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Chapter 4Chapter 4
Psychological Development
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Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology
Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences
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How Do PsychologistsHow Do PsychologistsExplain Development?Explain Development?
Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of
heredity and the environment
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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction
Nature-nurture controversy –Long-standing dispute over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes
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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction
Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects
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The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction
Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family
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Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change
Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view
Age
Per
form
ance
Continuity view
Discontinuity view
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Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change
Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning
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Psychological Traits in Your GenesPsychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence
Self-fulfilling prophecy –An expectation that becomes realized because it guides people’s behaviors
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What Capabilities Does theWhat Capabilities Does theChild Possess?Child Possess?
Newborns have innate abilities for finding
nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful
situations; the developing abilities of infants and
children rely on learning
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Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development
Prenatal period –The developmental period before birthZygoteEmbryoFetus
Placenta –An organ that developsbetween the embryo/fetusand the mother
Teratogens –Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism
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Neonatal PeriodNeonatal Period(from birth to one month)(from birth to one month)
Sensory abilities
Motor abilitiesPostural reflex
Grasping reflex
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InfancyInfancy(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)
Babies learn through classical conditioning
Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment Secure attachment
Anxious-ambivalent attachment
Avoidant attachment
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InfancyInfancy(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)
Maturation –The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
BirthBirth
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Responds to soundResponds to sound
Becomes quiet when picked upBecomes quiet when picked up
Vocalizes occasionallyVocalizes occasionally
Birth 1 mo.1 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Smiles sociallySmiles socially
Recognizes motherRecognizes mother
Rolls from side to backRolls from side to back
Lifts head and holds it erect and Lifts head and holds it erect and steadysteady
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.2 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Vocalizes to the smiles and talk Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adultof an adult
Searches for source of soundSearches for source of sound
Sits with support, head steadySits with support, head steady
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.3 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across tablespoon, and ball moved across table
Sits with slight supportSits with slight support
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.4 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Discriminates strangers from familiar Discriminates strangers from familiar personspersons
Turns from back to sideTurns from back to side
Makes distinctive vocalizationsMakes distinctive vocalizations
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.5 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Lifts cup and bangs itLifts cup and bangs it
Smiles at mirror imageSmiles at mirror image
Reaches for small objectReaches for small object
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.6 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Makes playful responses to Makes playful responses to mirrormirror
Sits alone steadilySits alone steadily
CrawlsCrawls
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo.7 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Vocalizes up to four different Vocalizes up to four different syllablessyllables
Listens selectively to familiar Listens selectively to familiar wordswords
Pulls to standing positionPulls to standing position
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo.8 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.9 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Plays pat-a-cakePlays pat-a-cake
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.10 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Stands aloneStands alone
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.11 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for LocomotionMaturation Timetable for Locomotion
Walks aloneWalks alone
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year1 year
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What Are theWhat Are theDevelopmental Tasks ofDevelopmental Tasks ofInfancy and Childhood?Infancy and Childhood?
Infants and children face especially important
developmental tasks in the areas of language, acquisition,
cognition, and social relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in
adolescence and adulthood
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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language
Innateness theory of language –Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar
Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language
Babbling stage
Vocabulary and grammarOne-word stage
Two-word stage
Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences)
Morphemes (meaningful units of language that make up words)
Overregularization (e.g. using “hitted” and “feets”)
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How Children Acquire LanguageHow Children Acquire Language
Other language skills
Social rules of conversation
Abstract words (e.g. hope, truth)
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Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time
Schemes –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts
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Accommodation –Mental process thatrestructures existingschemes so that newinformation is better understood
Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
SensorimotorSensorimotor
PreoperationalPreoperational
Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational
Formal Formal OperationalOperational
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
SensorimotorSensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• Birth to about age 2
• Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli
• Sensorimotor intelligence
• Mental representations
• Object permanence
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
Sensorimotor
PreoperationalPreoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• About age 2 to age 6 or 7
• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language
• Egocentrism
• Animalistic thinking
• Centration
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational
Formal Operational
• About age 7 to about age 11
• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought
• Conservation
• Mental operations
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Formal OperationalOperational
• From about age 12 on
• Abstract thought appears
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Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development
Temperament –An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction
Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society
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Authoritarian parents
Authoritative parents
Permissive parents
Uninvolved parents
Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development
Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:
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Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development
Other factors influencing a child’s development may include:Effects of day care
School influences
Leisure influences
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Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesErikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge/PeriodAge/Period Principal ChallengePrincipal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority
AdolescenceAdolescence Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthoodEarly adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthoodLate adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair
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What Changes Mark theWhat Changes Mark theTransition of Adolescence?Transition of Adolescence?
Adolescence offers new developmental challenges
growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socio-emotional changes
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The Transitions of AdolescenceThe Transitions of Adolescence
Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood
Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood
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Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity
Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness
Physical Maturation in AdolescencePhysical Maturation in Adolescence
Menarche – Onset of menstruation, which signals puberty in girls
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Hormones rise to high levels
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex
Cognitive Development in Cognitive Development in AdolescenceAdolescence
Adolescence brings Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)
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The increasing influence of peers
Common social problems in adolescence
Delinquency
Social Identity in AdolescenceSocial Identity in Adolescence
Identity crisis
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Masturbation
Same-sex orientation
Heterosexual behavior
Sexual Issues in AdolescenceSexual Issues in Adolescence
Sexual issues in adolescence often include the following:
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning
I. Preconventional moralityStage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation
Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity
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II. Conventional morality
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning
• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation
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III. Postconventional (principled) morality
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning
• Stage 5: Social contract orientation• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningKohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
Culture and morality
Gender and morality
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What DevelopmentalWhat DevelopmentalChallenges Do Adults Face?Challenges Do Adults Face?
Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in
adulthood these changes include both growth and
decline
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The Developmental Challenges of The Developmental Challenges of AdulthoodAdulthood
Love and workIntimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Generativity –A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations
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The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face
Ego-identity –The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness
According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair
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The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face
Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such asVision
Hearing
Thinking, learning, and problem solving
Memory
Sexual functioning
Social interaction
Emotions
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End of Chapter 4End of Chapter 4