to keep somedistance.

The coachingrelationship


Developing leaders and their capabilities is crucial inany organisation. There is a wealth of literaturepertaining to the desired personal attributes of a leader,various leadership style, and the competencies, skillsand abilities of an effective leader. The frameworkadvocated by Goldsmith et al (2000) is modelled onthe cycle of continuous improvement, where the coachassists and supports a leader through the process ofdevelopment, once the coach believes that the leaderhas an understanding of the process and the cycleof continuous improvement the coach will allow theleader to take full responsibility with regard to theirdevelopment. However, as with many of the modelsand frameworks outlined in this review, it is not basedon empirical research but on consultancy experience.Although the model does advocate the assessment ofleadership skills and then basing the developmentplan on these skills and competencies, it does notclearly illustrate the different approaches which needto be taken when accounting for differences inleadership styles.

There are four phases:

Assessment: leadership skills are assessed to obtain abenchmark of current leadership abilities to determinewhether progress has been made.

Developmental plan: the leader chooses focus areasand the goals to be achieved. The coach assists theleader, particularly if the leader receives feedback he/shedoes not agree with. The coach provides validation,support and ‘tough love’.

Public announcement: making the goals public. Thisincreases the leader’s commitment to the announcedcourse of action, and it lays a foundation for follow-upconversations with observers on the progress towardsthe goal.

Implementation: comprised of developmental activitiesand informal follow-up. The coach may take on the roleof tutor and provide useful tools and tips to enable theleader to achieve the developmental goals. A cultureof continuous leadership development begins, withinformal feedback every couple of months in aninformal conversation. Finally, the leader begins thecycle once again with another assessment process. Theresults are reviewed and the coach must encourage theleader to identify new areas that require development.(Source: Thach and Heinselman (2000: 224))

There is a wealth of research and literature relatingto gender differences in leadership styles and theevidence suggests that female leaders tend to be moretransformational, whereas male leaders take a moretransactional approach (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1994). Incontrast, there is a dearth of research examining genderdifferences and coaching. It is widely acknowledged thatmen and women have different learning and leadershipstyles and therefore, this needs to be understood whenembarking on a coaching relationship.

A coaching model forleadership development


For effective coaching to be achieved, organisationsmust foster a culture that supports this relationship.There needs to be a clear strategy and focus on howeffective coaching can be achieved. This strategy mustbe understood and adopted by all staff at all levels.The organisation needs to be aligned to the successof the coaching process.

A recent survey demonstrated that organisationswere now placing increasing importance on creatingand fostering cultures that support learning anddevelopment. More than 70 per cent of organisationsrate this among the three most important factors whensupporting effective learning. The survey findings alsoshowed that respondents felt it was imperative for linemanagers to play a significant role in supportingdevelopment activity. However, the survey concludedthat 66 per cent of respondents claimed there was noformal written strategy for their coaching activitiestaking place and only six per cent claimed to have onethat covered all staff. Furthermore, only five per centclaimed to have line managers who had been trained tocoach their team members, whereas a worrying 49 percent only had a minority of trained line managers.

There are several ways of establishing a coachingculture. One study lists a number of tips, such asbuilding experience of, and a belief in, coaching amongleaders of the organisation. This may be achieved, forexample, by ensuring that the leadership/executive teammembers receive coaching themselves. Employees andemployers should be motivated to talk about coachingand their experiences and how it has helped themachieve their goals. It is important that the leaders inan organisation clarify exactly what a ‘coaching culture’actually is, for example what would people be sayingand doing that they are not doing now?

Culture alignmentIn order to foster a culture of coaching, it is essentialthat the organisation is aligned to the success of thecoaching process (Whitmore, 2002). The organisationmust be supportive of the process and provide thenecessary support and resources required to ensurethat the coaching intervention is successful (Zeus andSkiffington, 2003). This is further enhanced by therole of the coach, who ensures there is support andenthusiasm for coaching within the organisation.

Blending training with coaching Blending training with coaching is particularly importantand can produce very powerful results. Using a mix oftraining and coaching can be particularly useful whenan organisation is going through change because itcan help individuals to change their behaviour andleadership styles.

Individual coach/coacheerequirementsThe success of a coaching relationship/intervention isdependent, to a certain extent, on whether or not thestated goals have been achieved (Zeus and Skiffington,2003). It is essential during the initial stages of thecoaching process to establish how the coachee definessuccess. The coach must also make it clear from theoutset his or her expertise, for example, they may notnecessarily be an expert who provides answers toquestions, but an individual who provides support,direction, guidance encouragement and resources,whose function is to inspire and evoke answers fromthe coachee. It is essential that the coach clearly stateshis or her limitations (Edwards, 2003). It is alsoimperative that the coach does not respond to self-imposed or perceived pressure from the coachee andtheir organisation to achieve quick results. Coachingis centred on change and change can often be slow,difficult and at times resisted, therefore the coachmay need to educate the coachee and indeed theorganisation. Perhaps the most critical problem incoaching relationships identified in the literature is that the coach and/or coachee may be lacking in self-awareness.

Coaching is centred on change, and change involveslearning. It is essential that the coach is aware of thelevel of confidence in the person being coached andhis/her fears regarding new learning opportunities andchallenges. Challenges that seem too great can resultin anxiety, which can ultimately lead to resistance.

Organisationalrequirements


An effective coach draws on his/her experience toaccelerate individual learning and development. A coachcan help unlock potential and maximise performance.The person being coached may define success by: howhe/she is stimulated to think, feel and explore newattitudes; whether the coach provides a supportiverelationship; the coach’s ability to provide resources andexpertise from industry experience; the coach’s skill inencouraging a resistance to change; and how the coachdeals with paradox and contradictions.

The literature tends to focus on 'successful' coachingrelationships but little is known about unsuccessfulcoaching relationships and the detrimental effect thesecan have. Coaching sessions can prove to be unhelpfulfor both parties.

Coaching may fail for a number of reasons:

• The coach may have a tendency to prescribesimplistic solutions to complex organisational orlife/balance issues. (This can be avoided if the coachmakes his/her expertise clear from the outset andexplains that he/she may not be an expert givinganswers but an individual who provides support,encouragement and resources.)

• People being coached may have major interpersonaldifficulties. (It is essential for the coach to determineat the outset why this relationship is unproductive.The reason may be, for example, the coaching style.)

• The coach may share his/her opinion too early.(Coaches need to remember that coaching is 80 percent listening and 20 per cent talking.)

• The coach may fail to follow through on monitoringand homework. (It is vital that the monitoring processis established at the start of the process. It is alsoimportant to review goals and development duringeach session. Many individuals can be quitedismissive of the so-called ‘soft skills’. To overcomethis, the coach must clearly relate the outcome ofcoaching to job performance.)

• The coach may respond to self-imposed pressure orperceived pressure from the person being coachedand his/her organisation to achieve quick results, andthe outcome will be superficial rather than sustainedbehavioural change. (A major part of a coach’s role isto educate not only the person he/she is coachingbut also the organisation on the nature of thecoaching process.)

• Even apparently successful relationships where thetwo parties like and respect each other may still havea negative impact if the relationship is not achievingthe desired goal. Both parties may enjoy theirdiscussions but the reality is that nothing is beingachieved. Perhaps the most critical problem incoaching relationships identified in the literatureis that either party or both may be lacking in self-awareness.

Unsuccessful coaching


Effective coaching can have a positive impact on anorganisation. It can produce improved relationships andteamwork between staff at different levels. Employeeshave increased job satisfaction, which improvesproductivity and quality, and there is an overall improveduse of people, skills and resources, as well as greaterflexibility and adaptability to change. Organisationalcoaching can help to align individual performance withteam and organisational objectives, maximise strengths,enhance communication between managers and teams,help individuals take ownership and responsibility fortheir behaviours and actions, and encourage individualsto stretch beyond their assumed constraints.

A CIPD survey in 2004 found that 99 per cent of 500respondents agreed that coaching could producetangible benefits, both to individual and organisations.

Additionally:

• 93% agreed that coaching and mentoring are keymechanisms for transferring learning from trainingcourses back to the workplace

• 92% agreed coaching can have a positive impact onthe bottom line

• 96% agreed coaching is an effective way to promotelearning in the organisation

Some researchers believe that the benefits of coachingcan be broken down into strategic benefits andinterpersonal benefits.

StrategicCoaching can: help attract more business; improvecustomer service; provide structure, guidance and focus;help monitor and evaluate actions; guide individualsand streamline processes; promote initiative andaccountability; encourage people to take responsibility;motivate people and improve skills, including the abilityto communicate better; help retain staff; provideobjective advice on business decisions; increaseawareness of resources; broaden the scope ofinformation, ideas and solutions; and show theorganisation is socially responsible towards its staff.

InterpersonalCoaching can: unearth and tap potential and creativity;co-ordinate career and personal life; increase the ability tocope with and welcome change; improve concentration,confidence, relaxation and decision-making; removeperformance fears and anxieties; and eliminate unhealthystress at work.

There are four key benefits which are explored in detailin the full report:

Retention of staff

Investing in training programmes can impact onemployee’s feeling of self worth within the organisation.Employees are more likely to remain in an organisationwhich they feel has an interest in them and theirdeveloping career.

Investment in, and modernisation of, learning anddevelopment methods are essential to ensure thatcare is provided by competent, supported and skilledprofessionals. The “HR in the NHS Plan: More staffworking differently” (DOH, 2002), clearly states thatlifelong learning and development opportunities forenhancing and progressing employees careers are keyobjectives for improving the working lives of NHS staff.Improving staff morale and ensuring good humanresource management are also key objectives toachieving this goal. The plan calls for more flexibleand innovative methods of providing learning anddevelopment, which suits the needs of staff. To dothis it will be necessary to design more accessiblemethods of learning to support patient focused careand service change.

Creation of a pool of future coaches

It is reasonable to suggest that those who have been incoaching relationships are more likely to coach others.This has important implications for the organisation, asinvesting in coaching programmes is likely to create apool of effective coaches for the future.

Increased communication

In the current social and economic climate, the needfor companies to have an up-to-date understanding ofstaff and customer needs is vital. Through coachingrelationships, senior managers acting as coachescan communicate organisational decisions and ideasto coaches.

Cost effectiveness

Coaching relationships are a cost effective way for theorganisation to foster and develop talent. The UCE(2004) study, found that there were three main benefitsand key outcomes of coaching:

• Business performance

• Individual performance

• Coaching process itself

Benefits toorganisations


One researcher states that the greatest barrier tocoaching is difficult people. Some people find thatcoaching questions can be intimidating and thereforethe coach may face some resistance. He lists a numberof barriers to coaching expressed by participants – forexample: the company culture is against this kind ofapproach; people won’t understand what I’m doing;they’ll think it’s just a new management gimmick; ittakes too long; they’ll think I have gone nuts; I’ll losemy authority; I already use a coaching style – I don’tneed to change anything; I don’t believe in these newsoftly, softly approaches; it’s nothing new – I’ve done itfor years; I won’t do it well.

There are two main forms of resistance to coachingidentified – blatant resistance, where the person beingcoached displays evident hostility; and less obviousresistance, where the person being coached appearsto be compliant but in practice does not changebehaviours, so the goals are never achieved. There arerecommendations for dealing with negativity, mostlybased on confronting and discussing it, with the coachexplaining the benefits of coaching and management’ssupport for it.

Barriers to coaching


As today’s society becomes more diverse, leaders andcoaches will need to become more effective at fosteringa culture of diversity and responding to diversityappropriately. If this is not achieved, organisations riskmissing opportunities and potential for success. Diversitycan have a huge impact on developmental processes,such as coaching. Most research work has focused ongender, but race, age, disability and sexual orientationcan also influence the coaching process.

Numerous researchers have suggested that initiatinga mentoring relationship is particularly problematicfor women. This is largely because there is adisproportionate amount of women compared withmen occupying senior level positions in organisations,resulting in a shortage of potential female mentors.Women are invariably faced with approachingmentors of the opposite sex. This is likely to be thesame in coaching.

A study in 1991 concluded that women perceived morebarriers to gaining a mentor than men. Women weremore likely than men to report a lack of access tomentors, that mentors were unwilling to enter intorelationships with them, that supervisors and co-workers would disapprove of the relationships and thateither the mentor or others in the organisation wouldperceive an approach as evidence of sexual intention.

Again, this situation is likely to be of direct relevanceto women being coached.

Women are often not presented with the sameopportunities as men to develop a mentoringrelationship. Women are not privy to many of theinformal networks that involve potential male mentors.Because women tend to be concentrated in lower levelpositions in organisations, they may be less likely thanmen to become involved in projects that have thepotential to lead to mentoring relationships. Many ofthese issues are reduced with the implementation offormal programmes, sanctioned by the organisation.Here, too, the same applies to coaching.

Diversity withincoaching


This literature review provides a detailed analysis ofliterature addressing coaching with particular focus onavailable literature from the UK. A definition anddetailed description of coaching is provided,highlighting the differences between coaching andmentoring and the reasons for the increased applicationof coaching over recent years. Coaching is adevelopmental intervention that is increasingly beingemployed in organisations. Targeted developmentinterventions such as coaching enable individuals toadjust to major changes in the rapidly evolving businessenvironment. Coaching can help to support individualsin making the necessary steps to advance in theircareers and perform at optimum levels in roles thatrequire large step-changes in skills and responsibility.

This detailed literature review documents theimportance of coaching relationships and providespractical examples of how effective coaching can beestablished. This ranges from individual requirements toorganisational needs. An extensive review of this areahas revealed that there is limited empirical evidenceavailable. Rather, practical examples and tool kitsprovided in the literature tend to be based on theauthor’s experience of delivering coaching programmesand their personal and professional experience ofcoaching relationships.

In summary


Literature review: coaching effectiveness – a summaryis one of a series of ‘Research into Leadership’ projectscommissioned by the NHS Leadership Centre. Eachproject is designed to take a piece of significanthuman resources-related research and consider how itcan be best adapted to support the development ofhuman resources management practice in the NHS.

To obtain a copy of the full research reportthat underlies this summary please visit:www.leadership.modern.nhs.uk/researchandevaluationor contact the NHS Leadership Centre:

NHS Leadership Centre5th Floor, 11 Belgrave RoadLondon SW1V 1RB

General enquiries: 0845 607 4646E-mail: [email protected]: www.modern.nhs.uk/leadership

The NHS Leadership Centre is partof the NHS Modernisation Agency, within theDepartment of Health

Download - RESEARCH INTO LEADERSHIP Literature review: coaching ...organisational development approach has only been recognised in the last few decades. The NHS Leadership Centre commissioned

Top Related