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i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 123–129
avai lab le at www.sc iencedi rec t .com
journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate / indcrop
oisture-dependent physical properties ofatropha seed (Jatropha curcas L.)
.K. Garnayaka, R.C. Pradhana, S.N. Naika,∗, N. Bhatnagarb
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, IndiaMechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:
eceived 21 June 2007
eceived in revised form
1 August 2007
ccepted 1 September 2007
eywords:
atropha seed
hysical properties
a b s t r a c t
The study was conducted to investigate some moisture-dependent physical properties of
jatropha seed namely, seed dimension, 1000 seed mass, surface area, sphericity, bulk density,
true density, angle of repose and static coefficient of friction against different materials. The
physical properties of jatropha seed were evaluated as a function of moisture content in the
range of 4.75–19.57% d.w. The average length, width, thickness and 1000 seed mass were
18.65 mm, 11.34 mm, 8.91 mm and 741.1 g, respectively at moisture content of 4.75% d.w. The
geometric mean diameter and sphericity increased from 12.32 to 12.89 mm and 0.66 to 0.67
as moisture content increased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w., respectively. In the same moisture
range, densities of the rewetted jatropha seed decreased from 492 to 419 kg m−3, true density
increased from 679 to 767 kg m−3, and the corresponding porosity increased from 27.54 to
oisture content 45.37%. As the moisture content increased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w., the angle of repose
and surface area were found to increase from 28.15◦ to 39.95◦ and 476.78 to 521.99 mm2,
respectively. The static coefficient of friction of jatropha seed increased linearly against the
surfaces of three structural materials, namely plywood (44.12%), mild steel sheet (64.15%)
and aluminum (68.63%) as the moisture content increased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w.
plants start yielding from the second year of planting, but inlimited quantity. If managed properly, it starts giving 4–5 kg
. Introduction
ndia is the sixth largest country in the world in terms ofnergy demand, which is 3.5% of the world commercial energyemand and is expected to grow at the rate of 4.8% pernnum of its present demand (M.S. Kumar et al., 2003). Therowth in energy demand in all forms is expected to con-inue unabated owing to increasing urbanization, standard ofiving and expanding population. In the Indian context, thestimated import of crude oil may go up from 85 to 147 MMTer annum by the end of 2006–2007, correspondingly increas-
ng the import bill from $13.3 to $15.7 billion (Biofuel Report,003).
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591162; fax: +91 11 26591121.E-mail address: [email protected] (S.N. Naik).
926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2007.09.001
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Jatropha curcas L. (physic nut or purging nut) is a droughtresistant shrub or tree belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae,which is cultivated in Central and South America, South-EastAsia, India and Africa (Mart�nez-Herrera et al., 2006). Jatrophahitherto considered as a wild oilseed plant of the tropics isnow being credited as a most promising biofuel crop, ideallysuited for growing in the wastelands of the country. Jatrophaplants grow on poor degraded soils and are able to ensure areasonable production of seeds with very little inputs. Jatropha
of seed per tree production from the fifth year onwards andseed yield can be obtained up to 40–50 years from the day of
r o d
124 i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d pplanting. On an average 5 mt seed can be harvested from 1 haof area (S. Kumar et al., 2003).
The proximate composition such as crude protein 23.6%,ether extract 29.8%, ash 3.2%, crude fibre 1.8% and nitrogenfree extract 21.6%, for jatropha seed has been evaluated byAmbubode and Fetuga (1983). The oil content of jatropha seedranges from 30 to 40% by weight and the kernel itself rangesfrom 45 to 55% (Lahane and Relwani, 1986). The fatty acid com-position of jatropha classifies it as a linoleic or oleic acid type,which are unsaturated fatty acids. The seeds and oil are toxicdue to the presence of cursive and curcasive. However, fromthe properties of this oil it is envisaged that the oil would besuitable as fuel oil.
In the process of extracting the jatropha oil and its deriva-tives, the seeds undergo a series of unit operations. Knowledgeof the physical properties and their dependence on the mois-ture content of jatropha seed is essential to facilitate andimprove the design of the equipment for harvesting, pro-cessing and storage of the seeds. Various types of cleaning,grading, separation, oil extraction equipment are designed onthe basis of the physical properties of seeds. Review of theliterature has revealed that limited research has been con-ducted on the physical properties of jatropha seed. Mangarajand Singh (2006) and Sirisomboon et al. (2007) found out somephysical and mechanical properties of jatropha at a partic-ular moisture content. However, detailed measurements ofthe principal dimensions and the variation of physical prop-erties of jatropha seed at various levels of moisture contenthave not been investigated. The purpose of this study was todetermine some moisture-dependent, physical properties ofjatropha seed, namely, linear dimensions, size, sphericity, sur-face area, 1000 seed mass weight, bulk density, true density,porosity, angle of repose and static coefficient of friction in themoisture range of 4.75–19.57% d.w.
2. Materials and methods
Jatropha seed was procured from northern parts (Delhi,Haryana) of India for the study. The sample was cleanedmanually to remove all foreign materials such as dust, dirt,small branches and immature seeds. The cleaned and gradedseeds were sun dried and the initial moisture content of seedwas determined by using the standard hot air oven methodat 105 ± 1 ◦C for 24 h (Brusewitz, 1975; Gupta and Das, 1997;Ozarslan, 2002; Altuntases et al., 2005; Coskun et al., 2005).The initial moisture content of the seed was 4.75% d.w.
Samples were moistened with a calculated quantity ofwater by using the following equation (1) (Coskun et al., 2005)and conditioned to raise their moisture content to the desiredseven different levels:
Q = Wi(Mf − Mi)100 − Mf
(1)
where Q is the mass of water added (kg), Wi the initial mass ofthe sample (kg), M the initial moisture content of the sample
i(% d.w.), and Mf is the final moisture content of the sample (%d.w.).
A pre-determined quantity of tap water was added tothe seed sub-lot of 2.5 kg and was thoroughly mixed. These
u c t s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 123–129
rewetted samples were then poured in high molecular high-density polyethylene bags of 100 �m thickness and the bagssealed tightly. The samples were kept at 5 ◦C in a refrigera-tor for a week to enable the moisture to distribute uniformlythroughout the sample. Before starting the tests, the requiredquantities of the samples were taken out of the refrigeratorand allowed to warm to room temperature for about 2 h. Allthe physical properties of the seed were assessed at moisturelevels of 4.75, 7.22, 9.69, 12.16, 14.63, 17.10 and 19.57% d.w.The rewetting technique to attain the desired moisture con-tent in seed and grain has frequently been used (Nimkar andChattopadhyay, 2001; Sacilik et al., 2003; Coskun et al., 2005).For each moisture content, the length, width and thickness ofmaterials were measured by a vernier caliper (Mitutoyo, Japan)with an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
The average diameter of seed was calculated by usingthe arithmetic mean and geometric mean of the three axialdimensions. The arithmetic mean diameter, Da and geomet-ric mean diameter, Dg of the seed were calculated by using thefollowing relationships (Mohsenin, 1970):
Da = L + W + T
3(2)
Dg = (LWT)1/3 (3)
The sphericity � of jatropha seed was calculated by using thefollowing relationship (Mohsenin, 1970):
� = (LWT)1/3
L(4)
where L is the length, W the width and T is the thickness, allin mm.
The 1000 seed mass was determined by means of a digitalelectronic balance (Shimadzu Corporation, Japan, AY120) hav-ing an accuracy of 0.001 g. To evaluate the 1000 seed mass, 30randomly selected seeds from the bulk sample were averaged.
The surface area of jatropha seed was found by analogywith a sphere of the same geometric mean diameter, using thefollowing relationship (Sacilik et al., 2003; Tunde-Akintundeand Akintunde, 2004; Altuntases et al., 2005):
S = �D2g (5)
where S is the surface area (mm2).The bulk density was determined by filling a cylindrical
container of 500 ml volume with the seed a height of 150 mmat a constant rate and then weighing the contents (Gupta andDas, 1997). No separate manual compaction of seeds was done.The bulk density was calculated from the mass of the seedsand the volume of the container. The true density defined asthe ratio between the mass of jatropha seed and the true vol-ume of the seed, was determined using the toluene (C H )
7 8displacement method. Toluene was used in place of waterbecause it is absorbed by seeds to a lesser extent. The vol-ume of toluene displaced was found by immersing a weightedquantity of jatropha seed in the toluene (Sacilik et al., 2003).
d u c t s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 123–129 125
d
ε
w�
ecddpaT
�
wcaS
da3taanrpt1ef
�
w(
cdtt(y
3
3
AssEo
hys
ical
pro
per
ties
ofja
trop
ha
seed
atd
iffe
ren
tm
oist
ure
con
ten
t
Axi
ald
imen
sion
s(m
m)
Ave
rage
dia
met
ers
(mm
)Sp
her
icit
y(d
ecim
al)
Surf
ace
area
(mm
2)
Bu
lkd
ensi
ty(k
gm
−3)
Tru
ed
ensi
ty(k
gm
−3)
Poro
sity
(%)
An
gle
ofre
pos
e(◦
)Te
stw
eigh
t(g
)
Len
gth
,LW
idth
,WT
hic
knes
s,T
Ari
thm
etic
mea
n,D
a
Geo
met
ric
mea
n,D
g
18.6
5a
11.3
4a
8.91
a12
.97
a12
.32
a0.
66a
476.
78a
492
a67
9a
27.5
4a
28.1
5a
741.
10a
18.8
3b
11.4
7a
9.01
b13
.10
b12
.45
a0.
66a
486.
94b
476
a71
1a
33.0
5b
29.3
5b
761.
50b
18.9
8b
11.5
9bc
9.16
cd13
.24
bc12
.60
ab0.
66a
498.
65c
461
b73
0ab
36.8
5bc
31.4
9b
777.
90c
19.0
1b
11.6
1bc
9.21
de
13.2
8cd
12.6
4bc
0.66
a50
1.70
d44
9bc
737
b39
.08
c33
.52
b80
3.25
d19
.08
c11
.69
d9.
26e
13.3
4cd
12.7
0cd
0.67
b50
7.01
de
435
c74
4c
41.5
3d
35.4
3c
844.
21d
e19
.10
cd11
.79
de
9.28
f13
.39
e12
.75
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01e
425
d75
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9f
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f
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me
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mn
sfo
llow
edby
dif
fere
nt
lett
ers
(a–f
)are
sign
ifica
nt
(P<
0.05
).
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o
The porosity of bulk seed was calculated from bulk and trueensities using the relationship (Mohsenin, 1970), as follows:
=(
1 − �b
�t
)× 100 (6)
here ε is the porosity (%), �b the bulk density (kg m−3), and
t is the true density (kg m−3).The angle of repose was determined by using an open-
nded cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 50 cm height. Theylinder was placed at the centre of a circular plate having aiameter of 70 cm and was filled with jatropha seed. The cylin-er was raised slowly until it formed a cone on the circularlate. The height of the cone was recorded by using a move-ble pointer fixed on a stand having a scale of 0–1 cm precision.he angle of repose � was calculated using the formula:
= tan−1(
2H
D
)(7)
here H is the height of the cone (cm) and D is the diameter ofone (cm). Other researchers have used this method (Fraser etl., 1978; Joshi et al., 1993; Kaleemullah and Gunasekar, 2002;acilik et al., 2003; Karababa, 2006).
The static coefficient of friction, �, of jatropha seed wasetermined on three different materials, namely, plywood,luminium and mild steel sheet. The tilting platform of50 mm × 120 mm was fabricated and used for experimenta-ion. An open-ended plastic cylinder having 65 mm diameternd 40 mm height was filled with the seed and placed on thedjustable tilting surface. The box was raised slightly so asot to touch the surface. The structural surface with the boxesting on it was inclined gradually with a screw device (screwitch 1.4 mm), until the cylinder just started to slide down andhe angle of tilt was read from a graduated scale (Fraser et al.,978; Shepherd and Bhardwaj, 1986; Dutta et al., 1988; Nimkart al., 2005). The coefficient of friction was calculated from theollowing relationship:
= tan ˛ (8)
here � is the coefficient of friction and ˛ is the angle of tilt◦).
The average size of the seed, 100 seeds were randomlyhosen and the other physical properties of the seeds wereetermined at seven moisture (from 4.57 to 19.57% d.w.) con-ent with 10 replications at each moisture content level, andhe results obtained were subjected to analysis of varianceANOVA) and DUNCAN test using SPSS 10.0 software and anal-sis of regression using Microsoft Excel.
. Results and discussion
.1. Seed dimensions
verage values of the three principal dimensions of jatropha
eed, viz., length, width and thickness determined in thistudy at different moisture contents are presented in Table 1.ach principal dimension appeared to be linearly dependentn the moisture content as shown in Fig. 1. Very high corre-Tabl
e1
–P
Moi
stu
reco
nte
nt
(%d
.w.)
4.75
7.22
9.69
12.1
614
.63
17.1
019
.57
Val
ues
inth
126 i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 123–129
Fig. 1 – Variation of principal dimensions and geometricmean diameter of jatropha seed with moisture content. (♦)Length; (×) geometric mean diameter; (�) width; (�)
The seed bulk density at different moisture levels varied from492 to 419 kg m−3 (P < 0.05) (Fig. 3) and indicated a decrease inbulk density with an increase in moisture content from 4.75 to19.57% d.w. This was due to the fact that an increase in mass
thickness.
lation was observed between the three principal dimensionsand moisture content indicating that upon moisture absorp-tion, the jatropha seed expands in length, width and thicknesswithin the moisture range of 4.75–19.57% d.w. The meandimensions of 100 seeds measured at a moisture content of4.75% d.w. are: length 18.65 ± 0.62 mm, width 11.34 ± 0.44 mmand thickness 8.91 ± 0.44 mm. Differences between values arestatistically important at P < 0.05.
The average diameter calculated by the arithmetic meanand geometric mean are also presented in Table 1. The averagediameters increased with the increase in moisture content asaxial dimensions. The arithmetic and geometric mean diam-eter ranged from 12.97 to 13.51 and 12.32 to 12.89 mm as themoisture content increased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w., respec-tively (P < 0.05).
3.2. Sphericity
The values of sphericity were calculated individually with Eq.(4) by using the data on geometric mean diameter and themajor axis of the seed and the results obtained are presentedin Table 1. It is seen that the grain has mean values of spheric-ity ranging from 0.66 to 0.67. Mangaraj and Singh (2006) andSirisomboon et al. (2007) have reported the values for spheric-ity of jatropha seed as 0.61 and 0.64, respectively, which is closeto the results of this investigation.
Bal and Mishra (1988) and Dutta et al. (1988) considered thegrain as spherical when the sphericity value was more than0.80 and 0.70, respectively. In this study, jatropha seed shouldnot be treated as an equivalent sphere for calculation of thesurface area.
3.3. Seed mass
The 1000 seed mass of jatropha seed, M1000 (g) increased from741.10 to 903.15 g (P < 0.05) as the moisture content increasedfrom 4.75 to 19.57% d.w. (Table 1). The linear equation for 1000
Fig. 2 – Effect of moisture content on surface area ofjatropha seed.
seed mass can be formulated to be
M1000 = 675.53 + 11.63M
with a value for the coefficient of determination R2 of 0.976.A similar increasing trend has been reported by
Visvanathan et al. (1996) for neem nut and Sacilik et al.(2003) for hemp seed.
3.4. Surface area
The surface area of the seed was calculated by using Eq. (3). Asseen from Fig. 2, the surface area of jatropha seed increaseslinearly from 476.78 to 521.99 mm2 (statistically significant atP < 0.05) when the moisture content increased from 4.75 to19.57% d.w. The variation of moisture content and surface areacan be expressed mathematically as follows
S = 468.11 + 2.69M
with a value for R2 of 0.957.A similar trend has been reported by Selvi et al. (2006) for
linseed and Isik and Unal (2007) for red kidney bean grains.
3.5. Bulk density
Fig. 3 – Variation of bulk density, true density and porosityof jatropha seed with moisture content. (�) True density; (×)bulk density; (�) porosity.
d u c t s 2 7 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 123–129 127
oalaa1h
�
w
r
3
Aaiswriml
�
w
Y(r
3
Ptufsv
ε
w
rie
3
Tttoomo
be owing to smoother and more polished surface of the alu-minum sheet than the other materials used. Plywood alsooffered the maximum friction for rape seed, pigeon pea, gramand neem nut and the coefficient of friction increased with
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o
wing to moisture gain in the grain sample was lower thanccompanying volumetric expansion of the bulk. The negativeinear relationship of bulk density with moisture content waslso observed by various other research workers (Shepherdnd Bhardwaj, 1986; Dutta et al., 1988; Gupta and Prakash,990; Carman, 1996). The bulk density of seed was found toave the following linear relationship with moisture content:
b = 512 − 5.02M
ith a value for R2 of 0.985.A similar decreasing trend in bulk density has been
eported by Visvanathan et al. (1996) for neem nut.
.6. True density
plot of experimentally obtained values of true densitygainst moisture content (Fig. 3) indicated an increase (P < 0.05)n true density with an increase in moisture content in thepecific moisture range. The increase in true density variesith increase in moisture content might be attributed to the
elatively lower true volume as compared to the correspond-ng mass of the seed attained due to adsorption of water. The
oisture dependence of the true density was described by ainear equation as follows
t = 668.55 + 5.15M
ith a value for R2 of 0.911.Although the results were similar to those reported by
alcın and Ozarslan (2004) for vetch seed and Aviara et al.2005) for Balanites aegyptiaca nuts, a different trend waseported by Cetin (2007) for barbunia.
.7. Porosity
orosity was evaluated using mean values of bulk density andrue density in Eq. (6). The variation of porosity dependingpon moisture content is shown in Fig. 3. The porosity was
ound to increase linearly from 27.54 to 45.37% (P < 0.05) in thepecified moisture levels. The relationship between porosityalue and the moisture content of the seed was obtained as
= 24.26 + 1.14M
ith a value for R2 of 0.956.Selvi et al. (2006) for linseed and Isik and Unal (2007) for
ed kidney bean grains stated that as the moisture contentncreased, the porosity value also increased but Visvanathant al. (1996) reported a decreasing trend for neem nut.
.8. Angle of repose
he experimental results for the angle of repose with respecto moisture content are shown in Fig. 4. The values were foundo increase from 28.15◦ to 39.95◦ (P < 0.05) in the moisture range
f 4.75–19.57% d.w. Sirisomboon et al. (2007) reported the anglef repose value of 37.76◦ for jatropha seed, gave good agree-ent with the ones obtained in the present study. The valuesf the angle of repose for jatropha seed bear the following
Fig. 4 – Effect of moisture content on angle of repose ofjatropha seed.
relationship with its moisture content:
� = 23.6 + 0.84M
with a value for R2 of 0.989.These results were similar to those reported by
Visvanathan et al. (1996) and Sacilik et al. (2003) for neem nutand hemp seed, respectively.
3.9. Static coefficient of friction
The static coefficient of friction of jatropha seed on threesurfaces (plywood, aluminum and mild steel sheet) againstmoisture content in the range of 4.75–19.57% d.w. are pre-sented in Fig. 5. It is observed that the static coefficient offriction increased linearly with increase in moisture contentfor all contact surfaces. The reason for the increased frictioncoefficient at higher moisture content may be owing to thewater present in the seed offering a cohesive force on thesurface of contact. Increases of 44.12%, 64.15% and 68.63%were recorded in the case of plywood, mild steel and alu-minum, respectively, as the moisture content increased from4.75 to 19.57% d.w. At all moisture contents, the maximumfriction was offered by plywood, followed by mild steel andaluminum surface. The least static coefficient of friction may
Fig. 5 – Effect of moisture content on static coefficient offriction of jatropha seed against various surfaces.
r o d
r
128 i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p
the moisture content (Shepherd and Bhardwaj, 1986; Dutta etal., 1988; Kulkelko et al., 1988; Visvanathan et al., 1996). Therelationships between static coefficient of friction and mois-ture content on plywood (wd), aluminum (al) and mild steel(ms) can be represented by the following equations:
�wd = 0.56 + 0.02M (R2 = 0.981); �al = 0.413 + 0.03M
(R2 = 0.986); �ms = 0.432 + 0.02M (R2 = 0.978)
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the investigationon moisture-dependent physical properties of jatropha seedin the moisture content ranging from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w. Theaverage length, width, thickness of jatropha seed ranged from18.65 to 19.21, 11.34 to 11.85 and 8.91 to 9.48 mm, respec-tively, as moisture content increased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w.One thousand seed mass and surface area of jatropha seedincreased from 741.1 to 903.15 g and 476.78 to 521.99 mm2
with increase in moisture content, respectively. The geomet-ric mean diameter and sphericity were found to increase from12.32 to 12.89 mm and 0.66 to 0.67, respectively, in the mois-ture range of 4.75–19.57% d.w. Spehericity of jatropha seed wasnot significantly affected at the various moisture levels. Thebulk density decreased from 492 to 419 kg m−3 and true den-sity increased from 679 to 767 kg m−3, respectively, while theporosity was increased from 27.54 to 45.37% as the moisturecontent increased from of 4.75 to 19.57% d.w. The angle ofrepose increased from 28.15◦ to 39.95◦ as the moisture contentincreased from 4.75 to 19.57% d.w.
The static coefficient of friction increased for all threesurfaces, namely, plywood (0.68–0.98, 44.12%), mild steel(0.53–0.87, 64.15%) and aluminum (0.51–0.86, 68.63%) as themoisture content increased from of 4.75 to 19.57% d.w. Differ-ences between all values are statistically important at P < 0.05.
Acknowledgement
Funding for this research was provided by the National Oilseedand Vegetable oils Development (NOVOD) Board, Gurgaon,Delhi (India).
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