Download - Memory
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Memory
Dr. Urooj Sadiq
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Memory: Active system that stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information
Encoding: Converting information into a useable form
Storage: Holding this information in memory
Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage
Memory: Key Terms
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Stages of Memory
1. Sensory Memory
2. Short-Term Memory
3. Long-Term Memory
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Sensory Memory/Sensory register: Storing an exact copy of incoming information for less than a second; until it has been processed the first stage of memory
Icon: A brief mental image or visual representation
Echo: After a sound is heard, a brief continuation of the sound in the auditory system
Sensory Memory
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Short-Term Memory (STM): second stage of memory; stores small amounts of information briefly; very sensitive to interruption or interference
Phonetically: Storing information by sound;
Memory Span: STM is limited to holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once
Chunk: Meaningful units of information in memory
Short-Term Memory (STM)
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Also called Working Memory
Whatever information is in conscious awareness. Any information that we are remembering or manipulating occurs in STM.
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A typical individual’s digit span
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Recoding: Reorganizing or modifying information in STM
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information silently to prolong its presence in STM
Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information with existing memories and knowledge in LTM; Good way to transfer STM information into LTM
Storing Info in STM
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Chunking: Try and remember the following string of letters (in order):
XCI AFB IVC RDN AIB MQZ
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Chunking: Try and remember the following string of letters (in order):
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Long-Term Memory (LTM)• Storing information relatively permanently • Stored on basis of meaning and importance
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
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Explicit (declarative) memory (facts): factual knowledge & personal experiences
• Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge
• Episodic Memory: Personal experiences linked with specific times and places
Implicit (procedural) Memory (skills): Long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills, e.g., driving
Types of Long-Term Memory
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Memory Organizational Chart
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Loss of Memory• Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new explicit
long-term memories for events following brain trauma or surgery. Explicit memories formed before are left intact. Cause possibly is damage to hippocampus
• Retrograde amnesia: the disruption of memory for the past, especially espisodic memory. After brain trauma or surgery, there often is retrograde amnesia for events occurring just before.
• Infantile/child amnesia: the inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age. Due possibly to fact that hippocampus is not fully developed.
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Recall: Direct retrieval of facts or information
Serial Position Effect: • Hardest to recall items in the middle of a list• Primacy effect: easier to remember items first in a list than items in the middle, because first items are studied the most• Recency effect: easier to remember items last in a list than items in the middle, because the last items were last studied
Serial Position Effect
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A Little Demonstration: Serial Position Effect
See in class!
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Graphic: Stages of Memory
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Comparison of Three Stages of Memory
Sensory1. Large capacity2. Contains sensory
information3. Very brief retention
(1/2 sec for visual; 2 secs for auditory)
Short Term1. Limited capacity2. Acoustically
encoded3. Brief storage (up
to 30 seconds w/o rehearsal)
4. Conscious processing of information
Long Term
1.Unlimited capacity
2.Semantically encoded
3.Storage presumed permanent
4.Information highly organized
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Encoding Information into Memory
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Types of Processing
• Automatic processing: memory processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention. Example: How many of you can sing the theme song for
Drama humsafar ? How many learned it on purpose?• Effortful processing: memory processing that
occurs consciously and requires attentionExample: How many of you can name all of the divisions
of the nervous system? How many learned it on purpose?
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Levels-of-Processing Theory• Levels-of-processing theory: a theory of information
processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing leads to better long-term memory
• Physical memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by the way it is spelt, b – i – r – t – h – d – a – y
• Acoustic memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by the way it sounds
• Semantic memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by its meaning, “a day of joy and celebration, to remember the anniversary of one’s birth.”
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Factors Affecting Encoding
• Encoding specificity principle: the principle that the environmental cues present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information.
• State-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is best when a person’s physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval is the same.
• Mood-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is best when a person’s mood state at the time of encoding and retrieval is the same.
• Mood-congruence effect: long-term memory retrieval is best for experiences and information that are congruent with a person’s current mood.
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Retrieving Information from Memory
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• Recall: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues.• Recognition: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues.• Relearning: the savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval, in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time.
Measuring Retrieval
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Example: Recall versus Recognition
Example of Recall:The process of storing information in memory is called ______________.
Example of Recognition:
The process of storing information in memory is called:a. rehearsal b. deep processingc. encoding d. retrieval
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Encoding failure theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the failure to encode the information into long-term memory
Forgetting Due toEncoding Failure?
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Storage decay theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of physical traces of the information in the brain; periodically using the information helps to maintain it in the brain
The “Use it or lose it” theory!
Forgetting Due toDecay in Storage?
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Interference theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering
Proactive interference: old information interferes with the retrieval of newly-stored information
Retroactive Interference: newly-stored information interferes with the retrieval of previously-stored information
Forgetting Due toInterference?
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Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference
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Cue-dependent theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.
This is one explanation for why we do not seem to have many memories from early childhood (ages 3 to 6 or so)
Forgetting Due toLoss of Cues?
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Improving Memory
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Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing you to check your progress
Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are learning
Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)
Selection: Selecting most important concepts to memorize
Organization: Organizing difficult items into chunks; a type of reordering
Some Ways to Improve Memory
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Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of information at once, like a poem
Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of information (like text chapters)
Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a series of short sections
Serial Position Effect: Making most errors while remembering the middle of the list
Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare mastery
More Ways to Improve Memory
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Spaced Practice: Alternating study sessions with brief rest periods
Massed Practice: Studying for long periods without rest periods• Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation • Hunger decreases retention
Yet More Ways to Improve Memory
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Mnemonics: Memory “tricks”; any kind of memory system or aid
- Using mental pictures- Making things meaningful- Making information familiar- Forming bizarre, unusual or exaggerated mental
associations
A Last Method to Help Memory