EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 7: BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING

Learning – process through which experience causes a relatively permanent change in

knowledge or behavior.– changes caused by maturation do not qualify as learning– temporary changes resulting from illness, fatigue or hunger are also excluded

Behavioral Learning Theories – explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in

observable behaviors.– earliest explanations of learning came from Aristotle: We remember things together 1) when they are similar 2) when they contrast 3) when they are contiguous.

Contiguity– association of two events because of repeated pairing– whenever you see your particularly violent classmate, you keep expecting that you'll

get a broken finger or a rib or something

Stimulus– event that activates behavior; crush mo

Response– observable reaction to a stimulus; kilig

Respondents– responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli.– crush mo, kilig; stalker/secret admirer mo, diri

Classical Conditioning – association of automatic responses with new stimuli– focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological responses such

as fear, increased muscle tension, salivation.– Ivan Pavlov

Neutral Stimulus– stimulus not connected to a response; an empty classroom

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)– stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response; the

sight of your crush and his/her partner (not you lel)

Unconditioned Response (UR)– naturally occurring emotional or physiological response; pain, hugot, iyak

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning; the

empty classroom where you saw them togetherConditioned Response (CR)

– learned response to a previously neutral stimulus; whenever you pass by that classroom, you remember the pain and the tears and the hugot

Operants – voluntary (and generally goal directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal;

reciting in classOperant Conditioning

– learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequencesor antecedents.

– B.F. Skinner

Antecedents– events that precede an action

Consequences– events that follow an action

* Antecedent – Behavior – Consequence (A-B-C)** As behavior is ongoing, a given consequence becomes an antecedent for the next

ABC sequence.

Reinforcement– use of consequences to strengthen behavior

Reinforcer– any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will

occur again.Types of reinforcement

– Positive Reinforcement: strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior; “Galing naman. Ang taba ng utak. Wow. Nosebleed sa English.”

– Negative Reinforcement: strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs; “Di ka na tatanga-tanga.”

* If a particular action leads to avoiding or escaping an aversive situation, the action is less likely to be repeated in a similar situation.

Aversive – irritating or unpleasant

Punishment– process that weakens or suppresses behavior

* A behavior followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated in similar situations in the future.

Two Forms of Punishment– Type 1 Punishment or Presentation Punishment: decreasing the chances that a

behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior

– Type 2 Punishment or Removal Punishment: decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule– presenting reinforcement after every appropriate response

Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule– presenting a reinforcement after some but not all responses– interval schedule: reinforcement based on length of time between responses– ratio schedule: reinforcement based on the number of responses– either may be fixed (predictable) or variable (unpredictable)i

Extinction– the disappearance of a learned response

Stimulus Control – capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors

Effective Instruction Delivery – instructions that are concise, clear, and specific and that communicate an expected

result; statements work better than questions.

Cueing – providing a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior; a to-do list (that you try to

follow but ultimately fail)Prompt

– a reminder that follows a cue to make sure that person reacts to a cue; working in your pairs, unless your partner doesn't care and does all the work anyway

Applied Behavior Analysis – is the application of behavioral learning principles to change behavior.

Behavior Modification – systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior.

Methods for encouraging behaviors– reinforcing with teacher attention– differential reinforcement; praise students for good behavior, while ignoring

misbehavior; systematic application of praise and attention may be most powerful motivational and classroom management tool available to teachers

– Premack Principle: a principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity; if you did this first, I'll let you do that later

– shaping: reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior* successive approximations: small components that make up a complex

behavior* task analysis: system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills

and sub-skills

Positive Practice– practicing correct responses immediately after errors

Negative Reinforcement– if an action stops or avoids something unpleasant, then that action is likely to

occur again in similar situations.– if consequence involves removing or subtracting a stimulus, the reinforcement is

negative.

Reprimands– criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes– soft, calm, private reprimands are more effective than loud, public reprimands in

decreasing disruptive behavior– students usually respond quickly to private reprimands

Response Cost– punishment by loss of reinforcers.– paying a fine.

Social Isolation – removal of a disruptive student for 5-10 minutes– one of the most controversial behavioral methods for decreasing undesirable

behavior

Time Out – technically, the removal of all reinforcement; in practice, isolation of a student

from the rest of the class for a brief time.

Good behavior game – arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit for

breaking agreed-upon rules of good behaviorGroup Consequences

– rewards or punishment given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rulesof conduct

Contingency Contract– a contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do

to earn a particular reward or privilege.Token Reinforcement System

– system in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward

– should only be used in 3 situations: * to motivate students who are completely uninterested in their work * to encourage students who have consistently failed to make academic

progress * to deal with class that is out of control.

Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)– procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors and

consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior.Positive Behavior Supports (PBS)

– interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student.

Precorrection– tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a

student’s behavior, specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers

Self Management – use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior– monitoring and evaluating are elements of self management

Self Evaluation– is more difficult than self-recording because it involves making a judgment about

the quality of your own work

Self-Reinforcement– controlling your own reinforcers; last step in self management

Social Learning Theory – theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others– Albert Bandura

Enactive Learning– learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions

Observational Learning– learning by observation and imitations of others; vicarious learning

CHAPTER 8: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

Cognitive View of Learning – a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring,

remembering and using knowledge

Cognitive science – the interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge, creation

and the brain.

Mirror System– areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else

and when performing the action

Kinds of Knowledge– Domain Specific Knowledge: information that is useful in a particular situation or

that implies mainly to one specific topic.– General Knowledge: information that is useful in many different kind of tasks;

information that applies to many situations

Information Processing– the human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information

Sensory Memory– system that holds sensory information very briefly– initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli into information so we

can make sense of them– other names: sensory buffer, iconic memory (for images), and echoic memory (for

sounds)– capacity of sensory memory is very large.– lasts less than 3 seconds

Perception– interpretation of sensory information; the process of detecting a stimulus and

assigning meaning

Bottom-up processing (or Data Driven)– perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a

recognizable patternGestalt

– “pattern”, “whole” or “configuration”– German theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes

Top Down (or conceptually driven processing)– making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the

situation

Attention– focus on a stimulus– attention is selective

Automaticity– the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort

Two types of Multitasking– sequential multitasking: you switch back and forth from one task to another, but

focus on only one at a time– simultaneous multitasking: there is overlapping focus on several tasks at a time

Tasks– resource-limited: allocates more resources– data-limited: depends on the amount and quality of the data available– automated: happens without much attention because it has been practiced

thoroughly

Working Memory– workbench of the memory system– the information that you are focusing on at a given moment– duration of information in the working memory is short, about 5-20 sec, unless

you keep rehearsing the information

Short-term Memory– component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds

4 Elements/Parts of Working Memory (page 290; figure 8.4)– Central executive

* responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources

* the worker of working memory– Phonological loop

* a speech and sound related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in a short term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds

– Visuospatial Sketchpad* a holding system for visual and spatial information

– Episodic Buffers* workbench of working memory

* the process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long term memory underthe supervision of the central executive

Cognitive load– the volume of resources necessary to complete a tasks.

3 Kinds of Cognitive Load– Intrinsic Cognitive Load

* unavoidable* amount of cognitive processing required to figure out the material* the resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli* it is essential to the task; it cannot be eliminated

– Extraneous cognitive Load* avoidable or manageable* the resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task

– Germane Cognitive Load* desirable* deep processing of information related to the task, including the application

of prior knowledge to a new task or problem.

Retaining Information in Working Memory– Maintenance rehearsal

* keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself.– Elaborative rehearsal

* keeping information by working memory by associating it with something else you already know

– Chunking* grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units

Loss of Information– interference: processing new info interferes or gets confused with old info– decay: the weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time

Basic Aspects of Memory– memory span or the amount of info that can be held in short or working memory– memory processing efficiency– speed of processing

Long Term Memory– permanent store of knowledge– the capacity of long term memory appears to be unlimited

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Contents of Long Term Memory– Declarative Knowledge

* verbal information; facts* “knowing that”

– Procedural Knowledge* knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task* “knowing how”

– Self Regulatory Knowledge* knowing how to manage your learning or knowing how and when to use

your declarative and procedural knowledge

Categories of Long Term Memory– Explicit Memory: long term memory that involve deliberate or conscious recall

* Episodic memory: your own experiences and memories* Semantic memory: memory of meaning, including words, facts, theories and

concepts; declarative memory– Implicit Memory: knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that

influences our behavior or thought without our awareness* Classical conditioning effects: ex. conditioned emotional reactions* Procedural memory: motor skills, habits, tacit rules* Priming: implicit activation of concepts in long term memory

Propositional network – set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long term knowledge is

held

Images – representations based on the physical attributes –the appearance- of information.

Dual Coding Theory– suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or

verbal units, or both– Allan Paivio

Concept – a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects or people

Defining Attributes– qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept

Prototypes– best example or best representative of a category

Exemplars– an actual memory of a specific object

Theory based– an explanation for concept formation that suggests our classification are based on

ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things

Schemas (or Schemata)– basic structures for organizing information; concepts

Story grammar (also called a schema for text/story structure)– another type of schema; a typical structure or organization for a category of

stories

Flashbulb memories– clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life– these memories are complete and vivid.

Implicit Memories– Procedural Memory: long memory for how to do things

Script– schema or expected plan for a sequence of steps in a common events such as

buying groceries or ordering pizzaProductions

– the contents of procedural memory– rules about what actions to take, given certain condition

Storing and retrieving information in Long term memory– one important requirement is that new info is integrated with existing knowledge

as you construct understanding– Elaboration: adding and extending meaning by connecting new info to existing

knowledge– Organization: ordered and logical network of relations; second element of processing that improves learning.– Imagery:

* Dual Coding: visual and verbal materials are processed in diff systems* Limited Capacity: working memory for verbal and visual material is severely

limited* Generative Learning: meaningful learning happens when students focus on

relevant info and generate or build connections– Context: the physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event

Levels of Processing Theory– theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed

Spreading activation– retrieval of pieces of info based on their relatedness to one another– remembering one bit of info activates recall of associated info

Retrieval– process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory

Reconstruction– recreating info by using memories, expectations, logic and existing knowledge

Mnemonics – systematic procedure for improving memory– techniques for remembering; the art of memory

Chain mnemonics– memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element

Acronym– form of abbreviation– a word formed from the 1st letter of each word in a phase

Keyword method– system of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and

images– 3Rs (Recode, Relate, Retrieve)

Rote memorization– remembering info by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of

the information

Loci Method– Latin locus meaning “place”– technique of associating items with specific places

Serial-position effect– the tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list

Distributed practice– practice in brief periods with rest intervals

Massed practice– practice for a single extended period

Part learning– breaking a list of items into shorter lists

Automated basic skills– skills that are applied without conscious thought

Three stages in the development of an automated skill– Cognitive stage: we rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving

strategies to accomplish our goal– Associative stage: individual steps of a procedure are combined or chunked into

larger units– Autonomous stage: where the whole procedure can be accomplished w/o much

attention

Productions– units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in “if this happens, do

that” relationships that are often automatic

Domain-specific strategies– consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem

Types of Knowledge:– prior knowledge– domain specific– general knowledge– declarative knowledge– conditional/self-regulatory knowledge– procedural knowledge

Memory– encoding information– store– retrieve

Attention– selective– divided– sustained– multitasking

CHAPTER 9: COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition– “knowledge or awareness of self as knower”– literally means cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking; knowledge

about our own thinking processes– regulates thinking and learning through three essential skills: planning, monitoring,

evaluating

Individual differences in metacognition– metacognitive abilities begin to develop around ages 5 to 7 and improve

throughout school. – not all differences in metacognitive abilities have to do with age or maturation.– some individual differences in metacognitive abilities are probably caused by

differences in biology or learning experiences.

KWL– a strategy to guide reading and inquiry– the KWL frame encourages students to “look within” and identify what they bring

to each learning situation, where they want to go, and what they actually achieve

Learning Strategies– are a special kind of procedural knowledge; knowing how to do something.– examples of learning strategies:

* Planning and focusing attention* Organizing and remembering* Comprehension* Cognitive monitoring* Practice

– summaries; taking notes; underlining and highlighting; underlining & note-taking are probably two of the most frequent but ineffectively used strategies among college students

Visual Tools for Organizing–Concept map: a drawing that charts the relationships among ideas-Cmaps: tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and

Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet.

Reading Strategies– READS: Review headings; Examine boldface words; Ask, “What do I expect to

learn?”; Do it– Read; Summarize in your own words– CAPS: a strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story,

Problem, Solution.

Applying Learning Strategies– production deficiency: happens when students learn problem-solving strategies, but

do not apply them when they could or should.

Learning strategies for struggling students– LINCS Vocabulary Strategy: uses stories and imagery to help students learn how to

identify, organize, define, and remember words and their meanings. – LINCS: List the parts; Identify a reminding word; Note a LINCing story; Create a

LINCing picture; Self-test

Problem Solving– problem: any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a

means to do so; has an initial state (the current situation), a goal (the desired outcome) and a path for reaching the goal.

– problem solving- formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application ofpreviously learned rules to achieve a goal.

– general problem-solving strategies: identifying the problem, setting goals, exploring possible solutions and consequences, acting, and finally evaluating the outcome.

Translation– interpretation of the problem– students with advanced knowledge improve when they solve new problems, not

when they focus on already worked out examples.

Expert reversal effect– worked examples can actually interfere with the learning of more expert students;

reflect all the stages of problem solving– identifying the problem, setting goals, exploring solutions, solving the problem, and finally evaluating the outcome

Schema-driven problem solving– recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one

already has a solution.

Possible Solution Strategies– Algorithm: step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; usually domain specific;

that is, tied to a particular subject area; right answer is guaranteed.– Heuristic: general strategy used in attempting to solve problems.

* means-ends analysis: a goal is divided into subgoals* working-backward strategy: one starts with the goal and moves backward to

solve the problem* analogical thinking: in which one limits the search for solutions to situations

that are similar to the one at hand* verbalization- putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words

Factors That Hinder Problem Solving– response set: rigidity, the tendency to respond in the most familiar way– functional fixedness: inability to use objects or tools in a new way

Problems with heuristics– representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on how well

the events match your prototypes–what you think is representative of the category

– availability heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common

– belief perseverance: the tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence

– confirmation bias: seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, whiledisconfirming evidence

Creativity and Creative Problem Solving– creativity: the ability to produce work that is original, but still appropriate and

useful– divergent thinking: the ability to propose many different ideas or answers– convergent thinking: the more common ability to identify only one answer

Sources of Creativity– domain-relevant skills: including talents and competencies that are valuable for

working in the domain – creativity-relevant processes: including work habits and personality traits– intrinsic task motivation: deep curiosity and fascination with the task

Restructuring – conceiving of a problem in a new or different way

Insight– sudden realization of a solution

Brainstorming– generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them

Critical Thinking and Argumentation- critical thinking: evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining

the problem, the evidence, and the solution

– critical thinking skills:* sourcing: looking at the source of the document before reading and using

that information to help interpret and make inferences about the reading

– corroboration: making connections between the information in different texts and noting similarities and contradiction

– contextualization: imaging the time, place, people, and culture that is the context for the event, with all the political and social forces that might be operating.

Teaching for transfer– transfer: influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive

uses of cognitive tools and motivations– overlearning: practicing a skill past the point of mastery– types of transfer:

* Near (same learning situation) or Far (not similar situation)* Low road (unconscious effort) or high road (purposeful or conscious effort)* Forward reaching (storing information for future use) or backward reaching

(looking back at previous experiences)

CHAPTER 10: THE LEARNING SCIENCES AND CONSTRUCTIVISM

The Learning Sciences– interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education,

computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning.

– basic assumptions of the Learning Sciences:* experts have deep conceptual knowledge* learning comes from the learner* schools must create effective learning environments* prior knowledge is key* reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge

Embodied cognition– theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed

interactions between humans and their environment

Cognitive and Social Constructivism– constructivism: view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building,

understanding and making sense of information

Psychological/ Individual/ Cognitive Constructivism– individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they interpret their

experiences in particular situations– individual constructivists or cognitive constructivists study individual knowledge,

beliefs, self-concept, or identity, focusing on the inner psychological life of people

First wave constructivism– focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piaget’s theory

Radical constructivism– knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right

or wrong

Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism– appropriating: being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills

developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools– second wave constructivism: a focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing,

as in Vygotsky’s theory– constructionism: how public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math,

economics, or history is constructed

Community of Practice– social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true

Situated learning– the idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were

learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings

Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Learning– Complex learning environments: problems and learning situations that mimic the

ill-structured nature of real life </3– Social Negotiation: aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with

others and respect for different perspectives – Intersubjective attitude: a commitment to build shared meaning with others by

finding common ground and exchanging interpretations– Multiple representations of content: considering problems using various analogies,

examples, and metaphors– Spiral Curriculum: Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental

structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time

Application of Constructivist Perspectives– Scaffolding: teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the

teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more

– Contingency Support: the teacher is constantly adjusting, differentiating, and tailoring responses to the student

– Fading: the teacher gradually withdraws support as the student’s understanding andskills deepen

– Transferring responsibility: students assume more and more responsibility for their own learning

Inquiry and Problem-based Learning– Inquiry learning: approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and

students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions– Problem-based learning: methods that provide students with realistic problems that

don’t necessarily have “right” answers

Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching– Cognitive apprenticeship: a relationship in which a less experienced learner acquire

knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert– Reciprocal teaching: designed to help students understand and think deeply about

what they read* Three guidelines: shift gradually, match demands to abilities, and diagnose

thinking

Collaboration and Cooperation– Collaboration: a philosophy about how to relate to others– how to learn and work– Cooperation: way of working with others to attain a shared goal– Cooperative learning: situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation,

and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals

Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning – five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: positive

interdependence, promotive interaction, individual accountability, collaborativeand social skills, group processing

Designs for cooperation– Reciprocal questioning: students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions

about lesson material– Jigsaw classroom: a learning process in which each student is part of a group and

each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group; students become “experts” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group

– Structured controversy: students work in pairs within their four-person cooperativegroups to research a particular controversy

Service Learning- combines academic learning with personal and social development for secondary

and college students, i.e. NSTP

CHAPTER 11: SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Social learning theory – emphasizes learning through observation of others.

Social cognitive theory – theory that adds concern with cognitive factors– a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning and motivation

* cognitive factors: expectations (masakit yan), self perceptions, beliefs* two key elements: observational learning and self-efficacy

Triarchic Reciprocal Causality– an explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual

and the environment on each other– personal, environmental and behavioral

Modeling: learning by observing others– Attention: in order to learn through observation, we have to pay attention– Retention: in order to imitate the behavior of a model, you have to remember

Motivation and Reinforcement– reinforcement makes us more motivated to pay attention, remember and reproduce

the behavior. It is important in maintaining learning– Vicarious reinforcement: increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by

observing another person being reinforced for that behaviorEx: Erik saw someone being complimented with his/her lab experiments, Eriknow then will work better on his lab experiments

– Self-reinforcement: controlling your own reinforcement

Ripple effect – “contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation

Self-Efficacy and Agency– Self-efficacy: a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task

* “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives”

* is “context specific” which means it varies depending on the subject/task* concerned with the judgments of personal competence

– Human Agency: the capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation and emotionsto reach your goals

– Self-concept: development as a result of external and internal comparisons, using other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference

– Self-esteem: concerned with the judgment of self-worth

Sources of Self-Efficacy– Mastery experiences: our own direct experiences; the most powerful sources of

efficacy information * Arousal: physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert,

excited or tense– Vicarious experiences: accomplishments that are modeled by someone else

* Modeling: changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person

– Social persuasion: a “pep talk” or specific performance feedback– Physiological Arousal

Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy– a teacher’s belief that he/she can reach even the most difficult students and help

them learn

Self Regulated Learning– self-regulated learners have a combination of academic learning skills and self-

control that makes learning easier, so they are more motivated– Self-regulation: process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors and

emotions in order to reach goals– Self-regulated Learning: a view of learning as skills and will applied in analyzing

learning task, applying skills and making adjustments in learning; 4 main stages:* Analyzing the learning task* Setting goals and plans* Enacting strategies* Regulating learning

Factors influencing skill and will (self-regulation)– Knowledge

* self-regulated learners nee knowledge about themselves, the subject, the strategies for learning, and the context in which they will apply their learning

* “expert” students know about themselves and how they will learn best* they also can apply the strategy needed

– Motivation* self regulated learners are motivated to learn and they believe in their own

intelligence and abilities– Volition

* will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning

– Social processes that support development of self-regulation:* Co-regulation: a transitional phase during which students gradually

appropriate self-regulated learning and skill through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from others

* Shared regulation: students working together regulate each other

Cognitive Behavior Modification– procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing

your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction

Self- instruction – talking oneself through the steps of a task; steps:

* Cognitive modeling* External guidance* Overt, self-guidance* Faded, overt self-guidance* Covert, self-instruction

Emotional Self-regulation– Self-awareness: accurately assessing your feelings, interests, values and strengths;

maintaining a well-grounded self-confidence– Self-management: regulating emotions and persevering in overcoming obstacles– Social awareness: taking the perspective of and empathizing with others– Relationship skills: establishing and maintaining healthy relationships based on

cooperation; avoid social pressure, ask help when needed– Responsible decision-making: making decision based on ethical standards, safety

concerns, social norms, respect for others and consequences