ESS3808Sport Psychology

Martin I. JonesBSc MSc Phd PGCHE CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEA

Stress and Coping

What is stress and Why should I be interested in stress?

Quality of experience, produced through a person-environment transaction, that through over- or under-arousal, results in psychological or physiological distress

Aldwin (1994)

The non-specific result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic

(Hans Seyle)

Exhaustion

Resistance

Dr Hans Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS, 1956)

Adaptation

TIME

overload specificity individual differences reversibility

A relationship between a person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his/her well-being

Lazarus & Folkman (1984)

Acute stressSudden, typically short-lived, threatening event

Emotion?

Chronic stressOngoing environmental demand (e.g., marital conflict, work stress, personality)

Increased stress could cause

illness and injury

Prolonged stress could contribute

to burnout syndrome

Stress leads to fatigue

Unnecessary muscle activityBracing

Inhibited coordination

Broadly speaking, stress disrupts performanceParticularly true in fine motor control and decision rich tasks

Eustress is a positive stressful experience, a state of physical and psychological well-being that is associated with increased motivation and the acceptance of a challenge.

Stress can result from being over- or under-stimulated

Too little stress can be as harmful as too much

Normal and hard

wired

What is pressure?

Circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance (or avoiding poor performance)

Baumeister (1984)Italics added by me

Baumeister & Showers (1986), competitive pressure is caused by a range of factors

Performance-contingent rewards (e.g., trophies) and punishments (e.g., job loss)

Audience and social evaluation (e.g., being watched by spectators and judged/evaluated by others like the media)

Social comparison (e.g., feeling like your performance will be compared with others)

Ego relevance (i.e., when the situation is important for someone’s self-esteem or self-worth)

Perceived pressure (i.e. stress appraisal) can have different effects on athletes

Some athletes respond negatively and perform poorly

An acute and considerable decrease in skill execution and performance when self-expected standards are normally achievable, which is the result of increased anxiety under perceived pressure

(Mesagno & Hill, 2014)Questionable?

Others respond positively and perform well

Clutch PerformanceAny performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressurized circumstances

Otten, 2009

Appraisal of pressure (stress) is variable

For every example of an athlete who coped well with high pressure competition, there’s an example of someone who did not

Start Finish

Break time

10 minutes 8 minutes 1 minute9 minutes 5 minutes6 minutes7 minutes 2 minutes4 minutes3 minutes

Time is up!

Performance StressStress is a person's response to a cue such as an environmental condition or a stimulus. The stress process is the appraisal

of a stressor and activation of the sympathetic nervous system

fight-or-flight response

Produced through a person-environment transaction

Cognitive Transactional ModelLazarus & Folkman (1984)

Why do some soldiers handle battle better than others?

KEY POINT 1The interpretation of stressful events is more important than the events themselves

KEY POINT 2It is neither the environmental event nor the person’s response that defines stress

KEY POINT 3It is the individual’s perception of the psychological situation that defines stress

KEY POINT 4Stress is a function of the person’s feeling of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope rather than a function of the stressor

KEY POINT 5Distinguishes three kinds of appraisal

KEY POINT 6Appraisal is not always at the level of consciousness.

Primary appraisalIrrelevantBenign-positiveStressful

Harm/lossThreatChallenge

IrrelevantThe event has no implication for the individual’s well-being

Benign-positiveThe event may increase well-being

StressfulThe situation is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging

Harm/lossInvolves actual significant physical or psychological loss

Psychological damage that has already been done

ThreatThe anticipation of harm or lossAllows to anticipate and prepare for the future

ChallengeThe event is perceived as stressful

The focus is on positive excitement

Refers to the person’s confidence in overcoming difficult demands

Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: The last of human freedoms – to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way.

(Victor Frankl, 1985)

Secondary AppraisalConcerned with a person’s evaluation of his/her ability to cope with the situation

Which coping options are available

What is the likelihood that one can apply the strategy

What is the likelihood that any given options will work: will it reduce stress

?

ReappraisalContinuous Reappraisal On The Basis Of New Information

Identical To The Initial Process

May Lead To More Stress

CopingConstantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person

Lazarus and Folkman (1984)

CopingCoping is a process of constant evaluation of the success of one’s strategies

CopingCoping is learned as one encounters situations

CopingCoping requires effort

CopingCoping is an effort to manage

CopingSuccess is not contingent on mastery - just good enough

When we cannot change the situation, we are challenged to change ourselves.

(Victor Frankl, 1985)

In the mainstream psychological literature, it has been shown that personality predicts appraisal and coping efforts in the health domain when dealing with a variety of stressful contexts

(O’Brien & DeLongis, 1996)

The ability to cope is enhanced when people believe they can successfully bring about desired consequences

Self-Efficacy“people’s judgements of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action”

Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997)

Masteryexperiences

Verbal persuasion

Vicarious experiences

Physiologicaland affective

states

COGNITIONGoals

AttributionsDecisions

Problem solving

BEHAVIOURChoice /selection

EffortPersistence

AFFECTAnxietyArousal

DepressionConfidence

Flow

Efficacybeliefs

Problem-Focussed Coping

Changing the situation

Redefining the problem

Looking at alternative solutions

Evaluating the implications of the alternatives

Choosing the best one to act on

Athletes have reported using a variety of problem focused strategies in response to stressors encountered.

Approach-cognitive strategies (Anshel, 2001), Being aware of cues (Dale, 2000), Task-orientated coping (Amiot, Gaudreau, & Blanchard, 2004), Concentrating on goals (Gould et al., 1993a),Time management (Gould et al., 1993a), Learning about opponents (Holt, 2003), Practice (Holt & Mandigo, 2004), Appropriate training (Park, 2000).

Emotion-focussed coping

Controlling and possibly changing the emotional response to an event

Cognitive responses such as avoidance or minimization

The goal is to decrease emotional distress

Often used when the individual feels that nothing can be done about the situation

Athletes have reported using a variety of emotion focused strategies in response to stressors encountered.

Seeking social support (Crocker, 1992; Park, 2000),Imaging/ visualizing (Dale, 2000; Gould et al., 1993a), Venting unpleasant emotions (Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002), Humour (Giacobbi, Foore, & Weinberg, 2004), Remaining confident (Poczwardowski & Conroy, 2002).

Avoidance CopingBehavioural (e.g., physically removing self fromstressor)

Cognitive (e.g. blocking) avoidance ofa stressor

(Anshel, 2001)

Emotion-focused and avoidance coping tend to experience greater cognitive anxiety

(Hammermeister & Burton, 2001; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 2000).

Coping effectiveness Coping effectiveness in a sport setting refers to the extent to which a coping strategy, or combination of strategies, is successful in alleviating the negative emotions caused by stress

Problem-focused coping will be more effective during encounters in which the athlete has the potential for personal control

Emotion-focused coping has been proposed as being more effective during encounters in which the athlete has very little control

Do athletes have coping styles or is coping dynamic based upon appraisal and previous coping attempts?

The majority of research in sport suggests that coping is both recursive and dynamic and thus supports the transactional perspective

(e.g., Anshel, 1996; Anshel et al., 2001; Gould et al., 1993a,b; Holt & Hogg, 2002; Poczwardowski & Conroy, 2002).

The Physiology of StressNervous system

Endocrine system

Central nervous system is made ofBrainSpinal cord

Peripheral nervous system is made ofSomatic nervous system

Receives information from the sensory organsControls movements of the skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)Primarily serves internal organs

Sympathetic Response to Stress

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the peripheral nervous

system that acts as a control system that functions

largely below the level of consciousness

to control visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, respiratory rate, pupillary dilation,

swallowing)

Hypothalamus increases arousal in

the sympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic Response to Stress

Re-establishes homeostasis in the systemReconstructive process following stressful experienceSlows the heart rate & decreases blood pressureDecreases muscle tensionSlows respirationNeutralizes fight or flight response

Endocrine Responses to StressHypothalamus – pituitary – adrenal cortex - adrenal medulla

Hypothalamus causes:The pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that stimulates the adrenal cortex (the outer covering of the adrenal gland)

Sympathetic fibers to directly activate the adrenal medulla (The inner part of the adrenal gland)

The endocrine system consists of ductless glands distributed throughout the body

The neuroendocrine system is made of those endocrine glands that are controlled by the nervous system

Glands of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems secrete chemicals called hormones

Hormones move into the blood stream to be carried throughout the body

Specialized receptors on target tissues or organs allow hormones to have specific effects even though they circulate throughout the body

Biopsychosocial Model

Motivated Performance Situation

Demand and Resource Evaluations

Resources ≥ Demands Demands > Resources

Challenge Threat

Psychological Processes

Adapted from Seery (2011)

Danger, Familiarity, Effort, Skills, Abilities, Knowledge, Support

BPSM

Applies to motivated performance situations, contexts in which individuals must actively perform instrumental responses (either cognitive or physical or both) to attain an important and self-relevant goal.

Applies to MOTIVATED PERFORMANCE situations, contexts in which individuals must actively perform instrumental responses (either cognitive or physical or both) to attain an important and self-relevant goal.

Meaningful consequences

How is this different to Lazarus and Folkman’s theory of appraisal?What's added and what’s missing?

The BPSM contends that how individuals perform in these situations is determined by a series of psychological processes that lead to distinct physiological responses

Is demand and response evaluation at the conscious level?

Endocrine Responses to Stress

Adrenomedullary Response – SAMActivation of sympathetic-adrenal medulla (SAM) complex

Adrenal medulla secretes the catecholamines: Epinephrine & Norepinephrine

SAM complexIncreased heart rate, blood pressure,

Breathing rate & blood glucose levels

Shuts down digestive system

Rapid, short-lived response to stress

Adrenocortical Response – HPAHypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) cortex complex

PACPituitary adrenocortical axes

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

GlucocorticoidsProtein and fat get metabolized into glucoseReduce inflammation, suppress immune cells

Mineralocorticoids

Blood volume and pressure increase

Challenge

SAM Activation

Catecholamine Release

Increased HRDecreased TPRIncreased CO

Physiological Responses

Threat

SAM and PAC Activation

Cortisol Release

Increased HRNo Change/Increased TPRNo Change/Decreased CO

Both states involve sympathetic-adrenomedullary activation causing the release of catecholamines (hormones like adrenaline).

Threat state also causes pituitary-adrenocortical activation causing the release of cortisol

Attenuation of SAM complex

A challenge state is associated with a short-lived spike of energy due to catecholamines that enter the blood stream with a half life of only a few minutes

A threat state causes a slow and more prolonged release of energy, because cortisol enters the bloodstream slowly and has a half life of over an hour

Implications for research design?

Challenge

Approach Motivation

Good Task Performance

Threat

Avoidance Motivation

Poor Task Performance

Fight, flight, freeze?

Which are challenge, which are threat?

Jones et al. (2009)

Athletes will experiences a challenge state if their resources appraisals comprise high self efficacy, perception of control, and are focussed on approach goals.

Athletes will experience a threat state if their resource appraisals comprise low self efficacy, low perceived control, and are focussed on avoidance goals.

Jones et al. (2009)

A challenge state will typically, but not exclusively, be associated with emotions of a positive valence (e.g. excitement)

A threat state will typically, but not exclusively, be associated with emotions of a negative valence (e.g. anxiety)

Emotions experienced during challenge states will be perceived as helpful to performance

Emotions experienced during a threat state will be perceived as unhelpful to performance

Jones et al. (2009)

In a challenge state anxiety will not lead to reinvestment

In a threat state anxiety will decrease the efficiency and effectiveness of cognitive functioning

Jones et al. (2009)

A challenge state will have a positive influence on decision making

A threat state will be associated with less engagement in the competition (e.g. seeking out possession) as an athletes uses avoidance strategies

Moore et al. (2013)Aim

Examined relationship between challenge/threat and ‘real’ competitive performance

Method199 golfers (M handicap = 9.15; SD = 8.13)Prior to competition, golfers reported demand and resource evaluationsAfter the competition, objective measure of performance assessed (golf performance index)

ResultsBivariate regression analysis revealed that demand/resource evaluations made immediately before the competition accounted for a significant proportion of variance in golf performance index (R2 = .08, β = .29, p < .001)

Turner et al. (2013)

AimAssessed if CV markers of challenge/threat predicted batting performance

Method42 elite and national academy cricketers (M Age = 16.45 years; SD = 1.38 years)Recorded CV reactivity to ego-threatening audio instructionsCompleted a batting test under pressure (30 deliveries to score 36 runs)

ResultsChallenge and threat index accounted for a significant proportion of variance in total run scored (R2 = .41, p < .001)

Martin I. JonesBSc MSc PhD CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEA

m.i.jones@exeter.ac.uk@drmijones