INDIKATOR PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN
Oleh
Sudrajat
FMIPA_UNMUL
2010
Pollution Indicators
• The presence or absence of particular organisms can indicate whether the water is polluted or not.
• These are called Indicator Species
Air Pollution Indicators• Lichens
– Different types of lichen have different sensitivities to sulphur dioxide gas.
– 3 main types – crusty, leafy and shrubby
Indicator species present
Appearance of lichen SO2 concentration
Crusty lichens only High
Crusty and leafy Medium
Shrubby low
Air Pollution Map
• Look at the air pollution map, and explain the distribution of the different types of lichen.
Lichen
• Lichen + Green algae not found :
SO2 conc. >170 mg/m3
• Only green algae :
max. 170 mg/m3 close formations of lichen on the trunk of
the tree, even in the cracks :
125-150 mg/m3
Lichen
• leaf shaped lobe plates formed by leafy lichen :
60-70 mg/m3
• lichen growing as a little bush or hanging like a beard :
40-50 mg/m3
Lichen
• Lichen are particularly good indicators of gas pollution in the air
Almost all lichen are sensitive to air pollutions.
Such as SO2, F2, O3, pH or even metal ion
What physiological properties make lichens
useful indicators of air quality? Range of air pollution sensitivities across species. Lichens exhibit a
range of sensitivities to S- & N compounds in acid rain, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and fluoride. Changes in distribution or populations of the most sensitive lichens provide an early warning that air pollution is beginning to adversely affect the ecosystem. The mix of species and abundances at any one site can be used to position the site along an air quality gradient.
High surface area and no roots. Lichens on trees and shrubs obtain nutrients from the air, precipitation, and substrate run-off. Tissue levels of many pollutants are correlated with ambient atmospheric levels.
Readily absorb water and lack specialized barriers to prevent vapor loss. Daily cycles of wetting and drying produce a dynamic equilibrium between concentration and leaching of pollutants. As pollution concentrations change, so do concentrations in lichens. Mobile elements: S, N, K, Ca, Mg, Na. – can change significantly over a few months. Less mobile elements: Pb, Cd, Ni—change more slowly.
What kinds of data are collected?
Lichen communities and floristicsTissue analysesTransplantsLaboratory
What are lichens?
Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus and an alga and/or a cyanobacterium.
British soldiers Button lichen Lung lichen
Hell’s Canyon National Recreation Area% N (dw) By Distance (km)
% N
(dw
)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
0 0.4 1.6 >1.6
Distance (km)
With ControlDunnett's 0.05
Means ComparisonsDif=Mean[i]-Mean[j]00.4>1.61.6
00.000000-0.32807-0.33119-0.34119
0.40.3280680.000000-0.00312-0.01312
>1.60.3311930.0031250.000000
-0.01
1.60.3411930.0131250.0100000.000000
Alpha= 0.05
Comparisons with a control using Dunnett's Method|d|
2.48475Abs(Dif)-LSD00.4>1.61.6
0-0.166190.1469650.1500900.160090
Positive values show pairs of means that are significantly different.
Xanthoria Cover (%) By Distance (km)
Xan
thor
ia C
over
(%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 0.4 1.6 > 1.6
Distance (km)
With ControlDunnett's 0.05
Means ComparisonsDif=Mean[i]-Mean[j]00.41.6> 1.6
0 0.0000-36.4583-39.5833-42.7083
0.4 36.4583 0.0000 -3.1250 -6.2500
1.6 39.5833 3.1250 0.0000 -3.1250
> 1.6 42.7083 6.2500 3.1250 0.0000
Alpha= 0.05
Comparisons with a control using Dunnett's Method|d|
2.65353Abs(Dif)-LSD00.41.6> 1.6
0-19.3091 14.8700 17.9950 21.1200
Positive values show pairs of means that are significantly different.
Nitrogen concentrations in lichen tissue and abundance of the nitrogen-loving lichen, Xanthoria, were highest at sites closest to the Snake River.
Tongass National Forest, Sitka, Alaska
Tongass National Forest, Sitka, Alaska
Lichens were absent from alder <0 .25 mi from the pulp mill, an SO2 source.
Typical cover of lichens onalder in the Sitka area
Klondike Gold Rush National Historic Park, Skagway, Alaska
Mean concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, P, K, S, Zn in the lichen, Hypogymnia enteromorpha, were higher in Klondike Gold Rush NHP samples than Tongass National Forest samples.
Schematic diagram of the DEEEP approachBiochemical/chemical oxygen demand
(COD<200mg/l or BOD<50mg/l)
Acute toxicity tests(Suggested battery of tests include:
bacteria, algae, invertebrates and vertebrates)
Chronic toxicity tests
Mutagenicity tests
Bioaccumulation
NO HAZARD (General Authorization)
Acute toxicity tests
• Battery, consisting of four tropic levels– Vibrio fischeri luminescent bacteria test
• Bacteria
– Selenastrum capricornutum growth inhibition test• Algae
– Daphnia pulex acute toxicity test• Invertebrate (waterflea)
– Poecilia reticulata acute toxicity test• Vertebrate (fish)
Battery of toxicity test
Toxicity testEffect period
Exposure period
EndpointDetection limit (%)
Standard
Vibrio fischeri luminescence bacterial test
Acute/Short term
30 minutes
% growth inhibition or stimulation, EC20 and
EC50 value
20 ISO, 1998
Selenastrum capricornutum (algal) growth inhibition test
Acute/Short term
72 h
% growth inhibition or stimulation, EC20 and
EC50 value
20OECD, 1984
Daphnia pulex (waterflea)
lethality test
Acute/Short-term
24 and 48 h
% lethality, LC10 and
LC50 value 10
US EPA, 2002
Poecilia reticulata (fish)
lethality test
Acute/ Short-term
96 h% lethality, LC10 and
LC50 value 10
US EPA, 1996
AMES Salmonella typhimurium mutagenicity
test
Chronic/Long-term
72 hDetects
mutagenicity
MR :≥2.0US EPA,
1983
Presentation of data
• Report the screening test endpoints– % effects, such as mortality or growth (results
exceeding detection limits will be marked in red)
• Report the definitive test endpoints– Such as LC/EC50 values
• Report the Toxicity units (TUa) – To classify individual test result and
compare to DEEEP criteria
• Report Hazard rating – Classify battery of tests, using toxicity
indexes, such as Hazard Classification System (Persoone, 2005)
Toxicity units• Toxicity units
– Determine LC/EC50 value from dilution series tested
– Toxicity units (TUa) = 100/LC or EC50– Based on Tonks & Baltus, 1997
• Key to classification system:0-1 Limited to not acutely toxic1-2 Negligibly acutely toxic2-10 Mildly acutely toxic10-100 Acutely toxic>100 Highly acutely toxic