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[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh7]IndustrialRevolution,Capitalism,TheirEffectonSociety,RiseofTradeUnions&Socialism

1. Prologue2. IntroductiontoChapter3. Capitalism4. CapitalismandColonization5. IndustrialRevolution6. FactorySystem7. WhyIndustrialRevolutionstartedinEngland?

1. TextileIndustry:Therevolution2. Powerloom3. CottonGin4. SteamEngine5. BlastFurnace6. TRANSPORTRevolution7. PostalRevolution8. AgricultureRevolution

8. IndustrialRevolutioninOtherCountries9. Tariffbarriers

10. Race4rawmaterial11. FromVillagetoCity12. IndustrialCapitalism

1. Industrialcapitalism:Consequencesof2. LabourLaws3. TradeUnions

13. Laissezfaire14. Socialism15. EXERCISES

Prologue

UntilnowweveseenOldNCERTs,Class10,Ch.9to13.(=StoryofcivilizationVolumeIIbyArjunDev.)Inthosechapterswegotanoverview/foundationoffollowingtopics(fromUPSCsyllabuspointofview):

1. colonization,decolonization2. Twoworldwars3. (Politicalphilosophieslike)Communismanditseffectonthesociety



NowmovingtoOldNCERTClass9,chapter7.Inthischapter,wellseeIndustrialrevolution,politicalphilosophieslikeCapitalismandtheireffectonthesociety.

IntroductiontoChapter

TOWARDStheendofthemiddleAges,feudalismasaneconomicsystemhadstarteddeclining.ThisprocesswasfurtheredbytheRenaissanceandotherdevelopments.Theriseoftownsandcitiesandthegrowthintradestimulatedtheproductionofmanufacturedgoods.Therewasanincreaseinthedemandforgoodswhichpreviouslyhadbeenconsideredluxurygoods.Lifeinthenewtownsandcitieshadcreatedadesireformanynewgoodsalso.Allthesefactorsprovidedagreatstimulustotheproductionofmanufacturedgoods.Foralongtime,however,thetechniquesandorganizationofproducinggoodsdidnotundergoanysignificantimprovement.Thetraditionalmethodswereinadequatetomeetthegrowingdemandforgoods.Duringthelaterhalfofthe18thcenturytherebeganaseriesofchangeswhichrevolutionizedthetechniquesandorganizationofproduction.Thesedevelopmentsresultedintheriseofanewtypeofeconomyanindustrialeconomy.ThetermIndustrialRevolutionisusedtodescribethesedevelopmentsbecausethechangescamerapidlyandtheyhadfarreachingeffectsonthehistoryoftheworld.

Capitalism

ThenewsystemofsocietywhichhadbeenemerginginEuropefromthe15thcenturyiscalledcapitalism.Undercapitalism

1. Theinstrumentsandthemeansbywhichgoodsareproducedareownedbyprivateindividualsandtheproductioniscarriedoutformakingprofit.

2. Theworkersunderthissystemdonotownanythingbutworkforawage.3. Theownersofwealthundercapitalismwhoarecalledcapitalistsdonot

keeptheirwealthorconsumeitoruseitforpurposesofdisplaybutinvestittomakeprofit.

4. Goodsareproducedforsaleinthemarketwithaviewtomakingprofit.5. Thissystemisinmarkedcontrastwiththefeudalsysteminwhichgoods

wereproducedforlocaluseandtheinvestmentofwealthformakingprofitdidnottakeplace.

Feudalism Capitalism

Economiclifeunderfeudalismwasstaticas Economylifeundercapitalism



goodswereproducedforlocalconsumptionandtherewasnoincentivetoproducemorebyemployingbettermeansofproducinggoodsforabiggermarket.

wasfastmovingwiththeaimofproducingmoreandmoregoodsforbiggermarketssothatmoreprofitscouldbemade.

CapitalismandColonization

Thediscoveryofnewlandsandtheestablishmentofcolonieshadresultedinunprecedentedexpansionoftradeandaccumulationofwealthbymerchants.Thetradeincludedalsothetradeinhumanbeings,thatis,slavetrade.(Mrunal:Wealreadysawtheslavetradeandtriangulartradeunderthe[Worldhistory]ColonizationofAfrica.)Thecolonizationwasaccompaniedbytheplunderofthewealthofthepeoplewhowerecolonized.Forexample,thetreasuresoftheIncaandtheAzteccivilizationswereplunderedbytheSpaniards.MinesinthenewlyconqueredareasintheAmericaswerealsoexploitedforpreciousmetalslikegoldandsilver.Largenumbersofnativepeoplewereworkedtodeathinthesemines.YouhavealsoreadabouttheuseofslavelabourintheplantationsintheAmericas.ColonizationofAsiacausedsimilarhavocanddevastation.DuringafewdecadesofDutchrule,thepopulationofaprovinceofJavainIndonesiawasreducedtolessthanonefourthofitsformersize.ThedefeatoftheNawabofBengalbytheEnglishin1757wasfollowedbyyearsofnakedplunderofthewealthofBengal.AccordingtoestimatesoftheEnglishgovernmentatthattime,theEnglishCompanyanditsofficialsreceived6,000,000poundsasgiftsduringtheperiodof17571766.TheplunderbytheEnglishcontributedtoafaminein176970inwhichaboutaquarterofthepopulationofBengalperished.ThusalotofwealthwasaccumulatedinEuropeforinvestmenttomakemoreprofit.

InthewordsofKarlMarx,

ThetreasurescapturedoutsideEuropebyundisguisedlooting,enslavement,andmurder,floatedbacktothemothercountryandwerethereturnedintocapital.

IndustrialRevolution

ThedesiretoproducemoregoodsatlowcosttomakehigherprofitsledtotheIndustrialRevolutionandfurthergrowlhofcapitalism.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEnglandinabout1750.Itwasthenthatmachinesbegantotakeoversomeoftheworkofmenandanimalsintheproductionofgoodsandcommodities.ThatiswhyweoftensaythattheIndustrialRevolutionwasthe



beginningofamachineage.

Ofcourse,thereweremanymachinesinusebefore1750.Theplough,airpump,printingpressandspinningwheelareonlyafewofthemanyexamplesthatcouldbelisted.Forhundredsofyearseachcivilizationhadbeentryingtoperfectoldtechnicalskillsanddevelopnewones.Butafter1750,newinventionscamefaster,andtheywereofakindthatbroughtmornrapidchangesinmorepeopleslives.TheIndustrialRevolutionchangedmenswaysoflivingandthinkingallovertheworld.

Theguildsystemhadgivenwaytothedomesticorthe`puttingoutsystem.Inthe18thcentury,thedomesticsystemhadbecomeobsolete.Itstartedgivingwaytoanewsystemcalledthefactorysystem.Inplaceofsimpletoolsandtheuseofanimalandmanualpower,newmachinesandsteampowercametobeincreasinglyused.Manynewcitiessprangupandartisansanddispossessedpeasantswenttheretowork.

FactorySystem

Productionwasnowcarriedoutinafactory(inplaceofworkshopsinhomes),withthehelpofmachines(inplaceofsimpletools).Facilitiesforproductionwereownedandmanagedbycapitalists,thepeoplewithmoneytoinvestinfurtherproduction.Everythingrequiredforproductionwasprovidedbythecapitalistsfortheworkerswhowerebroughttogetherunderoneroof.Everythingbelongedtotheownerofthefactory,includingthefinishedproduct,andworkersworkedforwages.Thissystem,knownasthefactorysystem,broughtontheIndustrialRevolutionTheearlyformofcapitalismaboutwhichyouhavereadbeforewasnowtransformedtoindustrialcapitalism.

WhyIndustrialRevolutionstartedinEngland?

Englandinthe18thcenturywasinthemostfavorablepositionforanindustrialrevolution,Becauseoffollowingreasons

1. Throughheroverseastrade,includingtradeinslaves,shehadaccumulatedvastprofitswhichcouldprovidethenecessarycapital.InthetraderivalriesofEuropeancountries,shehademergedasanunrivalledpower.Shehadacquiredcolonieswhichensuredaregularsupplyofrawmaterials.

2. Afterthedisappearanceofserfdom,peoplewerenolongertiedtothelandandwerefreetodotoanyjobtheycouldfind.Theenclosuremovementhadbeguninthe18thcentury.Biglandownerswantedconsolidatetheirlargelandholdings.Inisprocess,smallpeasantswhohadallholdingsin



landwereoustedandlargearmyoflandlessunemployedpeoplewascreated.Thustherewasnoshortagelabourforcetoworkinthefactories.

3. Asresultoftherevolutionoffthe17thcentury,astablesystemofgovernmenthadbeenestablished,whichwasnolongerunderthedominationofthefeudalclasses.Commercialclasseshadacquiredmorepoliticalpowerandtherewasnodangerofgovernmentinterference.

4. Englandhadplentyofnaturalresources,suchasironandcoal,essentialforindustries.ThesourcesofironandcoalexistedsidebysideandthissavedEnglandfrommanydifficultiesthatothercountriesfaced.

5. Englanddevelopedalargeshippingindustryandhadnoproblemoftransportation.

Noothercountryenjoyedalltheseadvantagesatthisperiod.Somesufferedfromalackofcapitalornaturalresourcesandsomefromanunfavorablepoliticalsystem.ThesefactorsmadeEnglandanaturalplacefortheIndustrialRevolutiontobegin.AlmostallotherEuropeancountrieshadagrarianeconomiesandlivedunderbackwardpoliticalsystems.Manyofthem,suchasItalyandGermany,werenotevenunitedandsufferedfrommanyeconomicrestrictions.

TextileIndustry:Therevolution

Inthe1700stheEnglishEastIndiaCompanywassendingcottonclothfromIndiatoEngland.Soon,calicoclothmadeinCalicutandDaccamuslinandKashmirshawlswereingreatdemandinEngland.ShrewdEnglishbusinessmenthenbegantoimportcottonandmakeitintoclothinEngland.Whentheworkersusingoldfashionedspinningwheelsandhandloomscouldnotkeepupwiththeincreasingdemand,aseriesofinventionscamealongtomakefasterspinningandweavingpossible.

Powerloom

Hargreavesinventedamachinewhichspeededupspinning.Arkwrightadaptedthismachineforrunningwithwater.Crompton,sometimelater,combinedtheadvantagesofthemachinesinventedbyHargreavesandArkwright.ThesethreeinventionsalonemadeitpossibleforEnglandtoproducethreadthatwasfinerandcheaperthananythatcouldbeproducedbyothersorwitholdertechniques.Thenin1785.Cartwrightinventedapowerloom.Thismachinecouldherunbyhorsesorbullocksandlater,whenfactoriesweresetupalongriversandcanals,waterpowerwasusedtooperateit.

CottonGin

Butenoughrawcottonforfeedingthesemachineswasstillnotavailablebecausetheprocessofseparatingthefibresfromtheseedswasveryslow.A



workercouldcleanonlyfiveorsixpoundsofcottonaclaybyhand.In1793,EliWhitney,anAmerican,unventedacottonginThismachinemadeitpossibletoseparatetheseedsfromcottonthreehundredtimesfasterthanbyhand.

SteamEngine

Year CottonImportbyEngland(kg.)1760 1million1815 50million1840 250million

SuchatremendousincreaseinrawcottonimportswouldnothavetakenplacebutfortheinventionthesteamenginebyJamesWattin1769.ItwasthismachinethatmadeitpossibletoproducegoodsonareallybigsealMachinesrunbythemusclesofmenanimals,orbywaterpower,couldnotcompetewiththosedrivenbythesteamengine.Thisinventionrevolutionizedproduction.

BlastFurnace

Withsteampoweravailable,thereademandformoremachinery.Englandhadplentyofironandcoaltomakesteelandmanufacturemachinery,butnewandcheaperwaysofprocessingironhadtobefound.Thedevelopmentoftheblastfurnaceand,later,themethodofturninglowgradeironintosteel,enabledtheEnglishindustriestoproducesteelcheaply.Thustheycouldhavemoreandbettermachines.

TRANSPORTRevolution

Railways

In1814,GeorgeStephensondevelopedsteamenginetohaulcoalfromminestoportsbyrailways.In1830,thefirstrailwaytrainbegantocarrypassengersandfreightfromLiverpooltoManchester.TheseeventswerefollowedbyagreatwaveofrailroadconstructioninEnglandandtheUnitedStates.Asearlyas1853inLordDalhousiestime,thefirstrailroadwaslaidinIndia.

Roads

TheneedtotransportrawmaterialsandmanufacturedproductsledtotheimprovementofroadsandthediggingofcanalsinEnglandandothercountries.McAdamdevisedthemethodofmakingpakkaormacadamizedroads.



Canals

ToexpandfacilitiesfortransportbywatermuchcheaperthanoverlandEnglandbeganconnectingriversandlakeswithcanals.CanalbuildingspreadtoEuropeandAmericaandwasabighelpinprovidingcheapertransportation,especiallyaftersteamboatscameintouse.

PostalRevolution

Improvedtransportationhelpedincarryingmessagesaswellaspeopleandgoods.RawlandHillsideaofthepennypostfastandcheapcommunicationbyletterbegantooperateinEnglandintheearly19thcentury.Soonitwasadoptedinothercountries,includingIndia.Peoplecouldthussendletterstoandfromallpartsofthecountryatthesamelowrateregardlessofthedistance.Businessconcernstookadvantageofthepennypostintheirbuyingandsellingtransactionsfarandnear.

AgricultureRevolution

FarmMechanization

Therewasarevolutioninagriculturealso.TherevolutioninagricultureinfacthadstartedbeforetheIndustrialRevolution.Naturally,therewerechangesinfarmingmethodstoproducemorefood,andmoreimportantly,toproducecashcropsforthemarketandrawmaterialsforindustries.Newfarmmachineryincludedthesteelploughandharrowforbreakingtheground,themechanicaldrillforseedingandthehorsedrawncultivatortoreplacethehoe.Therewerealsomachinesforreapingandthreshing.

CropRotation

Farmersadoptedintensivemanuringandthepracticeofcroprotationtomaintainsoilfertility.Thelatteristhepracticeofchangingthecroponapieceoflandeachyear,forexample,wheat,barley,clover,andsooninsteadoflettingthelandliefalloweverythirdyearaswasdoneintheMiddleAges.Croprotationiseffectivebecausedifferentcropstakedifferentelementsfromthesoil.Moreover,plantingacroplikeclovercanactuallybebetterforthesoilthanlettingitliefallow,becausecloverisoneoftheplantsthataddfertilitytothesoil.

LandConsolidation

LandownersinEnglandalsobegantoenlargetheirfarms.Theyhadalreadyconsolidatedtheirholdingsthroughtheenclosuremovement,as



youhavereadbefore.Thestripsoflandthatlayscatteredaboutthevillageweresoconsolidatedthattheycouldholdalltheirlandinonepiece.Indoingso,thebiglandownerquiteunfairlygotpossessionofthepeasantssmallholdingalongwithhisown.Sometimesbiglandholderstookoverthecommonmeadowinavillagealsoleavingthesmalllandownersandtenantswithnopasture.ButthebiglandownerscontrolledParliamentinthosedaysandgotlawspassedthatenabledthemtodothesethings.Theresultwasthatthepeasantswereforcedofftheland.Withnoothermeansoflivelihood,theymovedtothenewindustrialtownsandcitieswheretheygotjobsatwhateverwagethefactoryownerwouldpay.Industriesthusbenefited,butatthesmallfarmersexpense.

PeakofIndustrialrevolutioninEngland

ClicktoEnlarge

Inalittlemorethanfiftyyearsaftertheuseofmachinesbegan,Englandhadbecometheworldsleadingindustrialnation.Between1813and1855,forexample,hertextileexportstoIndiajumpedfrom50,000kilogramstowellover2.5million.Duringthesameperiod,theamountofcoalminedrosefrom15to64milliontonnesandbecameanimportantexport.Meanwhile,Englandsproductionofpigironincreasedfrom690,000tonnestoover3millionenoughtosupplyallthemachineryandhardwaresheneededathome,besidessendingvastquantitiestoothercountries.

IndustrialRevolutioninOtherCountries

InthecontinentofEurope,theIndustrialRevolutionbegantomake



someheadwayafter1815,afterthedefeatofNapoleonandtheendof23yearsofwar.ThenmachineswereintroducedinFrance,Belgium,SwitzerlandandGermany.However,unstablegovernmentsandunrestamongthepeopleinsomeofthesecountriesslowedthegrowthofindustriesforsometime.

1. France,by1850,wasdevelopingtheironindustrythoughshehadtoimportbothironoreandcoal.

2. Germanyhad,by1865,occupiedsecondplaceasaproducerofsteel,butwithEnglandfaraheadinthelead.Afteralatestart,Germanysindustrialdevelopmenttookanamazingleapafter1870whentheGermanstateswerefinallyweldedintoonenation.SoonGermanywastobecomeEnglandsrival.

3. RussiawasthelastofthebigEuropeanpowerstohaveanindustrialrevolution.Shewasrichinmineralresourcesbutlackedcapitalandfreelabour.Aftershefreedtheserfsin1861,sheobtainedcapitalfromforeigncountriesandRussianindustrymovedahead.However,itwasonlyafterRussias1917Revolutionthatrapidindustrialdevelopmentstarted.

4. TheUnitedStateshadintroducedmachinesandstartedfactoriesbefore1800aftergainingindependencefromEngland.By1860shehadwellestablishedtextile,steel,andshoeindustries.TheAmericanindustriesgrewveryrapidlyafter1870.

5. JapanwasthefirstcountryinAsiatoindustrialize.Traditionally,Japanproducedmainlysucharticlesassilk,porcelainandtoys.Bytheendofthe19thcentury,Japaneseproductionincludedsteel,machinery,metalgoodsandchemicalsandinquantitieslargeenoughforexport.

Tariffbarriers

AsEnglandwasthefirstcountrywhereindustriesdeveloped,shegainedalmostcompletecontroloverworldmarkets.EvenwhenpeopleinothercountriesbegantousemachinestheyfoundtheycouldnotcompetewithEnglandslowprices.Tohelpkeeptheselowpricedproductsfromcomingintotheirmarketsmanycountriesintroducedprotectivetariffs,thatisgovernmentspassedlawsthatrequiredthepaymentofsuchaHightaxonimportedBritishmanufacturesthatsimilarproductsmadelocallysoldmoreastheywerecheaper.Thelevyoftariffstoprotectnewindustriesbecameawidespreadpractice.

Race4rawmaterial

Thesearchtormarketsandsourcesofrawmaterialsresultedininternationalrivalries.FirstEnglandlater,otherWesterncountriesbegantolookfornewsourcesofrawmaterialsandmarketsfortheirmanufactures.Towardstheendofthe19thcenturyJapanwasindustrializedandjoinedtherace.Inthisrace,almosttheentirenonindustrializedworldwas


mrunal.org/2013/07/old-ncert-world-history-ch7-industrial-revolution-capitalism-their-effect-on-society-rise-of-trade-unions-soci 10/17

carvedupintocoloniesspheresofinfluenceorterritoriesforeconomicandpoliticaldominationbyindustrializedcountries.Thusaroseimperialism,underwhichstrongnationssubordinatedtheeconomiesofthecountriesundertheirdominationtotheirowninterests.Theyforcedthemtobuyandsellontheirownterms.Theraceforcoloniescausedmanyaninternationalconflict.Thecountrieswhichhadbeenindustrializedlateandhadnocolonies,wantedtowrestthemfromthosethathad.Countrieswhichhadcolonieswantedstillmore.

FromVillagetoCity

BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,mostofthepopulationoftheworldlivedinvillagesandwasdependentonagricultural.Almostalleconomicneedsofmanweremetwithinthevillageitself.Almosttheentirepopulationwas,inonewayortheother,connectedwithland.ThetownsandCitiesthathadarisensincethebeginningofcivilizationwere,asyouhaveseen,centresofcraftandofpoliticalandadministrativecontrol.Tradewascarriedonbetweentownsandcitiesofthesamecountryandofothercountriesandaffectedonlyaverysmallpercentageofthepopulation.Withthegrowthofindustrializationthepicturewascompletelytransformed.Thecentreofeconomiclifeshiftedtothecities.Thenewcitiesandtownsthatgrewwereimportantmoreascentresofindustrythanaspoliticalandadministrativecentres.Alargepartofthepopulationnowstartedlivingincitieswherethousandsofpeopleworkedinindustrialestablishments.Thispopulationwasnotconnectedwithland.Nowinsomeindustrializedcountries,lessthan20percentofthepopulationisconnectedwithland.Inourcountry,thoughstillanoverwhelmingmajoritylivesinvillagethereisagradualincreaseinthepopulationdependentonindustry.Inhighlyindustrializedcountries,theshareofindustrialproductioninthetotalnationalincomeisfarlargerthanthatofagriculture.Urbanandruraleconomieshavebecomemutuallydependentandcomplementary.

Thecrowdingofpeopleintocitieshasalwaysproducedproblemsofhousing,health,andsanitation.ThequickeningpaceofindustrializationinEnglandcreateddeplorablelivingconditions,concentrationinsmokyindustrialtowns,andcityslumsgrewworse.

Eventhoughthemovementofpeoplefromvillagetocitieshasbeengoingonsincecivilizationbegan,ithasalwaysarousedsadness.Lifeforavillagerinthecityresultedinmanysocialstrains.Manysocialbondsweredissolved.Manymoralrestraintswhichlifeinavillagecommunityimposedbrokedown.

Ontheotherhand,menbecamefreertodeveloptheircapabilities.



TheIndustrialRevolutionbroughtcountriesandpeoplestogether.Therelationsbetweencountriesandpeoples,however,werenotbasedonequalityastheindustriallydevelopedcountriesbegantocontroltheeconomyofcountrieswhichwerenotindustriallydeveloped.Inspiteofthis,theIndustrialRevolutioncreatedaninternationalconsciousnessamongpeoplesbecausethedevelopmentsinoneplacebegantoinfluencethedevelopmentsinotherplaces.

IndustrialCapitalism

Thesystemofsocietywhichcameintobeingasaresultoftheindustrialrevolutionmaybetermedindustrialcapitalism.Themainclassesinthissocietywere

1. Capitalist theownersofthemeansofproduction.

2. Workers workerswhoworkedforawage

Industrialcapitalism:Consequencesof

1. Itresultedintheconcentrationofeconomicpowerinafewhands.2. Theindependentcraftsmanbecamerare.3. Asmallnumberofcapitalistscametocontrolthelivesofnotonlyalarge

numberofworkerswhomtheyemployedbutalso,directlyorindirectly,theeconomiclifeoftheentiresociety.

4. Theconcentrationofeconomicpowerinafewhandsresultedinshockingsocialinequalitiesandcreatedawidegulfbetweencapitalistsandtherestofthepopulation.

5. TheseinequalitiesweresoobviousandsogreatthatDisraeli,aBritishPrimeMinisterofthe19thcentury,spokeoftheexistenceoftwonationsinEnglandtherichandthepoor.

6. TheIndustrialRevolutionproducedavastnumberoflandless,toollessworkers,whowerewhollydependentonanemployer.

7. Theyhadtoacceptwhateverwagetheemployeroffered,fortherewereusuallymoreworkersthanjobs.

8. Womenandchildrenwereemployedeveninminesbecausetheycouldbehiredforlessmoney.

9. Oftentheyhadtoworkfrom15to18hoursadaywithnorestperiods.Ifperchancetheyfellasleeponduty,theymightbebeatenbyaheartlessoverseer.

10. Workingsurroundingswereunsafeanddirty.



housing

Thehousesprovidedforworkerswerenobetter.Wholeareasoftheindustrialcitieswhereworkerslivedwerecrowdedslums.Accidents,diseaseandepidemicswerecommon.AreportontheslumsofManchesterin1837mentions,amongotherthings,thatalmostallinhabitantsofmanystreetsperishedincholera.

NoSocialsecurity

Ifanemployerwasdispleasedwithaworkerforanyreason,hecoulddismisstheworkeratwill.Aworkerhadlittlechoicebuttoacceptanemployersterms,orbejobless.Ifhewasillandunabletowork,hegotnopay,andhemightbedischarged.Ifhesufferedanaccidentonthejob,hegotnohelpfromtheemployer.Whenbusinesswasslack,afactoryownerregularlydismissedasmanyemployeesaspossibleleavingthemwithnomeansoflivelihood.ItwastheindustrialworkersinEnglandwhofirstenduredconditionssuchasthosejustdescribedbuttheworkersinothercountriesfarednobetter.

ChildLaborers

ThehorribleconditionofchildlabourersisstatedintheevidencecollectedbyacommitteeofBritishParliamentin1816.Thefollowinginformationwascollectedfromaonetimemasterofapprenticesinacottonmill.Hewasaskedquestionsbythecommitteeontheconditionofchildlabourersinhisfactory.

Atwhatageweretheytaken?.

ThosethatcamefromLondonwerefromabouteightortentofifteen.



Uptowhatperiodweretheyapprenticed?

Oneandtwenty.

Whatwerethehoursofwork?

Fromfiveoclockinthemorningtilleightatnight.

Werefifteenhoursinthedaytheregularhoursofwork?

Yes.

Whentheworkswerestoppedfortherepairofthemill,orforanywantofcotton,didthechildrenafterwardsmakeupforthelossofthattime?

Yes.

Didthechildrensitorstandtowork?Stand.

Thewholeoftheirtime?

Yes.

Werethereanyseatsinthemill?None.Ihavefoundthemfrequentlyuponthemillfloors,afterthetimetheyshouldhavebeeninbed.

Wereanychildreninjuredbythemachinery?

Veryfrequently.

LabourLaws

AfewhumanitarianreformersandsomelandownerswhowerejealousofbigbusinessmencombinedwithEnglishworkerstogetthefirstlawstoimproveconditionsofwork.In1802,EnglandpasseditsfirstFactoryAct,limitingthehoursofworkforchildrentotwelveaday.In1819,lawforbadetheemploymentofchildrenundernine.Laterlawsregulatedtheemploymentofwomenandchildreninmines.

TradeUnions

Manyofthelawstoprotectworkershavebeenduetothepressurefromworkerstradeunions.WhentheEnglishworkersfirstformedtradeunions,employerscalledthem`unlawfulcombinationsandlawswerepassedtocurbsuch`evils.



Butby1824theworkerssucceededingettinglawsagainstunionsrepealedandtherewasaremarkablegrowthinunionsforallthetrades.Itmaybehardtobelievetoday,butitistrue,thattheEnglishindustrialworkersdidnothavetherighttovoteinthosedays.Inthebeginninginfact,thepopulationofnewindustrialcitieshadnorepresentationinParliamentatall.Inthethirtiesandfortiesofthe19thcentury,amovementknownastheChartistMovement,waslaunchedtogettherightofvoteforworkers.Thoughthemovementdeclinedbythefiftiesofthe19thcentury,leftitsinfluenceandthroughtheActsof1867,1882,1918and1929alladultcitizenswereenfranchised.TheEnglishworkersalsowontherightnotonlytoorganizetradeunionsbutalsotherighttostriketoforceemployerstoconcedetheirdemands.

TradeUnionsinothercountries

Theideathattheworkerscasemustbeheardinanydisputemetwithoppositioneverywhere.

Germanygottherighttoformlabourunionsinthelate19thcentury.

IntheUnitedStates,whereunionswerefrowneduponforalmostacentury,workersdidnot,gainfulllegalrightsuntiltheearly20thcentury.Thentherighttoformunions,tostrike,andtobargainwithemployersontheconditionsofworkwaslegalizedandthiswasfollowedbyotherlawsthatbroughtmorebenefitstoemployees.

ThemanybenefitsthatworkersandallsalariedpeopleenjoyinmostindustrializedcountriestodayareduedirectlyorindirectlytotheeffortstocorrecttheterribleconditionsthattheIndustrialRevolutionbroughtabout.

Laissezfaire

Protectionforindustrialworkerscouldnothavetakenplacewithoutachangeintheideasoftheresponsibilitiesofgovernments.WhentheIndustrialRevolutionwasgainingstrengthinEnglandandthesamewasgenerallytrueinothercountriesthegrowingbeliefwasthatgovernmentsshouldnotinterferewithbusinessandindustry.Thetheoryknownaslaissezfaireorletusalone,wasthenakindofreligionamongcapitalists.

laissezfaireandCapitalism

Accordingtothelaissezfaireidea,thebusinessmanshouldbefreetolookafterhisowninterests.Onlytheunwrittenlawofsupplyanddemandshould



determinethesizeofhisprofits.Thesameunwrittenlawwoulddeterminethefateoftheworker,whetherhehadajob,whatwouldbehisworkingconditionsandsalary.ThefamouseconomistAdamSmithvoicedthisideain1776inabookcalledTheWealthofNations,andithadmanysupporters,too.

Thelaissezfairedoctrinewasopposedbymanypeople.Gradually,almostallthecountriescametoaccepttheideathatthestatehasalegitimaterightanddutytoregulatetheeconomy.TheFactoryActsinEnglandandmanylawsdealingwiththeeconomyinallcountrieswereaconsequenceofthis.

Todayonerarelyhearsavoiceindefenceoflaissezfaire.Gradually,thestatesroleineconomicdevelopmenthasalsocometoberecognized.Thisistrueparticularlyofthedevelopingcountriesthatcannotmodernizetheireconomieswithoutacomprehensiveandlargescaleeffortonthepartofthestate.Infact,inthesecountries,itisthestate,ratherthantheprivatecapitalist,thatisthemainagencyforeconomicdevelopment.

Socialism

Thegreatestchallengetolaissezfaire,andtocapitalismitself,hascomefromtheideaofsocialism,whichgrewinthebeginningasareactionagainsttheevilsofcapitalism.Theideaappealedparticularlytoworkers.Throughtheirstruggles,theywereabletoachievemuchimprovementintheirlivingconditions.However,theycametobelievethat,forbasicimprovementintheirlife,socialismoracompletereorderingofsocietywasessential.Youwillreadaboutideasofsocialismandmovementsbasedonthoseideaslater.

TheIndustrialRevolutionthatbeganinEnglandinabout1750wasarevolutioninmanswaysofproducinggoodsandservices.Abolitionofmedieval,antiquatedsocial,economicandpoliticalsystems,aridindustrializationtoleadtoaneraofsharedplentybecamethedeclaredaimsofonesocietyafteranotherwhoemergedasnations.

Eversince1750,manhasincreasinglyusedmachinesandmechanicalpowertodotheworkthatheformerlydidwithhisownmusclesandthehelpofanimals.Meantime,themachinesinventedbymanhavebecomemoreandmorecomplexandprovidedhimwithgoodsandservicesthatcouldnototherwisebeproducedatall.Also,machineshaveincreasedtheamountofgoodsmancanturnoutinagiventime,andenabledpeopletoraisetheirlevelofliving.

Industrializationandcapitalismbroughtbenefitsaswellashardshipsandevilstomanunemployment,smoky,crowdedcities,unhealthylivingandworkingconditions,rivalryandconflictbetweennations.Asworkingmengottherighttovoteandelecttheirrepresentativesingovernment,theyforcedthepassageoflawsthateliminatedmanyoftheearlyevilsthatindustrializationhadbrought



about.Ideasofsocialismalsoarosewhich,whilerecognizingtheimportanceofMachinesandmakingthemevenbetter,aimedatsolvingtheproblemscreatedbycapitalism,bybuildinganewsocialorder.Butmanyproblemremain.Theunsolvedproblemsareachallengetoallnations.

EXERCISES

1. Explainthemeaningofthefollowingterms:IndustrialRevolution,capital,capitalism,socialism,protectivetariff,laissezfaire.

2. Whatconditionsaremostfavourableoressentialforindustrialization?3. GiveexamplestoshowthattheIndustrialRevolutionwithitsdemandfor

rawmaterialsandmarketsmadenationsmoredependentononeanother.4. Describetheconditionswhichprevailedinindustrialcitiesandfactories

astheIndustrialRevolutionspread.Howtheseconditionswereslowlyimproved?

5. MakeaTimeLineshowingthemostimportantinventionsfrom1750to1870.

6. Makeabulletinboarddisplayofpicturesofmachinesthatrevolutionizedmanufacturing,farming,transportationandcommunicationduringthefirsthundredyearsaftertheIndustrialRevolutionbegan.

7. Writeapaperof250400wordsonthesubject:TheIndustrialRevolutionwasamixedblessing.

8. Whatarethemainfeatureswhichdistinguishcapitalismfromfeudalism?9. Howdidthegrowthoftradeunionshelptoputonendtotheideaof

laissezfaire?10. Whydoesindustrializationaffectfarming,transportation,communication,

tradeandhowdoesitresultintheneedformoreeducation?11. Howdoesindustrializationhelpinraisingthelevelorthestandardof

living?12. Studytheweaknessesanddisadvantagesofproducinggoodsandservices

underthecapitalistsystemofproduction.Whataretheadvantagesthatasocialistsystemcanhaveoverasocietybasedoncapitalism?

13. Wouldyousaythatindustrializationwasanaturalstepinmansprogress?Whyorwhynot?

FormoreonWorldHistory,visitMrunal.org/history

URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych7industrialrevolutioncapitalismtheireffectonsocietyriseoftradeunionssocialism.html

PostedByMrunalOn13/07/2013@13:18InthecategoryHistory

7/19/13 Mrunal [Old NCERT World History Ch8] American Revolution: Causes, Boston Tea Party, Declaration of Independence (Pa

mrunal.org/2013/07/old-ncert-world-history-ch8-american-revolution-causes-boston-tea-party-declaration-of-independence-part 1/10

[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]AmericanRevolution:Causes,BostonTeaParty,DeclarationofIndependence(Part1of4)

1. IntroductionoftheChapter2. FeudalismtoNationStates3. MiddleClass4. TheRenaissance5. WhatisaRevolution?6. THEAMERICANREVOLUTION

1. TheEnglishColoniesinAmerica2. CausesoftheWarofAmericanIndependence3. Notaxationwithoutrepresentation4. BostonTeaParty5. DeclarationofIndependence6. TheWarofIndependence7. TheAmericanConstitution8. SignificanceoftheAmericanRevolution9. TheGrowthofaNation

The8thChapterofoldNCERTClass9(Storyofcivilization),dealswithfollowingtopics

1. Americanrevolution2. FrenchRevolution3. UnificationofGermany,ItalyRevolutionselsewhereinEurope4. TheriseofSocialism

Inthisfirstpart,wellseetheAmericanrevolution,andremainingtopicsinseparateparts.

IntroductionoftheChapter

Inthepreviouschapter,youlearnedabouttheriseofaneweconomicsystemintheworld.InthischapteryouwillreadofthedevelopmentsthattransformedthepoliticalsystemsofmanycountriesofEuropeandoftheAmericasinthe18thand19thcenturies.Thebasicfeaturesofthesedevelopmentswerethegrowthofdemocraticpoliticalsystems,nationalismandsocialism.TogetherwiththeindustrialRevolution,theybroughtaboutgreatchangesandhelpedtodeterminepeoplesthoughtandconditionsoflifeforalongtimetocome.These



developmentsbeganfirstincertainpartsofEurope.Sincethen,particularlyfromthe19thcentury,theestablishmentofdemocraticpoliticalsystemsandofindependentstatesbasedonnationalismhavebeenamongtheprimaryaimsofpeoplestheworldover.Simultaneouslywiththeseinsomecountriesandlaterinothercountriesideasofsocialismhaveinspiredmovementsofsocialequality.

FeudalismtoNationStates

Underfeudalism,societiesweredividedintoclassessomeofwhichwereprivilegedwhiletheotherswereexploited.Amansentirelifewasdeterminedatthetimeofhisbirth,dependingontheclassintowhichhewasborn.Youhavereadthatthetwomainclassesinthefeudalsocietywerefeudallordsandserfs.Thepoliticalsystemsofthetimewerealsodeterminedbytheprevailingsocialandeconomicsystem.Mostofthepopulationwasexcludedfromhavinganyshareinthegovernanceofthecountry.Manykingsclaimeddivinerights,thatis,thattheirpowerwasderivedfromGodandnotfromanycapabilitytorule.Theirwordwaslaw.AFrenchkingdeclared,IamtheState.Theboundariesofstatesalsowereirrational.IfyouseeoldmapsyouwillbeabletorecognizeveryfewstatesofmodernEurope.Therewereallkindsofstatesempires,feudalestates,citystates.Theterritorieswithinastatewerenotnecessarilycontiguous.Thepeopleinhabitingthesestateswerenothomogeneous.Empires,forexample,includedterritoriesfarapartfromeachotherandinhabitedbypeopleofdifferentnationalities.Similarly,theterritoriesinhabitedbyahomogeneouspeopleweredividedintoanumberofstates,someunderalocalruler,someundertheChurchandsomeaspartsofanempire.Asaresultofmanyfactorsnationstateshadbeguntobeformed.However,thisprocesswaslimitedtoafewareas.MostoftheEuropeanstatesforalongtimetocomehadnorationalbasis.

MiddleClass

YouhavereadoftheriseofnewsocialgroupsandclassesduringthelaterMiddleAgesandabouttheroleplayedbythemiddleclassinbringingabouttheRenaissanceinEurope.Ineconomiclife,thisclassgraduallybecameveryimportant.However,itwasobstructedinitsgrowthbytheoutdatedpoliticalsystemsbasedonprivilege.Itcouldgrowonlyifitalsoheldthepoliticalpower.WiththeIndustrialRevolution,thestrengthofthisclassincreasedfurtherandtheremovaloftheoutdatedpoliticalsystemsacquiredurgency.ThespreadoftheIndustrialRevolutioninmanycountrieswasslowbecauseofthebackwardpoliticalsystemthatprevailedthere.Anotherimportantnewclassthat



arose,particularlyaftertheIndustrialRevolution,wastheworkingclass,ortheindustrialworkers.Thisclassalsowasopposedtotheautocraticpoliticalsystems.SerfdomhaddeclinedinsomecountriesbutinmostothercountriesofEurope,itwasstillthedominantfeatureofthesocialsystem.Thereweremanyrevoltsoftheserfsbuttheyweresuppressed.However,duringtheperiodfromthe17thtothe19thcenturies,therearosemovementsindifferentpartsofEuropetooverthrowtheexistingpoliticalsystems.ThefirstsuccessfulrevolutionwhichoverthrewtheautocraticmonarchytookplaceinEnglandinthe17thcentury.Simultaneously,therewasalsotheriseandgrowthofnationalconsciousnessandmovementstounitethedifferentterritoriesinhabitedbythepeopleofanationiftheyweredividedintodifferentstates,andtooverthrowforeignimperialruleiftheterritoriesofanationwerepartofalargerempireruledbyanalienemperor.

TheRenaissance

TheRenaissancehadinauguratedaneraofquestioningtheestablishedbeliefs.Gradually,thisquestioningcoveredeveryaspectofthoughtandbelief.Theperiodafterthe16thcentury,witnessedanintellectualrevolutionwhenalltheexistingbeliefsbasedonfaithcameunderheavyattack.Greatprogresswasmadeinvarioussciences,whichalsounderminedtheexistingbeliefs.Thenewideaswerecharacterizedbyrationalismandwereincreasinglyconcernedwithsecularaffairs.Becauseofthegrowingemphasisonreason,theperiodofthe18thcenturyinEuropeanhistoryiscalledtheAgeofreasonortheAgeofEnlightenment.Graduallythebeliefsthatpermittedpeopletobedividedintohigherorlowergroupsonthebasisofbirth,andintoprivilegedgroupsandothers,andtheholdoftheChurchinthesphereofideas,wereundermined.Thenewideaswereideasofliberty,equalityandfraternity.Thusaroseideasoffreedom,democracyandequality,whichbecametherallyingslogansofpeopleseverywhere.Simultaneously,therealsoaroseideasofnationalismwhichbroughtasenseofunityandonenesstothepeopleforminganationandthedesiretoorganizethemselvesintoindependentstateswiththeirdistinctivenationalidentities.MovementsaroseinmanypartsofEuropeandinNorthAmericatooverthrowtheexistingautocraticpoliticalsystemsandreplacethembydemocraticpoliticalsystemandtoabolishprivilegesandestablishtheequalityofpoliticalrights.Thesemovementswhichbeganearlierbecamepowerfulforcesinthe19thcenturyEurope.Inthischapteryouwillreadaboutsomerevolutionsthatledtothe



overthrowofautocraticgovernmentsandtheirreplacementbydemocraticformsofgovernment.Youwillalsoreadaboutsomesuccessfulmovementsofnationalindependenceandnationalunification.Inthelastsection,youwillreadabouttheemergenceofideasofsocialismandaboutthemovementsbasedonthoseideaswhichtookshape.

WhatisaRevolution?

Changesinpoliticalandsocialsystemshaveoftenbeenbroughtaboutbyrevolutions.Arevolution,asyouknowfromyourstudyoftheIndustrialRevolution,meansadrasticorradicalchange.Arevolutioncanbethesuddenoverthrowofanestablishedgovernmentorsystembyforceandbloodsheditcanalsobeagreatchangethatcomesslowlyandpeacefully.Thedevelopmentsdescribedinthischapterwere,insomeaspects,rapidandaccompaniedbyviolencebutmanyofthelastingchangestheybroughtabouthavetakenplacegraduallyandwithoutbloodshed.However,youshouldrememberthateverychangeofgovernmentisnotarevolution.Arevolutioninvolvesafundamentalchangeintheentirepoliticalsystemofacountry,achangeinthenatureofgovernment,intheclassorclassesthatholdpoliticalpower,andalsointheaimsofthegovernment.Peopledonotusuallyrevoltagainstagovernmentoracertainsystemunlesstheybelievethatitisnolongerpossibletoliveintheoldway.Revolutionsoccurwhenanexistingsystembecomesunbearabletoavastmajorityofthepeople.This,initself,makesconditionsripeforsettingupanewsystem.Revolutionsarecontagious.Revolutionaryideasoriginatinginoneplacemayspreadtootherplacesveryfastandinfluencethethinkingandactionsofpeoplessufferingunderoppressivegovernmentsinotherlands.Revolutionshaveplayedanessentialroleinthedevelopmentofhumansocieties.Withoutthem,onekindofsystem,howeverunsuitableforthetimesitmightbe,wouldcontinueforeverandtherewouldbenoprogress.

THEAMERICANREVOLUTION

WhilesomeEnglishmenwerebattlingathomeforimprovementsinParliamentandreformsinreligion,otherswereadventuringacrosstheAtlantictoestablishcoloniesandtradeintheAmericas.Inthe16thcentury,Europeancountriesbegantomakesettlementsthere.InNorthAmerica,colonieswereestablishedbyFrance,HollandandSpainaswellasbyEngland.Inthe18thcentury,EnglanddroveFranceoutoftheeasternpartofthecontinentandCanada.ShehadearliertakenNewNetherlandsfromthe



Dutch,changingitsnametoNewYork.

TheEnglishColoniesinAmerica

Bythemiddleofthe18thcenturytherewere13EnglishcoloniesinNorthAmericaalongtheAtlanticCoast.Landlesspeasants,peopleseekingreligiousfreedom,traders,andprofiteershadsettledthere.Thebulkofthepopulationconsistedofindependentfarmers.Infantindustrieshaddevelopedinsuchproductsaswool,flax,andleather.Inthenorththerewerefishingandshipbuilding.Inthesouth,largeplantationslikefeudalmanorshadgrownupwheretobaccoandcottonweregrownwithslavelabourbroughtfromAfrica.Eachcolonyhadalocalassemblyelectedbyqualifiedvoters.Theseassembliesenactedlawsconcerninglocalmatters,andleviedtaxes.However,theywereundertheruleofthemothercountry.Bythe18thcentury,thecolonistsfoundthelawswhichtheEnglishgovernmentimposeduponthemmoreandmoreobjectionable.TheideaofbeinganindependentnationgrewanddevelopedintotheRevolutionaryWarinwhichthecolonistsgainedtheirindependence.

CausesoftheWarofAmericanIndependence

Economic

ThecolonialpolicyofEnglandineconomicmatterswastheprimarycauseofresentmentintheAmericancolonies.EnglandspoliciesdidnotencouragetheAmericancoloniestodevelopaneconomyoftheirown.TheEnglishParliamenthadforbiddenthemtousenonBritishshipsintheirtrade.Certainproducts,suchastobacco,cottonandsugar,couldbeexportedonlytoEngland.Heavydutieswereimposedontheimportofgoodsinthecoloniesfromotherplaces.Thecolonieswerealsoforbiddentostartcertainindustries,forexample,ironworksandtextiles.TheywereforcedtoimportthesegoodsfromEngland.Thus,ineverypossibleway,thegrowthofindustryandtradeinthecolonieswasimpeded.

Rent

TheEnglishalsoangeredthecolonistsbyissuingaproclamationtopreventthemfrommovingwestintonewlands.EnglisharistocratshadboughtlandsinAmericaandgotrentsfromthefarmers.Theywantedtokeepthecolonistsasrenters.



Taxestofinancewars

AsaresultofcontinuouswarsinEurope,theEnglishgovernmentwasburdenedwithdebt.Itneededmoney.In1765,theEnglishParliamentpassedtheStampActwhichimposedstamptaxesonallbusinesstransactionsintheAmericancolonies.Revenuestampsupto20shillingsweretobeaffixedtolegaldocumentsandotherpapers.ThisActarousedviolentresentmentamongallsectionsofthecolonistsandledthemtoboycottEnglishgoods.Therewereuprisingsinmanytownsandtaxcollectorswerekilled.Thecolonistsclaimedthat,sinceEnglishParliamenthadnorepresentativesfromthecolonies,ithadnorighttolevytaxesonthem.TherevenuefromthesetaxeswasusednotintheinterestsofthecoloniesbutofEnglish.

Philosophers

TheAmericanrevolutionarieswereinspiredbytheideasoftheEnglishphilosophersofthe17thcentury.ThesephilosophersLocke,Harrington,Miltonbelievedthatmenhadcertainfundamentalrightswhichnogovernmenthadtherighttoinfringe.Americanthinkers,especiallyThomasJefferson,werealsoinspiredbywhatFrenchphilosophersweresayingandwritingatthattime.Jeffersonassertedthecolonistsrighttorebellion,andencouragedtheirincreasingdesireforindependence.SupportforindependencewasforcefullyexpressedbyThomasPaine,whodetestedtheinequalitiesofEnglishsociety,andhadcometoAmerica.InapamphletentitledCommonSense,hewrote,ItwasrepugnanttoreasontosupposethatthiscontinentcanlongremainsubjecttoanyexternalpowerthereissomethingabsurdinsupposingaContinenttobeperpetuallygovernedbyanisland.

Notaxationwithoutrepresentation

TheleadersintheMassachusettscolonycalledtogetherrepresentativesfromothercoloniestoconsidertheircommonproblems.InthisMassachusettsassembly,theyagreedanddeclaredthattheEnglishParliamenthadnorighttolevytaxesonthem.Notaxationwithoutrepresentationwastheslogantheyadopted.AndtheythreatenedtostoptheimportofBritishgoods.ThethreatledEnglishtorepealtheStampAct,butParliamentstillinsistedthatithadtherighttolevytaxes.ThenParliamentimposedataxonconsumergoodscomingintothecolonies,suchaspaper,glass,teaandpaint.Againthecoloniesobjectedsayingthatonlytheirownassemblieshadthe



righttoraisemoneythroughtaxes.InprotestthecoloniescutdowntheEnglishimportsbyonehalf.TheEnglishwithdrewtheplanleavingonlythetaxonteatoasserttheirrighttolevytaxes.

BostonTeaParty

Thetaxontealedtotrouble.In1773,severalcoloniesrefusedtounloadtheteacominginEnglishships.InBoston,whenthegovernororderedashiptobeunloaded,agroupofcitizens,dressedasAmericanIndians,boardedtheshipanddumpedthecratesofteaintothewater.ThisincidentisknownastheBostonTeaParty.TheEnglishgovernmentthenclosedtheportofBostontoalltradeandprecipitatedtheuprisingofthecolonies.

DeclarationofIndependence

Therepresentativesofthe13AmericancoloniesmetasagroupinwhatiscalledtheFirstContinentalCongressatPhiladelphiain1774.ThisCongressappealedtotheEnglishKingtoremoverestrictionsonindustriesandtradeandnottoimposeanytaxeswithouttheirconsent.TheKingdeclaredtheiractionamutinyandorderedtroopstobesenttosuppressit.Thecoloniesthenplannedformilitarydefencewithlocaltroopsormilitia.In1775,thefirstbattleoftherevolutionwasfoughtwhenathousandsoldiersmetthecolonialmilitiainIndependence.TheDeclarationOn4July1776,theSecondContinentalCongressassertedthatallmenarecreatedequal,CongressadoptedtheDeclarationofthattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertaininalienablerights,thatamongtheserightsarelife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness.TheDeclarationadvancedtheprinciplethatthepeoplearethesourceofauthorityandaffirmedthepeoplesrighttosetuptheirowngovernment.TheDeclarationalsostatedthattheAmericancolonieshadbeenoppressedbytheEnglishgovernmentandthattheseUnitedColoniesare,andofrightoughttobe,freeandindependentstates.UptothistimethecolonistshadbeenfightingfortheirrightsasEnglishmen.AftertheDeclarationin1776,theyfoughtfortheirrighttobeanindependentnation.

TheWarofIndependence

GeorgeWashingtonwasputincommandoftheAmericanforces.ThefirstbattlestookplaceinandaroundBoston.ThenEnglishsentaforcetoCanadawiththeplantomarchitsouthtomeetanotherEnglishforce,and



socuttheAmericancoloniesinhalf.ButanEnglishgeneralspoiledtheplan.AstheEnglishmarchedsouth,theAmericansmetanddefeatedthem.ThisvictoryoftheroughAmericanmilitiamenagainstatrainedBritishforcegavetheAmericansconfidence.TheFrenchgovernmentnowdecidedtohelpthecolonieswithtroops,suppliesandfundstoembarrasstheEnglish,Francesoldenemy.OtherenemiesofEnglishSpainandHollandweresoonfightingtheEnglishelsewhereMeanwhile,troublewasbrewingforBritainathome.TherewasathreatofrebellioninIrelandsomeleadersinParliamentwereopposingthewarwiththecolonists.Thewarendedin1781whentheEnglishcommander,Cornwallis,latertobecomegovernorgeneralinIndia,surrendered.

Twoyearslater,in1783,theTreatyofPariswassignedandtheEnglishrecognizedtheindependenceofits13formercolonies.

TheAmericanConstitution

Whenthewarofindependencestarted,eachofthe13colonieswasaseparatestatewithitsownarmy,boundaries,customsdutiesandfinances.Buttheycooperatedagainstacommonenemy.In1781,asstatesoftheUnitedStates,theyunitedthroughaplanforanationalgovernment.AconstitutionalconventionwascalledinPhiladelphiatoframeanewconstitution,whichcameintoeffectin1789.TheAmericanconstitutionestablishedarepublicanformofgovernmentat



atimewhenstatesinotherpartsoftheworldweregovernedbymonarchies.TheAmericanConstitutionsetupafederalsystemunderwhichpowersweredividedbetweenacentralorfederalgovernmentandthestategovernments.Jefferson,theauthoroftheDeclarationofIndependence,andhisfollowerscampaignedfortheadditionofaBillofRightstothefederalconstitution.ThiswasdonethroughtenamendmentswhichguaranteedmanyrightstotheAmericanpeople.Themostnotedofthesearefreedomofspeech,pressandreligion,andjusticeunderlaw.TheconstitutionmarkedtheemergenceoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaasanationinworldhistory.Itwasthefirstwrittenrepublicanconstitutioneverframedinhistory,whichisstillinoperation.

SignificanceoftheAmericanRevolution

ThewordsoftheDeclarationofIndependenceregardingtheequalityofallmenandtheinalienablerightsofmanelectrifiedtheatmosphereinAmericaandoutside.Lafayette,theFrenchgeneralwhofoughtonthesideofAmericanrevolutionaries,wassoontobecomeaherooftheFrenchRevolution.ThomasPainealsoparticipatedintheFrenchRevolution.Byitsexample,theAmericanRevolutioninspiredmanyrevolutionariesinEuropelaterinthe19thcentury.ItencouragedSpanishandPortuguesecoloniesinCentralandSouthAmericatorebelandgaintheirindependence.ThemainachievementoftheAmericanRevolutionwastheestablishmentofarepublic.Thisrepublicwas,however,nottrulydemocratic.Therighttovotewaslimited.NegroesmostofthemstillslavesAmericanIndians,andwomenhadnovote.Electionlawsinallstatesfavoredmenofpropertyformanyyears.Butprogresstowardsdemocracyhadbegun.Insomestates,statereligionwasabolished,alongwithreligiousqualificationsforholdingpublicoffices.

TheGrowthofaNation

Earlyinthe19thcentury,manynewareaswereaddedtotheUnitedStates.Thevastterritoryinthemiddleofthecontinent,knownasLouisiana,waspurchasedfromFrance.FloridawasacquiredfromSpain.Bythe1850s,afterawarwithMexico,theUnitedStateshadextendeditsboundariestothePacificOcean.Peoplehadcontinuedtomovewest.ThewestwardexpansionoftheUnitedStateswasattheexpenseoftheAmericanIndianswhoweredrivenoutoftheirterritoriesandinthecourseofafewdecadestheirpopulationwasreducedtoaninsignificantnumber.Increasingsettlementsinthewestbroughtaboutincreasingconflicts


mrunal.org/2013/07/old-ncert-world-history-ch8-american-revolution-causes-boston-tea-party-declaration-of-independence-pa 10/10

betweenthesouthernstatesthatwantedtoextendslaverytothewesternterritoriesandthenorthernstatesthatobjectedtoaslaveeconomy.AchangeofrevolutionarysignificancecamewiththeCivilWarwhenslaveowningstatesofthesouthsecededfromtheUnionandsetupaseparategovernment.TheCivilWarragedfrom1861to1865andendedinthedefeatofthesouthernstates.Itwasavictoryforthecapitalisticindustrialstatesofthenorthovertheslaveowningstatesofthesouth.Thefederalgovernmentabolishedslavery.Theabolitionofslavery,however,didnotenddiscriminationagainsttheBlackpeopleandtheirstruggletomakeequalrightsarealitycontinued.

IntheNextthreeparts,wellsee

FrenchRevolutionUnificationofGermanyandItalyRevolutionarymovementsinotherpartsofEuropeRiseofSocialism

ForarchiveofallWorldhistoryrelatedarticlesvisitMrunal.org/history

URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8americanrevolutioncausesbostonteapartydeclarationofindependencepart1of4.html


7/19/13 Mrunal [Old NCERT World History Ch8] French Revolution: Causes, Consequences, Rise & Fall of Napoleon (Part 2 of 4)

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[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]FrenchRevolution:Causes,Consequences,Rise&FallofNapoleon(Part2of4)

1. SocialConditionsinthe18thcenturyFrance2. FirstandSecondEstate3. ThirdEstate4. TheMonarchy5. TheIntellectualMovement

1. Rationalism:theAgeofReason2. AttackontheClergy3. PhysiocratesandLaissezFaire4. Democracy:JeanJacquesRousseau

6. OutbreakoftheRevolution7. AfterFallofBastille8. WarandEndofMonarchy9. NapoleonicWars

10. ConsequencesoftheRevolution11. ImpactofFrenchRevolutionontheWorld12. RevolutionsinCentralandSouthAmerica

TheFrenchRevolutionwasbrewingwhiletheWarofAmericanIndependencewasbeingfought.ConditionsinFrancewerevastlydifferentfromthoseintheNewWorld,butmanyofthesamerevolutionaryideaswereatwork.TheFrenchRevolution,however,wasmoreworldshakingthantheAmerican.Itbecameawidespreadupheavaloverwhichnoonecouldremainneutral.

SocialConditionsinthe18thcenturyFrance

TounderstandhowandwhytheFrenchRevolutionoccurred,wehavetounderstandFrenchsocietyofthattime.WehavetorealizealsothatconditionsinFrancewerenoworsethantheconditionsthatexistedinotherpartsofEurope.Autocratic,extravagantrulers,privilegednoblesandclergy,landlesspeasants,joblessworkers,unequaltaxationthelistofhardshipsenduredbythecommonpeopleisaverylongone.Francewasastrongandpowerfulstateinthe18thcentury.ShehadseizedvastterritoriesinNorthAmerica,islandsintheWestIndies.However,despiteitsoutwardstrength,theFrenchmonarchywasfacingacrisiswhichwastoleadtoitsdestruction.



FirstandSecondEstate

Frenchsocietywasdividedintoclasses,orestates.Thereweretwoprivilegedclasses

Privilegedclass Alsoknownas PopulationClergy Firstestate 1.3lakhclericsNobility Secondestate 80thousandfamilies

Peopleinthesetwoclasseswereexemptedfromalmostalltaxes!Theycontrolledmostoftheadministrativepostsandallthehighrankingpostsinthearmy.Inapopulationof25,000,000people,thesetwoclassestogetherownedabout40percentofthetotallandofFrance.Theirincomescameprimarilyfromtheir,largelandholdings.Aminorityofthesealsodependedonpensionsandgiftsfromtheking.Theyconsidereditbeneaththeirdignitytotradeortobeengagedinmanufactureortodoanywork.Thelifeofthenobilitywaseverywherecharacterizedbyextravaganceandluxury.Therewere,ofcourse,poorersectionsinthesetwotopestates.Theywerediscontentedandblamedtherichermembersoftheirclassfortheirmisery.

ThirdEstate

TherestofthepeopleofFrancewerecalledtheThirdEstate.Theywerethecommonpeopleandnumberedabout95percentofthetotalpopulation.PeopleoftheThirdEstateweretheunprivilegedpeople.However,thereweremanydifferencesintheirwealthandstyleofliving.

ThePeasants

ThelargestsectionoftheThirdEstateconsistedofthepeasants,almost80percentofthetotalpopulationofFrance.Thelivesofthisvastclasswerewretched.Mostofthepeasantswerefree,unliketheserfsintheMiddleAges,andunliketheserfsineasternEuropeinthe18thcentury.Manyownedtheirownlands.ButagreatmajorityoftheFrenchpeasantswerelandlessorhadverysmallholdings.Theycouldearnhardlyenoughforsubsistence.Theplightofthetenantsandsharecropperswasworse.Afterrents,thepeasantssharewasreducedtoonethirdoronefourthofwhatheproduced.Thepeoplewhoworkedonlandforwageslivedonevenless.Certainchangesinagricultureinthe18thcenturyFrancefurtherworsenedtheconditionofthepeasant.Hecouldnolongertakewoodfromthe



forestsorgrazehisflocksonuncultivatedland.Theburdenoftaxationwasintolerable.Besidestaxes,therewasalsoforcedlabourwhichhadbeenafeudalprivilegeofthelordandwhichwasmoreandmoreresortedtoforpublicworks.Thereweretaxesforlocalroadsandbridges,thechurch,andotherneedsofthecommunity.Abadharvestundertheseconditionsinevitablyledtostarvationandunrest.

TheMiddleClasses

NotallthepeoplebelongingtotheThirdEstateworkedontheland.Thereweretheartisans,workersandpoorpeoplelivingintownsandcities.Thentherewasthemiddleclassorthebourgeoisie.Thisclassconsistedoftheeducatedpeoplewriters,doctors,judges,lawyers,teachers,civilservantsandthericherpeoplewhoweremerchants,bankers,andmanufacturers.Economically,thisclasswasthemostimportantone.Itwastheforerunnerofthebuildersoftheindustrieswhichweretotransformeconomicandsociallifeinthe19thcentury.Themerchantbusinessgroups,thoughnewinhistory,hadgrownveryimportantandrich,helpedbythetradewithFrenchcoloniesinAmerica.Sincethesepeoplehadmoney,thestate,theclergyandthenobilitywereindebtedtothem.However,themiddleclasshadnopoliticalrights.Ithadnosocialstatus,anditsmembershadtosuffermanyhumiliations.

TheArtisansandCityWorkers

Theconditionofthecitypoorworkersandartisanswasinhumaninthe18thcenturyFrance.Theywerelookeduponasinferiorcreatureswithoutanyrights.Noworkercouldleavehisjobforanotherwithouttheemployersconsentandacertificateofgoodconduct.Workersnothavingacertificatecouldbearrested.Theyhadtotoilforlonghoursfromearlymorningtilllateatnight.They,too,paidheavytaxes.Theoppressedworkersformedmanysecretsocietiesandoftenresortedtostrikesandrebellion.ThisgroupwastobecomethemainstayoftheFrenchRevolution,andthecityofPariswithapopulationofmorethan500,000wastoplayanimportantpartinit.Inthisnumberwasanarmyofrebels,waitingforanopportunitytostrikeattheoldorder.

TheMonarchy

AttheheadoftheFrenchstatestoodtheking,anabsolutemonarch.LouisXVIwasthekingofFrancewhentherevolutionbrokeout.Hewasamanofmediocreintelligence,obstinateandindifferenttothe



workofthegovernment.Brainwork,itissaid,depressedhim.Hisbeautifulbutemptyheadedwife,MarieAntoinette,squanderedmoneyonfestivitiesandinterferedinstateappointmentsinordertopromoteherfavorites.Louis,too,showeredfavoursandpensionsuponhisfriends.Thestatewasalwaysfacedbyfinancialtroublesasonewouldexpect.Keepinghugearmiesandwagingwarsmademattersworse.Finally,itbroughtthestatetobankruptcy.

TheIntellectualMovement

Discontentorevenwretchednessisnotenoughtomakeasuccessfulrevolution.Someonemusthelpthediscontentedtofocusonanenemyandprovideidealstofightfor.Inotherwords,revolutionarythinkingandideasmustprecederevolutionaryaction.Franceinthe18thcenturyhadmanyrevolutionarythinkers.Withouttheideasspreadbythesephilosophers,theFrenchRevolutionwouldsimplyhavebeenanoutbreakofviolence.

Rationalism:theAgeofReason

BecauseoftheideasexpressedbytheFrenchintellectuals,the18thcenturyhasbeencalledtheAgeofReason.Christianityhadtaughtthatmanwasborntosuffer.TheFrenchrevolutionaryphilosophersassertedthatmanwasborntobehappy.Theybelievedthatmancanattainhappinessifreasonisallowedtodestroyprejudiceandreformmansinstitutions.TheyeitherdeniedtheexistenceofGodorignoredHim.InplaceofGodtheyassertedthedoctrineofNatureandtheneedtounderstanditslaws.Theyurgedfaithinreason.Thepowerofreasonalone,theysaid,wassufficienttobuildaperfectsociety.

AttackontheClergy

TheclergywerethefirsttofeelthebruntoftheFrenchphilosophers.AlongseriesofscientificadvancesdatingfromtheRenaissancehelpedintheircampaignagainsttheclergy.Voltaire,oneofthemostfamousFrenchwritersofthetime,thoughnotanatheist,believedallreligionsabsurdandcontrarytoreason.AfterVoltaire,otherphilosophers,atheistsandmaterialists,gainedpopularity.Theybelievedthatmansdestinylayinthisworldratherthaninheaven.WritingsattackingreligionfedthefiresofrevolutionbecausetheChurchgavesupporttoautocraticmonarchyandtheoldorder.

PhysiocratesandLaissezFaire



TheFrencheconomistsofthetimewerecalledphysiocrats.TheybelievedinLaissezfaireaboutwhichyouvealreadyreadinchapter7(clickme)Accordingtothistheory,apersonmustbeleftfreetomanageanddisposeofhispropertyinthewayhethinksbest.LiketheEnglishandAmericanrevolutionariesbeforethem,thephysiocratssaidthattaxesshouldbeimposedonlywiththeconsentofthoseonwhomtheywerelevied.Theseideaswereadirectdenialoftheprivilegesandfeudalrightsthatprotectedtheupperclasses.

Democracy:JeanJacquesRousseau

Thephilosopherwriter,Montesquieu,thoughtaboutthekindofgovernmentthatisbestsuitedtomanandoutlinedtheprinciplesofconstitutionalmonarchy.However,itwasJeanJacquesRousseauwhoassertedthedoctrineofpopularsovereigntyanddemocracy.Hesaid,Manisbornfree,yeteverywhereheisinchains.Hetalkedofthestateofnaturewhenmanwasfree,andsaidthatfreedomwaslostfollowingtheemergenceofproperty.Herecognizedpropertyinmodernsocietiesasanecessaryevil.Whatwasneeded,saidRousseau,wasanewsocialcontracttoguaranteethefreedom,equalityandhappinesswhichmanhadenjoyedinthestateofnature.RousseaustheoriesalsocontainedaprinciplethathadbeenwrittenintotheAmericanDeclarationofIndependence:nopoliticalsystemcanmaintainitselfwithouttheconsentofthegoverned.

OutbreakoftheRevolution

In1789,LouisXVIsneedformoneycompelledhimtoagreetoameetingoftheStatesGeneraltheoldfeudalassembly.Louiswantedtoobtainitsconsentfornewloansandtaxes.AllthreeEstateswererepresentedinitbuteachoneheldaseparatemeeting.On17June1789,membersoftheThirdEstate,claimingtorepresent96percentofthenationspopulation,declaredthemselvestheNationalAssembly.On20June,theyfoundtheirmeetinghalloccupiedbyroyalguardsbut,determinedtomeet,theymovedtothenearbyroyaltenniscourttoworkoutaconstitution.LouisthenmadepreparationstobreakuptheAssembly.Troopswerecalled:rumoursspreadthatleadingmembersoftheAssemblywouldsoonbearrested.Thisenragedthepeople,whobegantogatherintheirthousands.Theyweresoonjoinedbytheguards.TheysurroundedtheBastille,astate



prison,On14July.Afterafourhoursiege,theybrokeopenthedoors,freeingalltheprisoners.ThefalloftheBastillesymbolizedthefallofautocracy.July14iscelebratedeveryyearasanationalholidayinFrance.

AfterFallofBastille

After14July1789,LouisXVIwaskingonlyinname.TheNationalAssemblybegantoenactlaws.FollowingthefalloftheBastille,therevoltspreadtoothertownsandcitiesandfinallyintothecountryside.TheNationalAssemblyadoptedthefamousDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen.Itspecifiedtheequalityofallmenbeforethelaw,eligibilityofallcitizensforallpubicoffices,freedomfromarrestorpunishmentwithoutprovencause,freedomofspeechandfreedomofthepress.Mostimportantofall,tothemiddleclass,itrequiredequitabledistributionoftheburdensoftaxationandrightsofprivateproperty.TherevolutionaryimportanceofthisdeclarationforEuropecannotbeoverestimated.EverygovernmentinEuropewasbasedonprivilege.Iftheseideaswereapplied,theentireoldorderofEuropewouldbedestroyed.

WarandEndofMonarchy

ThepeopleofFranceweresooninvolvedinawartodefendtheRevolutionandthenation.ManynoblesandclericsfledthecountryandencouragedforeigngovernmentstointerveneinFranceagainsttheRevolution.ThekingandqueentriedtoescapefromFranceindisguisebuttheywererecognizedandbroughtbackascaptivesandtraitors.TheoldNationalAssemblywasreplacedbyaLegislativeAssembly.ThisAssemblytookoverthepropertyofthosepeoplewhohadfled.ItsentwordtotheAustrianemperor,whowasmobilizingsupportagainstFrancetorenounceeverytreatydirectedagainsttheFrenchnation.Whentheemperorrefused,theLegislativeAssemblydeclaredwar.SoonFrancewasfightingAustria,Prussia,andSavoyinItaly.ThethreeweresupportedbyanarmyoftheFrenchexiles.Francehaddestroyedfeudalismandmonarchyandfoundednewinstitutionsbasedonlibertyandequality,whereasinthesecountriestheoldwayofliferemained.ThecommanderinchiefoftheAustroPrussianforcesstatedthattheaimwastosuppressanarchyinFranceandtorestorethekingsauthority.TheFrenchrevolutionariesrepliedbyofferingfraternityandassistancetoallpeoplewishingtodestroytheoldorderintheircountries.Thekingandqueenweretriedandexecutedin1793.Thiswasfollowedby



adeclarationofwaragainstBritain,Holland,SpainandHungary.Then,aradicalgroup,theJacobins,believingindirectdemocracy,tametopower.FearingthattheRevolutionwasindanger,thisgrouptooktostrongmeasurestocrushforcesinimicaltotheRevolution.In14months,some17,000people,includingthosewhowereinnocent,weretriedandexecuted.SomepeoplehavecalledittheReignofTerror.Later,anewconstitutionwasdrawnup.ButthearmybecameincreasinglypowerfulandthisledtotheriseofNapoleon,whowassoontodeclarehimselfEmperoroftheFrenchRepublic.

NapoleonicWars

From1792to1815,Francewasengagedinwaralmostcontinuously.ItwasawarbetweenFranceandotherstates.SomehistorianshavetermeditasaninternationalcivilwarbecauseitwasfoughtbetweenrevolutionaryFranceandcountriesupholdingtheoldorder.Inthiswar,Francewasalone.However,untilNapoleonbecameemperor,almosteveryenlightenedpersonintheworldsympathizedwiththeFrenchRevolution.Between1793and1796FrencharmiesconqueredalmostallofwesternEurope.WhenNapoleonpressedontoMalta,EgyptandSyria(179799),theFrenchwereoustedfromItaly.AfterNapoleonseizedpower,FrancerecoveredtheterritoriesshehadlostanddefeatedAustriain1805,Prussiain1806,andRussiain1807.OntheseatheFrenchcouldnotscoreagainstthestrongerBritishnavy.Finally,anallianceofalmostallEuropedefeatedFranceatLeipzigin1813.ThesealliedforceslateroccupiedParis,andNapoleonwasdefeated.HisattemptatrecoverywasfoiledatthebattleofWaterlooinJune1815.Thepeacesettlement,whichinvolvedallEurope,tookplaceattheCongressofVienna.AfterthedefeatofNapoleon,theoldrulingdynastyofFrancewasrestoredtopower.However,withinafewyears,in1830,therewasanotheroutbreakofrevolution.In1848,themonarchywasagainoverthrownthoughitsoonreappeared.Finally,in1871,theRepublicwasagainproclaimed.



MindmapofFrenchRevolution(ClicktoEnlarge)

ConsequencesoftheRevolution

1. AmajorresultoftheRevolutionwasthedestructionoffeudalisminFrance.Allthelawsoftheoldfeudalregimewereannulled.Churchlandsandlandsheldincommonbythecommunitywereboughtbythemiddleclasses.Thelandsofnobleswereconfiscated.Privilegedclasseswereabolished.

2. AfterNapoleonseizedpower.TheNapoleonicCodewasintroduced.ManyelementsofthisCoderemainedinforceforalongtimesomeofthemexisteventothisday.

3. AnotherlastingresultoftheRevolutioninFrancewasthebuildingupofaneweconomicsysteminplaceofthefeudalsystemwhichhadbeenoverthrown.ThissystemwascapitalismaboutwhichyouhavereadinChapter7.Eventherestoredmonarchycouldnotbringbackthefeudalsystemordestroytheneweconomicinstitutionsthathadcomeintobeing.

4. TheFrenchRevolutiongavethetermnationitsmodernmeaning.Anationisnottheterritorythatthepeoplebelongingtoitinhabitbutthepeoplethemselves.FrancewasnotmerelytheterritoriesknownasFrancebuttheFrenchpeople.

5. Fromthisfollowedtheideaofsovereignty,thatanationrecognizesnolaworauthorityaboveitsown.Andifanationissovereign,thatmeansthepeopleconstitutingthenationarethesourceofallpowerandauthority.Therecannotbeanyrulersabovethepeople,onlyarepublicinwhichthegovernmentderivesitsauthorityfromthepeopleandisanswerabletothepeople.ItisinterestingtorememberthatwhenNapoleonbecameemperorhecalledhimselftheEmperoroftheFrenchRepublic.Suchwasthestrengthoftheideaofpeoplessovereignty.



6. ItwasthisideaofthepeoplebeingthesovereignthatgaveFrancehermilitarystrength.Theentirenationwasunitedbehindthearmywhichconsistedofrevolutionarycitizens.InawarinwhichalmostallofEuropewasrangedagainstFrance,shewouldhavehadnochancewithjustamercenaryarmy.

7. UndertheJacobinconstitution,allpeopleweregiventherighttovoteandtherightofinsurrection.Theconstitutionstatedthatthegovernmentmustprovidethepeoplewithworkorlivelihood.Thehappinessofallwasproclaimedastheaimofgovernment.Thoughitwasneverreallyputintoeffect,itwasthefirstgenuinelydemocraticconstitutioninhistory.

8. ThegovernmentabolishedslaveryintheFrenchcolonies.9. Napoleonsrisetopowerwasastepbackward.However,thoughhe

destroyedtheRepublicandestablishedanempire,theideaoftherepubliccouldnotbedestroyed.

10. TheRevolutionhadcomeaboutwiththesupportandbloodofcommonpeoplethecitypoorandthepeasants.In1792,forthefirsttimeinhistory,workers,peasantsandothernonpropertiedclassesweregivenequalpoliticalrights.

11. Althoughtherighttovoteandelectrepresentativesdidnotsolvetheproblemsofthecommonpeople.Thepeasantsgottheirlands.ButtotheworkersandartisansthepeoplewhowerethebackboneoftherevolutionarymovementtheRevolutiondidnotbringrealequality.Tothem,realequalitycouldcomeonlywitheconomicequality.

12. Francesoonbecameoneofthefirstcountrieswheretheideasofsocialequality,ofsocialism,gaverisetoanewkindofpoliticalmovement.

ImpactofFrenchRevolutionontheWorld

TheFrenchRevolutionhadbeenaworldshakingevent.Foryearstocomeitsdirectinfluencewasfeltinmanypartsoftheworld.ItinspiredrevolutionarymovementsinalmosteverycountryofEuropeandinSouthandCentralAmerica.ForalongtimetheFrenchRevolutionbecametheclassicexampleofarevolutionwhichpeopleofmanynationstriedtoemulate.TheimpactoftheFrenchRevolutioncanbesummedup,inthewordsofT.Kolokotrones,oneoftherevolutionaryfightersintheGreekwarofindependence:Accordingtomyjudgment,theFrenchRevolutionandthedoingsofNapoleonopenedtheeyesoftheworld.Thenationsknewnothingbefore,andthepeoplethoughtthatkingsweregodsupontheearthandthattheywereboundtosaythatwhatevertheydidwaswelldone.Throughthispresentchangeitismoredifficulttorulethepeople.EventhoughtheoldrulingdynastyofFrancehadbeenrestoredtopowerin1815,andtheautocraticgovernmentsofEuropefoundthemselvessafeforthetimebeing,therulersfounditincreasinglydifficulttorulethe


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people.SomeofthechangesthattookplaceinmanypartsofEuropeandtheAmericasintheearly19thcenturyweretheimmediate,directconsequencesoftheRevolutionandtheNapoleonicwars.ThewarsinwhichFrancewasengagedwithotherEuropeanpowershadresultedintheFrenchoccupationofvastareasofEuropeforsometime.TheFrenchsoldiers,wherevertheywent,carriedwiththemideasoflibertyandequalityshakingtheoldfeudalorder.Theydestroyedserfdominareaswhichcameundertheiroccupationandmodernizedthesystemsofadministration.UnderNapoleon,theFrenchhadbecomeconquerorsinsteadofliberators.ThecountrieswhichorganizedpopularresistanceagainsttheFrenchoccupationcarriedoutreformsintheirsocialandpoliticalsystem.TheleadingpowersofEuropedidnotsucceedinrestoringtheoldordereitherinFranceorinthecountriesthattheRevolutionhadreached.Thepoliticalandsocialsystemsofthe18thcenturyhadreceivedaheavyblow.TheyweresoontodieinmostofEuropeundertheimpactoftherevolutionarymovementsthatsprangupeverywhereinEurope.

RevolutionsinCentralandSouthAmerica

TheimpactoftheRevolutionwasfeltonthefarawayAmericancontinent.RevolutionaryFrancehadabolishedslaveryinhercolonies.TheformerFrenchcolonyofHaitibecamearepublic.Thiswasthefirstrepublicestablishedbytheblackpeople,formerlyslaves,intheAmericas.Inspiredbythisexample,revolutionarymovementsaroseintheAmericastooverthrowforeignrule,toabolishslaveryandtoestablishindependentrepublics.ThechiefEuropeanimperialistpowersinCentralandSouthAmericawereSpainandPortugal.SpainhadbeenoccupiedbyFrance,andPortugalwasinvolvedinaconflictwithFrance.Duringtheearly19thcentury,thesetwoimperialistcountrieswerecutofffromtheircolonies,withtheresultthatmostofthePortugueseandSpanishcoloniesinCentralandSouthAmericabecameindependent.ThemovementsforindependenceinthesecountrieshadearlierbeeninspiredbythesuccessfulWarofAmericanIndependence.TheFrenchRevolutionensuredtheirsuccess.Bythethirddecadeofthe19thcentury,almostentireCentralandSouthAmericahadbeenliberatedfromtheSpanishandthePortugueseruleandanumberofindependentrepublicswereestablished.Intheserepublicsslaverywasabolished.It,however,persistedintheUnitedStatesforafewmoredecadeswhereitwasfinallyabolishedfollowingtheCivilWaraboutwhichyouhavereadbeforeinthischapter.SimonBolivar,BernardoOHigginsandSanMartin


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werethegreatleadersinSouthAmericaatthistime.

IntheNextparts,wellsee

UnificationofGermanyandItalyRevolutionarymovementsinotherpartsofEuropeRiseofSocialism

ForarchiveofallWorldhistoryrelatedarticlesvisitMrunal.org/history

URLtoarticle:http://mrunal.org/2013/07/oldncertworldhistorych8frenchrevolutioncausesconsequencesrisefallofnapoleonpart2of4.html


7/19/13 Mrunal [Old NCERT World History Ch8] Unification of Germany, Unification of Italy, Bismarck, Blood & Iron (Part 3 of 4)

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[OldNCERTWorldHistoryCh8]UnificationofGermany,UnificationofItaly,Bismarck,Blood&Iron(Part3of4)

1. RevolutionaryMovementsinEurope1. HolyAlliance2. Revolutionsof18483. GrowthofDemocracyinEngland

2. UnificationofGermany1. Prussia2. ProblemsofdividedGermany3. Bismarck:Policyofblood&iron4. FallofLouisBonaparte

3. UnificationofItaly1. YoungItalymovement2. Italyaftertherevolutionof1848.3. UprisinginSicilies4. RomebecometheCapital

4. Aftertherevoltsandunifications

RevolutionaryMovementsinEurope

Theperiodafter1815sawtheemergenceofrevolutionaryactivityineverycountryinEurope.Insomecountries,theaimoftherevolutionarieswastheoverthrowofautocraticrulersandtheabolitionofserfdominsomeitwastheoverthrowofforeignruleandinsomeothersitwassocial,politicalandeconomicreforms.Nationalismemergedasamajorforceinthisperiod.However,itisinterestingtoseethatthisnationalismwasneitherexclusivenorchauvinistic.Revolutionariesfightingforindependencedidnotfightfortheirindependencealoneoragainstthedespotismoftheirrulersonly.Theydidnotwanttheirnationtodominateothernations.Theywereinfactinspiredbytheaimoffightingagainstdespotismeverywhere.Theywereunitedintoakindofinternationalbrotherhoodofpeoplesagainstalldespots.TheSouthAmericanrevolutionariesOHiggins,SimonBolivarandSanMartinfoughtfortheindependenceofmanycountriesinSouthAmerica.Mazzini,oneoftheforemostleadersofthestruggleforItalianunification



andindependence,formedanumberoforganizationssuchasYoungPoland,YoungGermanyandYoungItalyfortheliberationofthesecountries.Garibaldi,anothergreatleaderoftheItalianrevolutionaries,foughtforthefreedomofthepeoplesofSouthAmerica.ThegreatEnglishpoetLordByronwasalsooneoftheserevolutionaries.HefoughtforthefreedomofGreeceanddiedthere.Hedeclaredthathewouldwarwitheverydespotismineverynation.ThesewordsofByronbestsumuptheattitudeofalargenumberofrevolutionariesofthetime.However,astherevolutionarieswereunitedintheircommonaimofoverthrowingdespotismeverywhere,theautocraticgovernmentsalsowereunitedtosuppresseveryrevoltandmovementagainstanydespotism.

HolyAlliance

In1815,therulersofAustria,Britain,RussiaandPrussiaformedanalliance.Oneofthemajordeclaredaimsofthisalliancewastosuppressanyattemptbythepeopletooverthrowarulerwhomthesecountriesconsideredthelegitimaterulerofthecountry.ThenewrulerofFrancealsosoonjoinedthisalliance.Austria,RussiaandPrussiahadformedanotheralliancewhichtheycalledtheHolyAlliance.Thisalliancewhichmanyotherrulersalsojoinedwasevenmoreopenlyopposedtodemocraticideasandmovementsthanthefirst.After1815therulersofEuropetriedtosuppressallmovementsforfreedomanddemocracyintheirownaswellasinothercountries.In1821,forexample,AustriasentherarmiesintoNaplesandPiedmontinItalytosuppresstheuprisingsthathadtakenplacethere.InmanycountriesofEurope,thefreedomofthepresswasabolishedandalargenumberofspieswererecruitedtokeepwatchontheactivitiesoftherevolutionaries.TheoppressivemeasuresintroducedbytherulersfailedtocurbtherevolutionarymovementsinEurope.In1830revolutionsbrokeoutinanumberofcountries.TheFrenchmonarchfledawaytoEnglandandwassucceededbyLouisPhilippewhopromisedtoruleaccordingtothewishesofthepeople.TherewasarevoltinBelgiumforfreedomfromHolland.InsurrectionsbrokeoutinvariousstatesofItalyandGermanyandinPoland.Althoughmostoftheserevoltsweresuppressed,theindependenceoftwonewnationswasrecognizedofGreecein1830andofBelgiumin1839.

Revolutionsof1848

Withinafewyearsaftertherevoltsof1830hadbeensuppressed,therevolutionarymovementsinEuropeagaingainedmomentum.In1848,revolutionsbrokeoutinalmosteverycountryofEurope,which



dealtamortalblowtothecountriesoftheHolyAlliance.Earlyin1848,therewasarevoltinItaly.InFebruary,revolutionbrokeoutinFranceandLouisPhilippewhohadbeeninstalledaskingafterthe1830revolutionfledaway.FranceagainbecamearepublicforsometimebutpowerwasusurpedbyLouisNapoleonBonaparte,popularlyknownasNapoleonIII,anephewofNapoleon,in1852.Francefinallybecamearepublicin1871whentheempireofLouisBonapartecollapsed.TherevolutioninFrancewassoonfollowedbyuprisingsinmanytownsofGermany.TherulersofmanyGermanstates,includingPrussiawhichwasamemberoftheHolyAlliance,agreedtointroducemanyreforms.Simultaneously,therewereuprisingsinVienna,thecapital,andinothertownsoftheAustrianempire,anothermemberoftheHolyAlliance.Metternich,theChancelloroftheempire,whowasthemosthatedmaninEurope,hadtoflee.TheAustrianempireinthosedayswasalargeempirerulingovermanynationsofEurope.ItruledoverAustria,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,Rumania,Poland,Yugoslaviaandmanyotherareas.RevoltshadbrokenoutinallthesubjectnationsoftheempireaswellasinAustria.Eventhoughtheserevoltsdidnotsucceed,theempirewasbadlyshaken.Therevolutionsof1848failedtooverthrowtheestablishedoppressiveregimesofEuropethoughtheyconsiderablyweakenedthem.Themostsignificantaspectofthe1848revolutionswastheemergenceofanewpoliticalforceinEurope.YouhavereadinChapter7abouttheriseofanewsocialclassinEuropefollowingtheIndustrialRevolutiontheworkingclass.Theworkerswereamajorforceintherevolutionsof1848.TheiraimwasnotmerelytheoverthrowofautocraciesbutalsothedestructionoftheeconomicsystemthathadgrownwiththeIndustrialRevolutioncapitalism.Otherparticipantsintherevolutionsthecapitalists,themerchantsandotherpeoplebelongingtothemiddleclasswantedconstitutionalreforms.Theylookeduponthedemandsoftheworkersforsocialrevolutionwithhorror.Whentherevolutionarymovementswereattheirpeak,theydecidedtocompromisewiththerulers.

GrowthofDemocracyinEngland

ThefirstsuccessfulrevolutionthatoverthrewtheautocraticmonarchytookplaceinEnglandintheseventeenthcentury.ThishadresultedintheestablishmentofthesupremacyofParliamentinEngland.However,Parliamentatthattimewasnotatrulydemocraticinstitution.Therighttovotewaslimitedtoaverysmallpercentageofthepopulation.Throughouttheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,thedemandfor



makingParliamentademocraticinstitutiongrew.Campaignstoextendtherighttovotetoeverycitizenwerewaged.Thesecampaignswereledbyradicalleaderswhorepresentedtheinterestsofworkers,andthecitypoor,andbythoserepresentingtheindustrialists.Until1832,representationinParliamentwasbasednotonpopulationbutonelectiondistrictscountiesandboroughs.Manyofthesewerenolongerpopulatedexceptedforafewhouses,whilenewtownsandcitieswithlargepopulationshadnorepresentation.UndertheActof1832,theoldunpopulatedareasorrottenboroughs,astheywerecalled,wereabolishedandtheirseatsweregiventonewtownsandcities.Atthistimealso,therighttovotewasextendedtothosewhoownedorrentedahouseofacertainvalueinthetownsorinvillages.Thisformedonlyabout10percentofthepopulation.Inch.7,YouhavereadoftheChartistMovementwhichwaslaunchedtogettherighttovoteforworkers.Thoughthemovementdeclinedinthe1850s,itleftitsinfluenceandthroughtheActsof1867.1882,1918and1929,alladultcitizenswereenfranchised.Thusitwasover200yearsafterParliamentbecamesupremethatitbecamealsoatrulyrepresentativebodyoftheBritishpeople.

UnificationofGermany

Oneofthemajorfeaturesofthe19thcenturyhistoryofEuropewasthestrugglesfornationalunificationandindependence.TheachievementofindependencebyGreeceandBelgiumhasbeenmentionedbefore.GermanyandItalyweretheothertwoimportantnationswhichemergedasunited,independentstatesinthe19thcentury.Inthe18thcentury,Germanywasdividedintoanumberofstates.Someofthesestateswereverysmallanddidnotextendbeyondthelimitsofacity.DuringtheNapoleonicwars,manyofthesestatesceasedtoexist.AttheendofthewarstherewerestillthirtyeightindependentstatesinGermany.AmongthemPrussia,Wurttemberg,Bavaria,andSaxonywerefairlylarge.



Prussia

wasthemostpowerfulinMilitarilyandinextent.Itwasalsothemostreactionary.ThebiglandlordsofPrussiaknownasJunkersformedthedominantsectioninPrussiansociety.PrussiawasalsooneoftheleadersoftheHolyAlliance.

ProblemsofdividedGermany

ThedivisionofGermanyintoanumberofstateshadhamperedtheeconomicdevelopmentofGermany.Thesocialandpoliticalsysteminthesestateswasalsoverybackward.Withthegrowthofnationalconsciousness,particularlyaftertheFrenchRevolution,thepeopleofthesestateshadstarteddemandingthenationalunificationofGermany,establishmentofdemocraticgovernmentandsocialandeconomicreforms.In1815,theGermanstatesalongwithAustriawereorganisedintoaGermanicConfederation.However,eachstatetriedtopreserveitsindependenceanditsoppressivepoliticalandsocialsystem.In1848revoltsoccurredineveryGermanstateandtherulerswereforcedtograntdemocraticconstitutions.TouniteGermanyandtoframeaconstitutionfortheunitedGermany,aconstituentassemblymetinFrankfurt.TheinitialsuccessoftherevoltshadmadetheGermandemocratsand



nationaliststhinkthatvictoryhadbeenachieved.Whiletheydebatedtheclausesoftheconstitution,therulerspreparedthemselvestosuppressthemovement.TheFrankfurtAssemblyproposedtheunificationofGermanyasaconstitutionalmonarchyundertheKingofPrussiawhowouldbecomeemperorofGermany.However,theKingofPrussiadeclinedtheoffer.Hedidnotwishtoacceptthecrownfromtheelectedrepresentativesofthepeople.Repressionsoonfollowedandeventherightsthatpeoplehadwonintheinitialstagesoftherevolutionweretakenaway.ThousandsofGermanrevolutionarieshadtofleethecountryandliveinexile.

Bismarck:Policyofblood&iron

Withthefailureoftherevolutionof1848tounifyGermany,onephaseinthestruggleforunificationcametoanend.NowGermanywastobeunifiednotintoademocraticcountrybytheeffortsofrevolutionariesbutbytherulersintoamilitaristicempire.TheleaderofthispolicywasBismarckwhobelongedtoaPrussianaristocraticfamily.HewantedtopreservethepredominanceofthelandedaristocratsandthearmyintheunitedGermanstateandtoachievetheunificationofGermanyundertheleadershipofthePrussianmonarchy.Hedescribedhispolicyofunificationasoneofbloodandiron.Thepolicyofbloodandironmeantapolicyofwar.ThefirstaimhepursuedwastheeliminationofAustriafromtheGermanicConfederation.HealignedwithAustriainawaragainstDenmarkoverthepossessionofSchleswigandHolstein.AfterDenmarksdefeat,heenteredintoanalliancewithItalyagainstAustria,defeatedAustriaanddissolvedtheGermanicConfederation.ThusAustriawasseparatedfromotherGermanstates.InplaceoftheoldConfederation,heunited22statesofGermanyintoNorthGermanConfederationin1866.TheconstitutionofthisConfederationmadethekingofPrussiathehereditaryheadoftheConfederation.TheunificationofGermanywascompletedasaresultofawarbetweenPrussiaandFrance.

FallofLouisBonaparte

In1870,LouisBonaparte,whosepowerhadbeguntocollapse,declaredwaronPrussiainthehopeofmaintaininghisempirethroughamilitaryvictory.ThewarwaspartlyprovokedbyBismarck.ItproveddisastrousfortheempireofLouisBonaparte.TheFrencharmiesweredefeatedandtheFrenchemperorwascaptured.Afterherdefeat,Francefinallybecamearepublic.Germanysunification



wascompletedasaresultofthewarwhichenabledBismarcktoabsorbtheremainingGermanstatesintoaunitedGermany.TheformalceremonyatwhichKingWilliamIofPrussiatookthetitleofGermanEmperorwasnotheldonGermansoil.IttookplaceatVersaillesinFrance,inthepalaceoftheFrenchkings.Afterherunification,GermanyemergedasaverystrongpowerinEurope.Itunderwentheavyindustrializationinaveryshortperiodandsoonjoinedthescrambleforcolonies.However,themilitarismwhichmadeGermanyintoagreatpowerwastoprovedisastroustothepeopleofGermanyintheyearstocome.(Formoreonthat,refertoChapter12)

UnificationofItaly

LikeGermany,Italywasalsodividedintoanumberofstates.Themajorstatesintheear

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