Transcript
  • BIOMETHANATION

    OF

    MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

    Presented by,

    Salin Kumar Sasi

  • URBAN WASTE SCENARIO

    Urban India generates about 1.4 lakh MT/day of MSW

    Requires 1750 acres of land for land filling/year

    Courtesy-MNRE

  • PHASES

    PHASE I MSW SCENARIO IN INDIA

    PHASE II BIOMETHANATION

    PHASE III FACTORS AFFECTING

    BIOMETHANATION

    PHASE IV BIOMETHANATION PROCESS

    PHASE V BIOMETHANATION OF MSW IN INDIA

    PHASE VI BIOMETHANATION PLANT IN

    ABROAD AND INDIA

    PHASE VII RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

  • PHASE I

    MSW SCENARIO IN INDIA

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS FOR

    ENERGY RECOVERY FROM URBAN WASTES

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • POTENTIAL OF ENERGY FROM

    URBAN WASTES

    2007 2017

    MSW

    (lakh tpd)1.48 2.15 3.03

    MW 2550 3670 5200

    MLW

    (mcd)17.75 20.70 24.75

    MW 330 390 460

    2012

    Courtesy-MNRE

  • INDIAN SCENARIO

    As per MSW Rule 2000, biodegradable material

    should not be deposited in the sanitary landfill

    Therefore there is almost no scope of generation of

    biogas in the form of landfill gas from new sanitary

    landfills

    However, there is a huge potential of trapping the

    landfill gas generated in the old dump-sites across

    the country, particularly the large ones with more

    than 5 meter thickness (height plus depth)

    Courtesy-MNES

  • Courtesy-NEERI

  • WTE TECHNOLOGIES

    Bio-methanation

    Incineration

    RDF

    Gasification

    Integrated systems

  • MERITS OF BIOMETHANATION

    Reduction in land requirement for MSW disposal.

    Preservation of environmental quality.

    Production of stabilized sludge can be used as

    soil conditioner in the agricultural field.

    Energy generation which will reduce operational

    cost.

    Supplement national actions to achieve real, long

    term, measurable and cost effective GHGs

    reductions in accordance with Kyoto Protocol.

  • PHASE II

    BIOMETHANATION

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • PRINCIPLES

    Complex process leading to generation of methane and carbon dioxide.

    Process involves three steps (Barlaz et al 1990) Hydrolysis Acidification Methanogenesis

    Process can be carried out in Single step Two step

  • HYDROLYSIS

    Anaerobic bacteria breakdown complex organic molecules (proteins, cellulose, lignin and lipids) into soluble monomer molecules such as amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and glycerol.

    Monomers are available to the next group of bacteria.

    Hydrolysis of complex molecules is catalyzed by extra cellular enzymes (cellulose, proteases and lipases).

    Hydrolytic phase is relatively slow ,can be limiting in anaerobic digestion.

  • ACIDOGENESIS

    Acidogenic bacteria converts sugar, aminoacids and fatty acids to organic acids (acetic, propionic, formic, lactic, butyric acids), alcohols and ketones (ethanol, methanol, glycerol and acetone), acetate, CO2and H2.

    Acetate is the main product of carbohydrate fermentation.

    The products formed vary with type of bacteria as well as with the culture conditions (temperature, pH etc).

  • ACETOGENESIS

    Acetogenic bacteria converts fatty acids and alcohols into acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide .

    Acetogenic bacteria requires low hydrogen for fatty acids conversion .

    Under relatively high hydrogen partial pressure, acetate formation is reduced and the substrate is converted to propionic acid, butyric acid and ethanol rather than methane.

  • METHANOGENESIS

    Methanogenesis in microbes is a form of anaerobic respiration.

    Methanogens do not use oxygen to breathe, oxygen inhibits the growth of methanogens.

    Terminal electron acceptor in methanogenesis is carbon.

    Two best described pathways involve the use of carbon dioxide and acetic acid as terminal electron acceptors:

    CO2+ 4 H2 CH4 + 2H2O

    CH3COOH CH4 + CO2

  • Acetate

    Short chain fatty acids

    Lipase, protease, pectinase

    cellulase, amylase produced

    by hydrolytic microorganisms

    Stage 1 Hydrolysis

    Organic matter

    (Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins etc)

    Stage 2 Acidogenesis

    (mainly acetic and formic acid)Stage 3 Acetogenesis

    Acetate CO2 and H2

    Methane +CO2

    -oxidation, glycolysis

    deamination, ring reduction

    and ring cleavage

    Carboxylic volatile acids, keto acids,

    hyroxy acids, ketones, alcohols,

    simple sugars, amino aicds,H2 and CO2

    Stage 4 Methanogenesis

    Courtesy-Kashyap .D.R et al ,2003

  • PHASE - III

    FACTORS AFFECTING

    BIOMETHANATION

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • NUTRIENTS

    Lower nutrient requirement compared to aerobic bacteria.

    COD:N range is 700:5.

    N used in synthesis of Enzymes, RNA, DNA.

    Concentration of various nutrients (Speece et. al ,1996)

    N : 50 mg/lP : 10 mg/lS : 5 mg/l

  • pH

    Most important process control parameter.

    Optimum pH between 6.7 & 7.4 range for methanogenic bacteria (Zehnder et. al. 1982).

    Excess alkalinity or ability to control pH must be present to guard against the accumulation of excess volatile acids.

    The three major sources of the alkalinity are lime, Sodium bicarbonate and sodium hydroxide.

  • TEMPERATURE

    Constant and Uniform temperature maintenance.

    Three temperature range

    Psychrophilic range ; < 200 C.

    Mesopholic range ; 200 C to 400C.

    Thermophilic range ; >400 C.

    Rates of methane production double for each 100C temperature change in the mesophilic range .

    Loading rates must decrease as temperature decreases to maintain the same extent of treatment.

    Operation in the thermophilic range is not practical because of the high heating energy requirement (Ronald L. Drostle 1997)

  • Study of temperature variation (Alvarez Rene et al 2007).

    Forced square-wave temperature variations

    (i) 11 0 C and 25 0 C,

    (ii) 15 0 C and 29 0 C,

    (iii) 19 0 C and 32 0C.

    Large cyclic variations in the rate of gas production

    and the methane content.

    The values for volumetric biogas production rate and

    methane yield increased at higher temperatures.

    The average volumetric biogas production rate for

    cyclic operation between 11 and 25 0C was 0.22 L d -1 L -

    1 with a yield of 0.07 m 3CH 4kg -1 VS added (VSadd)

  • Between 15 and 29 0C the volumetric biogas

    production rate increased by 25% (to 0.27 L d -1L-1with

    a yield of 0.08 m 3CH 4 kg -1 VSadd).

    Between 19 and 32 0C, 7% in biogas production was

    found and the methane yield was 0.089 m3 CH4 kg-1

    VSadd.

    Digester showed an immediate response when the

    temperature was elevated, which indicates a well-

    maintained metabolic capacity of the methanogenic

    bacteria during the period of low temperature.

    Periodic temperature variations appear to give less

    decrease in process performance than as prior

    anticipated.

  • Courtesy- Alvarez Rene et al 2007

  • SOLID RETENTION TIME (SRT) AND

    HYDRAULIC RETENTION TIME(HRT)

    SRT is defined as the average time the solid particles

    remains in the reactor.

    The anaerobic digestion is typically performed in

    Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR).

    The performance of CSTR is dependent on hydraulic

    retention time (HRT) of the substrate and the degree of

    contact between the incoming substrate and a viable

    bacterial population (Karim et al.,2005).

    An increase or decrease in SRT results in an increase or

    decrease of the reaction extent.

  • MIXING

    Mixing creates a homogeneous substrate preventing

    stratification and formation of a surface crust, and

    ensures solids remain in suspension.

    Mixing enables heat transfer and particle size reduction

    as digestion progresses .

    Mixing can be performed in two different ways(Kaparaju

    P et al,2007):

    Continuous mixing SRT is equal to HRT

    Non-continuous mixing SRT is more than HRT

  • The effect of continuous , minimal (mixing for 10 min

    prior to extraction / feeding) and intermittent mixing

    (withholding mixing for 2 hr prior to extraction/feeding)

    on methane production was investigated in lab-scale

    CSTR (kaparaju P. et. al ,2007) .

    On comparison to continuous mixing, intermittent and

    minimal mixing strategies improved methane

    productions by 1.3% and 12.5%, respectively.

  • ALKALINITY

    Calcium, magnesium, and ammonium

    bicarbonate are examples of buffering substances

    found in a digester .

    A well established digester has a total alkalinity

    of 2000 to 5000 mg/L.

    The principal consumer of alkalinity in a reactor

    is carbon dioxide .

  • TOXICITY

    Toxicity depends upon the nature of the substance

    , concentration and acclimatization .

    NH 4-N concentration of 1500-3000 mg/L at 200C

    and pH 7.4 and above is considered stimulatory .

    Anaerobic process is highly sensitive to toxicants

    due to slow growth rate.

  • PHASE-IV

    BIOMETHANATION PROCESS

  • Courtesy-MNRE

  • BIOMETHANATION INCLUDES FOUR

    MAJOR ELEMENTS

    1. Pretreatment.

    2. Digestion.

    3. Gas purification

    4. Residue treatment.

  • PRETREATMENT

    Separate out inorganic matter and materials which disrupt mechanical operation of the digester

    Increase the biodegradability of the substrate.

    Classification of the refuse by either wet or dry separation processes

    Provides the feedstock with a high concentration of digestible matter, relatively free of metals, glass and grit

    Dry separation processes offer the advantage of flexibility in selecting the desired water content

    Wet separation processes operate at low solids concentrations, and have the disadvantage of requiring a dewatering step

  • DIGESTION

    Organic feedstock is mixed with nutrients and control chemicals.

    Lime and ferrous salts are added for pH and hydrogen sulfide control.

    Digester operates at mesophilic conditions ( 370C ).

    The conversion occurs in two steps firstly solids are solubilized or digested by enzymic action, secondly the soluble products are fermented in a series of reactions resulting in the production of methane and carbon dioxide.

  • PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION

    Consist of two streams

    The gas stream is composed of approximately equal

    volumes of methane and carbon dioxide.

    The slurry stream is composed of an aqueous

    suspension of undigested organic matter.

  • SINGLE-STAGE HIGH RATE

    DIGESTION

    Process done in single digester

    Uniform feed is very important

    Digester fed on daily cycle of 8 or 24 hours.

    Digester tank may have fixed roof or floating

    roof.

  • TWO-STAGE DIGESTION

    Seldom used in modern digester design.

    High rate digester coupled with second tank in

    series.

    Second tank not provided with mixing

    contraption.

    Less than 10% of the gas generated comes from

    second tank

  • GAS TREATMENT AND HANDLING

    Gas from digester contains methane, carbon dioxide and trace quantities of hydrogen sulfide.

    CO2 and H2S must be removed if the methane gas is to be pumped for combustion purpose.

    Standard method of removing acid gases from natural gas is by absorption with monoethanolamine (MEA), the MEA is then regenerated and recirculated.

    Methane must also be dried, accomplished by a glycol dehydration process in which the moisture is absorbed in dry glycol, which is also regenerated and recirculated.

  • PHASE V

    BIOMETHANATION OF MSW IN

    INDIA

  • Project for generation of 5 MW power from Municipal Solid

    Waste at Lucknow (Courtesy MNRE)

    Courtesy-MNRE

  • ENERGY RECOVERY POTENTIAL

    Courtesy-Ambulkar.A.R et al 2003

  • Energy ResourcesMaterial Resources

    Commercial

    sources

    Non-conventional

    sources

    Industrial

    Utilization

    Agricultural

    Consumption

    Human

    Consumption

    Waste Generation

    Manure

    Biomethanation

    TechnologyBiogas

    Processing

    of waste

    Degradable

    organic matterInerts

    Municipal

    Solid waste

    Energy Generation-Consumption in System

    Role of Biomethanation Technology

    in the system

    Energy ResourcesEnergy ResourcesMaterial ResourcesMaterial Resources

    Commercial

    sources

    Commercial

    sources

    Non-conventional

    sources

    Non-conventional

    sources

    Industrial

    Utilization

    Industrial

    Utilization

    Agricultural

    Consumption

    Agricultural

    Consumption

    Human

    Consumption

    Human

    Consumption

    Waste GenerationWaste Generation

    ManureManure

    Biomethanation

    Technology

    Biomethanation

    TechnologyBiogasBiogas

    Processing

    of waste

    Processing

    of waste

    Degradable

    organic matter

    Degradable

    organic matterInertsInerts

    Municipal

    Solid waste

    Municipal

    Solid waste

    Energy Generation-Consumption in System

    Role of Biomethanation Technology

    in the system

    ENERGY GENERATION/CONSUMPTION IN

    SYSTEM

    Courtesy-Ambulkar.A.R et al 2003

  • Parameters related with Technical

    Feasibility

    Need for obtaining waste

    with desired composition

    addressing the following

    issues:

    Annual seasonal

    variation in waste

    composition.

    Identification of

    points for collection

    of waste.

    Source specific

    collection of waste.

    Ensuring process kinetics

    to be fast enough for

    implementation at plant

    scale addressing the

    following parameters with

    optimum conditions:

    pH

    Digester Temperature

    (Thermophilic,

    mesophilic conditions)

    Carbon to Nitrogen ratio

    Maintenance of

    COD/BOD values of the

    reactor feed.

    Ensuring the

    conditioning of waste

    at processing site with

    respect to the

    following points:

    Removal of non-

    biodegradables

    Removal of

    binders like soil

    particles, stones,

    etc.

    Adjustment of

    water content in

    the feed to the

    reactor.

    Parameters related with Technical

    Feasibility

    Parameters related with Technical

    Feasibility

    Need for obtaining waste

    with desired composition

    addressing the following

    issues:

    Annual seasonal

    variation in waste

    composition.

    Identification of

    points for collection

    of waste.

    Source specific

    collection of waste.

    Need for obtaining waste

    with desired composition

    addressing the following

    issues:

    Annual seasonal

    variation in waste

    composition.

    Identification of

    points for collection

    of waste.

    Source specific

    collection of waste.

    Ensuring process kinetics

    to be fast enough for

    implementation at plant

    scale addressing the

    following parameters with

    optimum conditions:

    pH

    Digester Temperature

    (Thermophilic,

    mesophilic conditions)

    Carbon to Nitrogen ratio

    Maintenance of

    COD/BOD values of the

    reactor feed.

    Ensuring process kinetics

    to be fast enough for

    implementation at plant

    scale addressing the

    following parameters with

    optimum conditions:

    pH

    Digester Temperature

    (Thermophilic,

    mesophilic conditions)

    Carbon to Nitrogen ratio

    Maintenance of

    COD/BOD values of the

    reactor feed.

    Ensuring the

    conditioning of waste

    at processing site with

    respect to the

    following points:

    Removal of non-

    biodegradables

    Removal of

    binders like soil

    particles, stones,

    etc.

    Adjustment of

    water content in

    the feed to the

    reactor.

    Ensuring the

    conditioning of waste

    at processing site with

    respect to the

    following points:

    Removal of non-

    biodegradables

    Removal of

    binders like soil

    particles, stones,

    etc.

    Adjustment of

    water content in

    the feed to the

    reactor.

    PARAMETERS RESPONSIBLE FOR TECHNICAL

    FEASIBILITY OF BIOMETHANATION PLANT

    Courtesy-Ambulkar.A.R et al 2003

  • Factors affecting the

    economy of plant

    Compromise with the

    quality of raw material as

    energy generation

    source

    MSW being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture has a

    remarkable seasonal

    variation which

    hampers the quality

    of product

    Energy inefficiency associated

    with the plant

    Biological processing is a time

    consuming process and hence

    energy generation rates are

    low.

    Net energy generation rate is

    low as it involves the

    efficiencies associated with

    both biogas generation and

    biogas combustion.

    The calorific value of biogas is

    comparatively less as it

    contains about 50% CO2 along

    with methane.

    Costs associated with

    Pre- and Post- treatment

    of the feed

    Raw material being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture with

    considerable amount

    of inerts and needs

    pre-treatment.

    Large amount of

    wastewater is

    generated with

    needs an efficient

    method for treatment.

    Problems associated with

    marketing of products

    Uncertainty in markets

    for the digestate

    represents a

    commercial risk, which

    impacts on the

    technologys costs.

    Other energy

    generation sources

    will have to competitive

    edge over the biogas.

    Compost is not yet

    established as a

    product marketable.

    Factors affecting the

    economy of plant

    Factors affecting the

    economy of plant

    Compromise with the

    quality of raw material as

    energy generation

    source

    MSW being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture has a

    remarkable seasonal

    variation which

    hampers the quality

    of product

    Compromise with the

    quality of raw material as

    energy generation

    source

    MSW being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture has a

    remarkable seasonal

    variation which

    hampers the quality

    of product

    Energy inefficiency associated

    with the plant

    Biological processing is a time

    consuming process and hence

    energy generation rates are

    low.

    Net energy generation rate is

    low as it involves the

    efficiencies associated with

    both biogas generation and

    biogas combustion.

    The calorific value of biogas is

    comparatively less as it

    contains about 50% CO2 along

    with methane.

    Energy inefficiency associated

    with the plant

    Biological processing is a time

    consuming process and hence

    energy generation rates are

    low.

    Net energy generation rate is

    low as it involves the

    efficiencies associated with

    both biogas generation and

    biogas combustion.

    The calorific value of biogas is

    comparatively less as it

    contains about 50% CO2 along

    with methane.

    Costs associated with

    Pre- and Post- treatment

    of the feed

    Raw material being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture with

    considerable amount

    of inerts and needs

    pre-treatment.

    Large amount of

    wastewater is

    generated with

    needs an efficient

    method for treatment.

    Costs associated with

    Pre- and Post- treatment

    of the feed

    Raw material being a

    heterogeneous

    mixture with

    considerable amount

    of inerts and needs

    pre-treatment.

    Large amount of

    wastewater is

    generated with

    needs an efficient

    method for treatment.

    Problems associated with

    marketing of products

    Uncertainty in markets

    for the digestate

    represents a

    commercial risk, which

    impacts on the

    technologys costs.

    Other energy

    generation sources

    will have to competitive

    edge over the biogas.

    Compost is not yet

    established as a

    product marketable.

    Problems associated with

    marketing of products

    Uncertainty in markets

    for the digestate

    represents a

    commercial risk, which

    impacts on the

    technologys costs.

    Other energy

    generation sources

    will have to competitive

    edge over the biogas.

    Compost is not yet

    established as a

    product marketable.

    PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE COMMERCIAL

    VIABILITY OF BIOMETHANATION PLANT

    Courtesy-Ambulkar.A.R et al 2003

  • Factors enhancing the

    economy of plant

    Reduction in costs

    Reduction in raw

    material transportation

    cost.

    The feed MSW is very

    cheap and so less raw

    material cost.

    Financial Incentives from

    government

    Financial and fiscal

    incentives offered by the

    Ministry of Non

    Conventional Energy

    Sources.

    Constitutional Amendment

    Act and emphasis on

    privatization has led to the

    creation of this market in

    India.

    Factors enhancing the

    economy of plant

    Factors enhancing the

    economy of plant

    Reduction in costs

    Reduction in raw

    material transportation

    cost.

    The feed MSW is very

    cheap and so less raw

    material cost.

    Reduction in costs

    Reduction in raw

    material transportation

    cost.

    The feed MSW is very

    cheap and so less raw

    material cost.

    Financial Incentives from

    government

    Financial and fiscal

    incentives offered by the

    Ministry of Non

    Conventional Energy

    Sources.

    Constitutional Amendment

    Act and emphasis on

    privatization has led to the

    creation of this market in

    India.

    Financial Incentives from

    government

    Financial and fiscal

    incentives offered by the

    Ministry of Non

    Conventional Energy

    Sources.

    Constitutional Amendment

    Act and emphasis on

    privatization has led to the

    creation of this market in

    India.

    PARAMETERS FAVORING THE COMMERCIAL

    VIABILITY OF BIOMETHANATION PLANT

    Courtesy-Ambulkar.A.R et al 2003

  • PHASE VI

    BIOMETHANATION PLANT IN

    ABROAD AND INDIA

  • VALORGATM PLANT AT FRANCE

    PrincipleThe Valorga process is an anaerobic biological treatment process for waste organic fraction .

    Advantages

    Adapted to the treatment of organic municipal solid waste

    The process operates under anaerobic conditions with a high dry solid content of 25 - 35 %, owing to a specific process design.

    Anaerobic digestion leads to the production of a high methane content gas: the biogas.

    Does not require a large land area.

  • VALORGATM PROCESS

  • SPRERI PLANT AT ANAND Courtesy- SPRERI

  • SPRERI PLANT AT ANAND

    SARDAR PATEL RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

  • APPROPRIATE RURAL TECHNOLOGY

    INSTITUTE (ARTI), PUNE

    Schematic description of the small ARTI compact

    biogas plant. Courtesy-ARTI

  • APPROPRIATE RURAL TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE

    (ARTI), PUNE

    Construction of an ARTI compact

    biogas plant.

    ARTI biogas plant for treatment of

    kitchen waste at household level.

    The design, has won the Ashden Award for Sustainable Energy 2006

  • Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai

    Courtesy-MNES

  • Biogas Plant at Trombay

    Courtesy-MNES

  • Parameters of BARC technology

    Courtesy-MNES

  • The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi

    Courtesy-TERI

  • Waste is fed into the acidification module. UASB unit

    The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi

    Courtesy-TERI

  • PROJECTS INSTALLED FOR

    ENERGY FROM URBAN WASTES

    6.6 MW project based on MSW at Hyderabad

    6 MW project based on MSW at Vijayawada

    5 MW project based on MSW at Lucknow

    1 MW power from Cattle Dung at Ludhiana

    150 kW plant for Veg. Market, sewage and

    slaughterhouse waste at Vijayawada

    250 kW power from Veg. Market wastes at

    Chennai.

  • PHASE VII

    RESULTS ANS DISCUSSIONS

  • SALIENT POINTS

    ULTIMATE GOAL OF BIOMETHANATION

    DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL POLICY

    DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

    IMPROVEMENTS IN COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

    MARKETING STRATEGY

    ALLOCATION OF FUNDING

    PUBLIC AWARENESS

  • CONCLUSION

    Considerable potential for enhancing the biogas production from the present stock of MSW

    generated in the country.

    Drastic reduction in the emission of CH4 and CO2, earning the country precious carbon credits.

    Assist in implementation of KYOTO protocol.

  • REFERENCES

    Alvarez Rene and Liden Gunnar (2007), The effect of temperature variation on biomethanation, Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) pp 7278- 7284.

    Ambulkar A.R and Shekdar A.V (2003), Prospects of biomethanation technology in the Indian context: a pragmatic approach, Resources Conservation and Recycling 40 (2004) pp 111-128.

    Bhattacharyya J.K., Kumar S., Devotta S., (2008), Studies on acidification in two-phase biomethanation process of municipal solid waste, Waste Management 28 (1), 164-169. Bioresource Technology 77 (2000) pp 612-623.

    Dhussa A. K and Tiwari R.C (2000), Article on Waste-to-energy in India.http://www.undp.org.in/programme/GEF/march00/page 12-14.

    Kaparaju P, Buendia I, Ellegaard L and Angelidakia I (2007), Effect of mixing on methane production during Thermophilic anaerobic digestion of manure: Lab-scale and pilot-scale studies, Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) pp 4919-4928.

    Karim K., Hoffmann R., Klasson K.T., Al-Dahhan M.H.,(2005), Anaerobic digestion of animal waste : effect of mixing, Science Technology 45, pp 3397-3606.

    Kashyap. D.R, Dadhich. K. S, Sharma. S. K (2003), Biomethanation under psychrophilic conditions, Bioresource Technology 87 (2003) pp 147 - 153.

    Kim I.S., Kim D.H., Hyun S.H.,(2002), Effect of particle size and sodium concentration on anaerobic thermophilic food waste digestion, Science Technology 41,pp 61-73.

    Kumar D., Khare M., Alappat B.J.(2001), Leachate generation from municipal landfills in New Delhi, India.27th WEDC Conference on People and Systems for Water, Sanitation and Health, Lusaka, Zambia.

    Mahindrakar AB, Shekdar AV.(2000), Health risks from open dumps: a perspective, Bioresource Technology 63 (2000) pp 281 - 293.

    Muller Christian., (2007), Anaerobic digestion of biodegradable solid waste in Low and Middle income countries, Eawag Aquatic Research.

    Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules,(2000), MNES, Govt of India, New Delhi.

  • NEERI Report (2005), Assessment of Status of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Metro Cities, State Capitals, Class I Cities and Class II Towns.

    Parkin G. F,Owen, William F, (1986)*, Fundamentals of anaerobic digestion of waste water sludges, J. Env. Engg. Div. ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 5, pp 867-920.

    Ronald, L. Drostle, (1997)*, Theory and practice of water and waste water treatment, John Wiley and sons, Inc USA ( NewYork).

    Sawyer, Clair N, Mc Carty, Perry L. and Gene F. Parkin (2003), Chemistry for Environmental Engineering and Sciences (Fifth Edition), Tata McGraw Hill Book Company, pp 689-697.

    Solid waste manual (2004), MNES, Govt of India. Speece R.E. (1983)*, Anaerobic biotechnology for Industrial waste water treatment.

    Env. Sci.and Tech Vol.17, No.19, pp 416A.

    Vavilin V.A., Angelidaki I., (2005), Anaerobic degradation of solid material: Importance of initiation centers for methanogenesis, mixing intensity and 2D distributed model, Biotechnology, Bioengineering 89(1), 13-122.

    Zehnder, A.J, K. Ingvorsen and T. Marti (1982)*, Microbiology of methanogen bacteria in anaerobic digestion, pp 45-68.

    * - Papers not referred in original

  • WISHING A VERY HAPPY

    TEACHERS DAY


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