Download - Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 6 Learning This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Chapter 6Chapter 6

LearningLearning

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7


LearningLearning

Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes

This is in contrast with instinct (species-typical behavior). Humans behavior is much more influenced by learning than instinct compared to animals.

Habituation (an example of simple learning)– Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus


Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)

LearningLearning

Mere exposure effect (another example of simple learning)– Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed


Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which

a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes

associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit

essentially the same response

What Sort of Learning Does What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?Classical Conditioning Explain?


The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical Conditioning—Ivan PavlovConditioning—Ivan Pavlov

Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning

Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus


The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)

Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)



Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response



Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)



The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning






Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response





Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)


A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus


Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPrior to conditioning

Conditioning

After conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

(Orientation to soundbut no response)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder in mouth)

Unconditioned response(salivation)

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder)

+Conditioned response

(salivation)

Conditioned stimulus(tone)

Conditioned response(salivation)


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay. Usually this reappears at a lower intensity.


Acquisition, Extinction, and Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

(1)Acquisition(CS + UCS)

(3)Spontaneous Recovery(CS alone)

Res

t per

iod(2)

Extinction(CS alone)

(Time)

Trials

Str

engt

h of

the

CR

(Wea

k)(S

tron

g)


Classical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning:Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization and Discrimination

Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS

Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus butnot another that is similar

Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis

John Watson/Rosalie Rayner and Little Albert


Applications of Classical ConditioningApplications of Classical Conditioning

Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness (examples of John Garcia’s study and chemotherapy).


How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by

Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?

In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior,

such as rewards and punishments, influence the

chance that our behavior will occur again


How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by

Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?

Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences…Law of effect—Edward Thorndike


Skinner’s Radical BehaviorismSkinner’s Radical Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner (a radical behaviorist) believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences; he called these reinforcers…he developed the “Skinner Box” or operant chamber (a box in which an animal can press a lever for food).


The Power of ReinforcementThe Power of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers –Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior. Again this increases the probability that the behavior will occur again.



Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food, water, and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism



Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)


Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced…this is best for teaching and learning new behaviors

Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)…this is best to maintain behaviors already learned


Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement


Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement (intermittent or partial)(intermittent or partial)

Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses

Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)Variable Interval (VI)


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)

Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses…the rate of responding is high

e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product that are completed



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR)(VR)


Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial…this keeps the number of responses high

e.g. slot machine pay-offs



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval Fixed Interval (FI)(FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses…the rate of response is low

e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI)(VI)

Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial…the response rate can be low or high but not as high as VR

e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise


Premack PrinciplePremack Principle

David Premack…rats learned that their running would be followed by an opportunity to drink...so this principle states that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.


The Problem of PunishmentThe Problem of Punishment

Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows

How does this differ from negative reinforcement?


Punishment vs. Negative Punishment vs. Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Loud Noise Press Lever

Press Lever

Loud Noise Removed

Loud Noise Applied

Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement

Punishment

No Noise


The Problem of PunishmentThe Problem of Punishment

Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response

Negative punishment (omission training) –The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response


Four Kinds of ConsequencesFour Kinds of Consequences

Positive orappetitive

Negative or aversive

STIMULUS

-Remove

NegativeReinforcementAspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use

Omission Training

Missing dinner leads to less loitering after

school

+Present

PositiveReinforcementBonus for working hard leads to more hard work

PunishmentGetting speeding ticketleads to less speeding


The Use and Abuse of PunishmentThe Use and Abuse of Punishment

Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed

Punishment• Often triggers aggression• May inhibit learning new and better responses• Is often applied unequally

When does punishment work?

It should be swift, certain, limited, target the behavior…usually omission training is best


Operant and Classical Conditioning Operant and Classical Conditioning ComparedCompared

Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior. The learner is passive.

Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior. The learner is active.


How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Explain Learning?Explain Learning?

According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained

as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone


How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Explain Learning?Explain Learning?Insight learning –

Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions (Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler and chimpanzee experiments)

Cognitive maps –A mental representation of physical space (Edward Tolman)…rats maneuvered blocked paths, flooding, and no reward still meant learning was taking place.


Observational Learning: Albert Observational Learning: Albert Bandura’s Challenge to BehaviorismBandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism

Observational learning (social learning)– Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior (BoBo doll experiment with children watching adults)


Brain Mechanisms and LearningBrain Mechanisms and Learning

Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning…

There may be two different circuits for learning in our brains; different perspectives of learning might be right in their own way…


End of Chapter 6End of Chapter 6

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