Chapter 8

Career and Understanding Students’ own self

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain the career path and other related terms• Explain the concept of lifestyle based on several theories• Relate lifestyle with career choices;• Clarify the role of interest in future career planning;• Compare and contrast between different types of career interest test;• Explain the role of values in future planning and career• Identify the value of a career in career selection

http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/career-choice-theories.htm

7.0 Introduction

Everyone will encounter different barriers, challenges, and decisions. Career

exploration is a never-ending process. The more a student learn about themselves and

the outside world, the more they will want to re-evaluate their values, skills, and

interests. You will learn on how children build their concept of life style and how it helps

them in their career. You need to understand what lifestyle is, and then look at the

relationship between the concept of building a career and a lifestyle.

8.1 Common Human Development Models

These include but are not limited to

1. Maslow (1908-1970): Abraham Maslow is best known for his developmental

theory of human motivation. As a humanistic psychologist, Maslow believed that

actualization of one’s inherent potential was the driving force of human

personality. One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to

meet higher level growth needs.   Once these needs have been reasonably

satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.

Maslow placed self-actualization into a hierarchy of motivation or his famous

“hierarchy of needs.” Self-actualization is identified as the highest drive but

before a person can turn to it, he or she must satisfy other lower motivations like

physiological, safety, social and esteem needs, respectively. For example: A

homeless youth client will need assistance in finding secure housing before being

referred to a career decision making program, in Maslow’s view.

READ the basics of Motivation theory   for a more in-depth look at Maslow’s theory of motivation and its relationship to Herzberg’s work on job satisfaction.

2. Skinner (1904-1990): B.F. Skinner is recognized as a leader in the field of behaviourist theory. Very simply put, Skinner believed that changes in behaviour are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. The response or behaviour produces a consequence and the nature of the consequence either reinforces or weakens the probability of the behaviour occurring again. So if you wish to alter someone’s behaviour, you reinforce the behaviour you want people to do again and ignore or punish the behaviour you want people to stop doing. Example: Using verbal praise and other forms of recognition to encourage children and young adults to continue their job search.

3. Erikson (1902-1994): Erik Erikson developed the psychosocial theory of social development. The theory describes the eight stages of

Figure 8.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

human development (infancy to late adulthood), through which every person passes. At each stage of development the person is confronted with and hopefully resolves a new psycho-social issue. Each developmental stage builds on the successful completion of the earlier stages. If the issues of the earlier stages are not successfully resolved they are expected to reappear as problems in the later stages. Example: Teenagers working on establishing their own identity may be struggling with settling on a career path because they don’t really know who they are yet.

4. Frankl (1905-1997); Victor Frankl belongs to the school of existential theory and was the founder of logo therapy. He regarded the search for meaning and an authentic life as the primary human motivation. As free individuals we have a choice on how we will deal with inner conditions and outer circumstances. We are responsible for our own existence and for finding a purpose or meaning to our lives. One can discover meaning through purposeful work, creative pursuits and suffering. Example: It is important for teenager to take responsibility for making their own career choices and to be encouraged to consider careers that will be personally meaningful and fulfilling for them.

8.2 BUILDING LIFESTYLE CONCEPT

8.2.1 Career Concepts and Career Development

A career means work that we do throughout the life span (Hoyt, in Sciarra, 2004). Career refers to a person's overall work experience in a particular job. For example, teaching, medicine, accounting, engineering, sales and so on. In recent times, we find the importance of guidance and counselling services in schools and education institutions as a source of information to career development. In fact, career education is more important and should be an integral part in the upper primary school curriculum where young children prepare themselves to go to secondary schools.

8.2.2. Building a lifestyle concept

1. Personal Logic and Individual LifestyleAccording to Alder (1870-1937), private logic here refers to the ideas and beliefs,

experiences of an individual. An individual builds his lifestyle based on his unique

perceptions, unique interpretation which describe the personality and behaviour of

himself. This means that individuals act based on what they believe based on previous

experiences. Individuals develop their self-concept and the concept of life which can

provide them guidance and lifestyle patterns. In short, the behaviour is determined by

the perception of which they believe to be true.

Adler believes that Individual lifestyles are formed by the children at the age of 5 years.

He opined that this lifestyle is a strategy where individuals organize and use them to

deal with their inferiority complex. Individual then can be shaped into being artistic or

intellectual, dominate or bully, malingering as a weapon to get attention and affection,

and so on. According to Alder, personality development is influenced by an individual's

position in the family, including family size and the means of child care by their parents.

There are several factors that contribute to negative self-concept, like physical illness,

neglect, lack of extreme love and affection during childhood.

2. Inferiority Complex with individual Lifestyle

Inferiority complex materialises when ideas and feelings arise in response to an

individual’s shortcomings in life. (Adler) The term inferiority complex is widely used to

represent the feelings of worthlessness, including shortcomings that led to disastrous

loss of self-esteem or aggressive behaviour. Individuals who are poor, do not socialise

will strive to motivate themselves to gain self-esteem or superior to compensate for the

shortcomings. However if these efforts fail, the individual then suffer inferiority complex.

3. Interests and Social Values of Individual Lifestyle

Social interest like the value of altruism is lush and nurtured in the family. Children who

do not have a social interest face social and emotional problems, including depression.

Many people who seek counselling services consist of individuals who frequently feel

lonely and side-lined by others.

Mental health is measured by the quantity of social values belonging to an individual. In

addition, the characteristic of mental health is working with others as a member of the

community, the confidence to interact with any group or social situations, and be able to

contribute to her community interaction, including the value of courage. Based on the

Adler’s terms, courage include the social activities and interests. Individuals who have

social interest are usually encouraged to act with social interests. So they have dignity

and self-confidence because of their actions are based on social interest and not self-

interest. Therefore, individuals with stable mental health and social interests will see

themselves as equal social standing and ready to make a meaningful contribution to the

family.

8.3 Theories of Career

A theory is an effect a rationalised set of assumptions, or hypothesis that allows you to explain the past and predict the future. There are two types of career development theories.

Structural Theories focus individual characteristics and occupations tasks. For example:-

a. Traits and Factors Theory: Process that a choice of occupation depends upon a) knowledge of self, (b) knowledge of job specifications, and (c) ability to make a proper match between this two.

b. Vocational Personalities and Environments Theory: Suggests that people can function and develop best in work environment that can compatible with their personalities.

c. Socioeconomic Theory : This is also known as the "chance" or "accident" theory suggesting that many people follow the path of least resistance in their career development by simply falling into whatever work opportunities came their way.

Developmental Theories focuses on human development a

a. Super's Theory: In super's theory self-concept develops through maturity, observations of work, general environment and general experience.

b. Decision-Making Theory: Suggest that there are critical points in people's lives when choices (decisions) are made that greatly influence their career development, i.e. educational choices, entry-level positions, changing jobs, etc.

c. Cognitive Theory: It is built around how individuals process and react to information. People's cognitive structures influence how they see themselves, others and the environment.

We will focus three theories, namely:-

a. Career selection Development Theory: Ginzberg and Super

b. Behavioural Theory of John Krumboltz

c. Structure Theory: John L. Holland

8.3.1 Career selection Development Theory

Ginzberg’s Theory prioritise career period in the development and progression, Super’s

theory discusses self-concept and its implementation.

i. Ginzberg’s Theory

Ginzberg suggested that career decision making is a process that happens from young

age to early 20s. Ginzberg argued that the process of career decision making is usually

irreversible, once crystallized.Ginzberg noted that the process of selecting one's career

includes three stages, namely fantasy, trial or tentative, and realistic.

The Fantasy (6-11 Years)

According to Ginzberg career development takes place during childhood, from

birth to 11 years old. During this stage, children primarily engage in playful acts,

simulating occupations such as firefighter, police officer, teacher, doctor etc.

Towards the end of this stage, children are found transit from playful imitation to

work imitation, i.e. from simply wearing costumes to acting out the specific

duties of a job. In early years, a boy would do career selection based on the

nearest adult’s occupation to him without understanding the real situation. For

example, a boy may imitates his father/mother in being a teacher and so on.

The Trial / Tentative (11-18 Years)

From 11 to 17 years of age, adolescent children are able to better focus on,

and recognize, work requirements. There are four stages in this period.

a. First, "interest," where children learn likes and dislikes.

b. Second, "capacity," where children learn how much is their abilities

align with their interests.

c. Third stage, "values," sees the child at 15 years old become aware of

how work may fulfil his values.

d. Fourth, "transition,” where the individual assumes responsibility for his

or her own actions, becomes independent and exercises their freedom

of choice.

Students begin to make a selection based on what they are passionate about.

Between the ages of 15-16 years, they began to relate their existing career

interests and values. Students sitting SPM examinations will start thinking

about the selection of either continuing their education to matriculation, or

pursue professional courses to suit their ambitions.

The Realistic (17-20 Years)

The realistic stage begins at age 17 and goes into the early 20s. In this stage, a

person establishes alternative paths in working life, or a "backup plan."

Throughout this three stage period, one will develop personal values and begin

to zero in on his or her optimal career choice.

a. The first stage is “exploration." The individual choose a career

path but remains open to other opportunities.

b. Second, "crystallization,” is when one becomes more

engrossed in a particular career, committing to one direction

more than he or she ever has.

c. Third, "specification," in which one commits or develops a

preference for a specific area of one’s occupation.

For example, the Fifth and Sixth form students in secondary

school or diploma students would consult a teacher counsellor

for the purpose of acquiring information that will help them to

make choice of careers.

Ginzberg (1972) reviews the theory and found that the process of career development

does not stop at the age of 20 years. Instead, it is lifelong process.

ii. Super Self Theory

Donald Super introduced a life span vocational choice theory that has six life and career

development stages. One of Super’s greatest contributions to career development is his

emphasis of the role self-concept development. He recognized that self-concept

changes and develops throughout people’s lives as a result of experience. People

successively refine their self-concept(s) over time and application to the world of work

creates adaptation in their career choice.

Super found three elements in the selection of the career development process. The

process starts from the childhood and continues until the time after retirement. Each

element in the development process of career choice are:

1. Development of Self ConceptThe formation of self-concept occurs when a person appreciate the difference between

himself and others, such as identifying people who often visited the house along with

their role. This provides experience to build their self-concept.

2. Translating the Self Concept of Employment TermsIdentify the role of people nearby and becoming aware of the ability in a job.

3. Realization of Self Concept of CareerAs they grow up, they are aware of the needs of the professional training of a selected

career. For example a career in teaching requires one to attend teacher training

courses in Teacher Training Institutes pursue a relevant course at any higher learning

institutions in the country.

Development Stages Career Selection

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

GrowthBirth-To 14 or 15 years old

Physical and psychological development and form attitudes, interests, and needs, and form a general understanding of the world and behaviours that shape self-concept.It is a stage where a child will have fantasy, interests, and curiosity.

Exploratory

15-24

"Try out" through classes, work experience, hobbies.Collect relevant information.Tentative choice and related skill development. A stage for crystallizing, specifying, and implementing.

Establishment25-44

Creating permanent place in appropriate field of work.A stage for stabilising, consolidating, frustration, and advancing.

Maintenance 45-64 Continual adjustment process to improve position. (holding, updating, stagnation, and innovating),

Decline65+

Declining output, preparing for retirement. (decelerating, retirement planning, and retirement living)

Super pointed out that the decision of a lifetime career choice relates to factors like

economic changes, technological advancements, social and psychological changes,

etc. Other factors are education, nationality, race, religion, gender, inherited breed

intelligence, special talents, interests and values. Hence the development process does

not only involves external factors between individual and the outside world, but also the

internal compromise between the needs of individuals, parents and cultural influence.

B. John Krumboltz ’s Behavioural Theory

Krumboltz Career Choice Theory believes that humans pick their careers as a result of

experiences and influences they have had in their life. These experiences and

influences may include a parent, a mentor, a hobby or interest that propels the

individual to explore occupations associated with those elements in their life. Influences

such as where they live or what is taught to them also play a part, according to the

theory.

John D. Krumboltz developed a theory of career development and decision making

based on social learning. Career decisions are the product of an uncountable number of

learning experiences encounters with the people and events in a person's particular

environment. In other words people choose their careers based on what they have

learned.

This theory looks at four areas influencing career choice and development including

genetic endowment, environmental conditions, instrumental associative learning

experiences, and developed skills.

a. Genetic ( race, sex, physical appearance, handicaps)

Krumboltz believes that inherited qualities and special abilities from birth, even

-- can make you’re more apt to pursue certain careers and limit you from chasing

others. This can include physical or mental abilities that allow the individual to be

great at a certain skill or skill set. For example, in athletics, the arts, music and

entertainment where an individual's genetics may have a significant role in the

physical and mental abilities required to have that job.

b. Environmental

Environment influences and events are the second factor in career choice

development. These include factors like education, career opportunities that are

related to geographic location, political systems and events that have an impact on

the individual’s upbringing.

c. Learning experiences

Learnings through reaction to consequences too have a very significant influence.

i. Instrumental learning Experience

Positive reinforced learning experience happens when an individual gets positive feedback for his/her action. If positive, they are more likely to explore the career options based on that action. However if they are criticised for an action or face difficulty with a task at hand, they are less likely to associate that action with a career choice. Recognition and encouragement will more likely strengthen learning experience to express a preferred career. When negative feedback or not reinforced for example a student with low grades, ridiculed or unable to find work in the preferred choice of career is less likely to pursue it.

ii. Associative Learning experienceThis involves negative and positive reactions to previously neutral statements. For example an individual heard that bus drivers are great people. Most likely a student is going to pick up driving as a career than other occupations.

d. Task approach skills refers to problem solving skills, reasoning skills, work

habits, emotional response and so on. These skills are often modified as a result

of desirable and undesirable experiences. For example, it is more likely that if a

parent reads and writes a lot, the child or children will be more exposed to those

skills and more likely to develop them. Those children, who have developed

these skills, are then more likely to use them when they grow up and pick a

career.

Source : http://www.ehow.com/about_5427029_krumboltz-career-choice-theory.html#ixzz2rUFfm9aa

The outcome of Krumboltz‘s career development theory is a lifelong process occurring in stages. Self-concept is shaped throughout one’s life experiences.

Counsellors should address the following problems in their student’s career development process in school.

Failure to recognize that a remediable problem exists Failure to exert effort needed to make decisions or solve problems Eliminated potentially satisfying alternative for inappropriate reasons Choosing poor alternatives for inappropriate reasons suffering anguish and anxiety over perceived inability to achieve goals

D. Theory of Structures: Dr. John L. Holland

Holland (1985, 1997) states that career choice must be consistent with the personal

characteristics of the individual. He pointed out that when there is a matching between

personality type and the type of environment, the individual is more likely to be

successful and satisfied with his career. Holland describes a vocational behaviour can

be explained by the interaction of personality with environment (Holland, 1985, 1997).

An individual is said to be trying to find a work environment that is consistent with his

personality because the environment provided the opportunity to use the skills, abilities

that are held. All of this being an intrinsic rewards that reinforce the positive

characteristics of a worker. The individual will demonstrate motivation, satisfaction,

performance, productivity and remain longer in employment (Holland, 1985, 1997).

Hence, Holland’s theory emphasizes matching individuals with jobs.

John L. Holland suggested four assumptions in the theory, namely:

i. All individuals can be categorized into six types of personality, which is realistic,

intellectual, artistic, social, industrial and conventional

ii. There are six types of models of the environment is closely linked to six types

of personalities.

iii. Individuals explore nature that allows them to develop the skills, attitudes,

values and personality.

iv. Individual behaviour is determined based on the interaction between

personality type and characteristics of the environment.

Holland postulated that vocational interest is an expression of one’s personality, and that vocational interests could be conceptualised into six typologies, which

are Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and

Conventional (C). If a person’s degree of resemblance to the six vocational personality

and interest types could be assessed, then it is possible to generate a three-letter code

(e.g., SIA, RIA) to denote and summarise one’s career interest. The first letter of the

code is a person’s primary interest type, which would likely play a major role in career

choice and satisfaction. The second and third letters are secondary interest themes,

and they would likely play a lesser but still significant role in the career choice process

There are number of career tests or instruments that can be used as a career

assessment profile in order to obtain a comprehensive planning and selection of a

career. These psychological instruments in the form of inventory, allows an individual to

evaluate themselves , including interests, values, and personality traits in relation to

career fields of interest and what to get involved later.

Self- Directed Search (SDS), which was created in 1971 by Holland based on

Vocational Preference Inventory [ VPI ] , an inventory that assesses personality career .

SDS can be considered as a catalyst to stimulate the person concerned to make active

career exploration.

For Holland, SDS has two functions as follows:

a. assessment instruments , and

b. Career interventions, also known as simulated counselling

SDS is a career inventory are self-governance that can be taken online. Based on the

scores obtained, the interpretation will be made by experts for the purpose of preparing

a detailed report. This report is sent to the person concerned for further action.

SDS scores based on six human personal style, also known as career themes, namely:

Realistic ( R ) ;

Investigative ( I) ;

Artistic ( A) ;

Social ( S ) ;

Initiative ( E ), and

Conventional ( C )

About RIASEC: The Six Types

The six types described by Holland are collectively referred to as RIASEC. Here is a definition of each one along with a list of compatible occupations.

Themes Explanation Possible occupations include

Realistic —

“The Do-ers”

Realistic people are practical, athletic, mechanically inclined, nature lovers and concrete. They like to “do” things such as play a sport, work outdoors, tinker with machines/vehicles, tend or train animals, operate tools and machines or read a blueprint. They are hands-on types of people.

A realistic person prefers concrete tasks. He or she likes working alone or with other realistic people.

Farmer, forester, firefighter, police officer, flight engineer, pilot, carpenter, electrician, diesel mechanic, locomotive engineer, truck driver and locksmith.

Values hold: Tradition, practicality, common sense

Investigative — “The Thinkers”

Investigative people are inquisitive, analytical, logical, curious, introspective, scholarly and observant. They like to think abstractly, do research, perform lab experiments, work independently and be challenged.

chemist, mathematician, meteorologist, biologist, dentist, physician, veterinarian, pharmacist, medical technician, architect, surveyor and electrical technician

Values hold: Independence, curiosity, learning

Artistic — “The Creators”

They like to create things, and usually extroverted. Artistic people are creative,

Dancer, book editor, art teacher, clothes designer, graphic designer, comedian, actor, disk jockey, composer and musician.

imitative, unconventional, sensitive, emotional and innovative. They like to write, sketch, draw, paint, work on crafts, express themselves creatively and attend theatre and art exhibits.

Values hold: Beauty, originality, independence, imagination

Social — “The Helpers”

Social people are friendly, helpful, outgoing, cooperative, patient, empathetic and kind. They like to work in groups, help people with problems, serve others, mediate disputes and plan and supervise activities.He or she tends to be concerned with social problems and wants to help others

Possible occupations include counsellor, parole officer, social worker, dental hygienist, nurse, physical therapist, teacher, librarian and athletic trainer.

Values hold: Cooperation, generosity, service to others

Enterprising — “The Persuaders”

Enterprising people are self-confident, persuasive, adventurous, popular, extroverted, talkative and popular. They like to lead a group, persuade others, be elected to office, have power or status and start their own service or business.

Enterprising people tend to lean toward leadership roles. They are willing to take on challenges and are extroverted. They can be aggressive as well.

Auctioneer, sales person, travel agent, recreation leader, judge, lawyer, city manager, sales manager, bank president, TV newscaster, camp director, hotel manager, real estate agent and school principal.

Values hold: Risk-taking, status, competition, influence

Conventional — “The Organizer”

Conventional people are well organized, conscientious, efficient, orderly, practical, systematic, structured and polite. They like to define procedures, work with numbers, type or use shorthand and collect or organize things.

Court clerk, secretary, bookkeeper, bank teller, post office clerk, mail carrier, typist, title examiner or timekeeper.

Values hold: Accuracy, stability, efficiency

Different people’s personalities may find different environments more to their liking. An individual may have some interests in and similarities to several of the six groups, they may be attracted primarily to two or three of the areas. These two or three letters are “Holland Code.” For example, with a code of “RES” you would most resemble the Realistic type, somewhat less resemble the Enterprising type, and resemble the Social type even less.

The types that are not in your code are the types you resemble least of all. Most people, and most jobs, are best represented by some combination of two or three of the Holland interest areas.

Holland’s test consists of 48 example task that you will have to rate by how much you would enjoy performing each task on a scale of 1) dislike, (2) slightly dislike, (3) neither like not dislike, (4) slightly enjoy and (5) enjoy. The test will take most five to ten minutes to complete.

Self-access learning:

You can access to Holland’s Test at, http://www.wiu.edu/advising/docs/Holland_Code.pdf Test yourself at http://www.hawaii.edu/cte/publications/RIASEC.pdf

8.4 Inventories

8.4.1 What is an inventory?

An inventory is a psychological test where a client/ student fills out a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of a counsellor. Inventories help individuals to understand and know more about themselves in terms of personalities, values, interests and so forth. Most inventories can be taken or administered within five to 15 minutes, although some, like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), can take up to three hours to fully complete. Questionnaires typically use one of three formats: a Likert scale, true-false, or forced choice. True-false involves questions that the individual denotes as either being true or false about themselves. Forced-choice is a pair of statements that require the individual to choose one as being most representative of themselves.

The most common question asked is this one: "I don't know what I want to do. Is there a test (refers to an inventory, questionnaire, etc.) or something that can tell me what career is right for me?"

The answer is no. You can't take a test that will, as if by magic, tell you what to do with the rest of your life. You can however use a combination of self-assessment tools that will aid you in your decision. A self-assessment should include a look at your values, interests, personality and aptitude.

Values: the things that are important to you, like achievement, status and autonomy

Interests: what you enjoy doing, i.e. playing golf, taking long walks and hanging out with friends

Personality: a person's individual traits, motivational drives, needs and attitudes

Aptitudes: the activities you are good at, such as writing, computer programming and teaching. An aptitude may be a natural skill or one you acquired

8.4.2 Types of inventories

There are four major categories of career inventories/ tests, a. Interest Inventories,b. Motives and Values Inventories, c. Personality Tests, andd. Ability Tests.

Each addresses a different part of the puzzle, as discussed below.

a. Personality Inventory

There are many different types of personality inventories developed based on different

needs. Personality inventories can generally be used to identify personality traits that

exist in the individual by measuring whether they have personal trait or a specific

feature. Personality inventories like Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI), the California Psychological Inventory (CPI), the Tennessee Self-Concept

Scale (TSCS), the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory (JEPI), Colour Personality

Inventory (IPW) and Sidek Personality Inventory (IPS) are commonly used by

counsellors to identify client personalities. These self-evaluations also help assess

whether the individual is, for instance, appearance-conscious or unaware,

interpersonally sensitive or insensitive, arrogant or humble, extroverted or introverted.

They often evaluate such work-related characteristics as honesty, anger management,

conscientiousness, self-confidence or sociability.

In Malaysia, Sidek Personality Inventory is commonly used in primary and secondary

schools counsellors.

Sidek Personality Inventory (IPS- INVENTORI PERSONALITI SIDEK) was developed

by Dr. Sidek Mohd Noah in 1987. IPS’s response to items identified individual

personality traits - traits is “Yes” or “No" only.

b. Career Interest Inventories

Career interest inventories typically describe or illustrate (many occupations and job

tasks) and ask children/ young adults to rate how much they would enjoy doing each

job or task. By rating their level of interest in a wide range of occupations, these

inventories help young people recognize their predominant interests and preferences.

Every individual has different interests. Interest to a career is one of the most important

factors in determining the success of a person in a chosen career. Generally career

interest inventory can identify individual’s potential interest towards any activity on the

job. The career interest inventory that is commonly used is the Vocational Preference

Inventory (VPI), the Self-Directed Search (SDS), Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory

(SCII), Sidek Career Interest Inventory , Rothwell-Miller Interest Form (BMRM) and

Kuder Records-Vocational Preference (KPRV).

Measurement instruments such as Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), the Self-

Directed Search (SDS),can be used to identify individual interests, both in realistic (R),

investigative (I), Artistic (A) Social (S), Enterprising (E) or Conventional (C).

Interest Inventories show how closely your job interests match those of people who

work successfully in various professions. Some of the better known include the Strong

Interest Inventory (SII) , the Career Assessment Inventory(CAI) and the Self-Directed

Search (Holland).

In the Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS), the vocational component items are built

based on 6 subscales. This section contains 60 items in which each candidate is

required to answer either "Yes" or "No". For the purpose of calculating the score, each

"Yes" answer will be given 1 point. The maximum raw score obtained by each

candidate for each construct is 10. Points will be arranged according to the three

highest scores for the three-point Holland code. The index Value will be obtained to

determine the authenticity of the individual personality.

c. Motives and Values Questionnaires: 

These inventories / tests provide insight into how you would like life to be. The

instruments typically ask about the importance of job security, salary, the opportunity to

display creativity on the job, and many other job-related preferences. These tests can

help you learn, for instance, whether you prefer to have contact with more people or

less, prefer to be in charge or in a supporting role, or whether you are more

independent than other people in your choose career. These inventories measure a

variety of career values one has like being positive, negative, or neutral based on

their preferences (Nowak, 1986). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, the Temperament

and Values Inventory and the Motives, Values, Preferences Inventory from Hogan

Assessments, Super's Work Values Inventory (WVI), Minnesota Importance

Questionnaire (MIQ) and Inventory of Job Value -Sidek (INPS).

i. Sidek Job Value Inventory for example is built specifically to identify the 21

values of the six categories of the job (Sidek Mohd. Noah, 1991). The value

includes the People, Data, Things, Assistant, altruism, Leader, autonomy,

Intellectual, Creative, Success, Organization, Profit, promotion, Leisure,

Recognition, Support, Security, Culture, Religion, Diversity and activity.

ii. Myers-Briggs Type Inventory is used to identify individual’s personal strengths

and motivations that are important when choosing a major, a career or a work

environment. The MBTI helps individuals to understand their personal

preferences, where the focus of attention and energy should be, how one take

in information, make decisions, and relate to the world around them.

iii. Strong Interest Inventory measures level of interest in occupational areas,

activities, school subjects and work environments. The inventory then

compares individual interests with professionals working in a wide variety of

occupations and suggests several occupations an individual may want to

investigate further. While the results of the inventory will not tell them what

career or major they should pursue, it can help the individuals to understand

how their interests relate to different occupations, work environments and areas

of study.

d. To check problems faced by students

Mooney Problem Check list (Mooney Problems Check List) is developed to help individuals/ students to express their personal problems. Mooney (1950) divides the

problems that interfere with young people at the High School into 11 categories, each

category consists of 20 items, as revealed in the form of delinquency record.

Uses of Mooney Problem Checklist

1. To assist counsellors counselling session with students after seeing the list of problems and give proper attention to the problems to be discussed.

2. Understand the problems of students and identify students in need of counselling and career curriculum development purposes.

3. Used as the basis for a career cluster and program orientation

4. To stimulate students to quickly understand and analyse its requirements.

5. To improve understanding of classroom teachers on the problems of pupils in his class.

6. Conduct research in the problems of students in the school.

7. To identify the changes and significant differences in terms of age, gender, social background, patterns and other interests.

8. To measure the changes resulting from the reduction program implemented pupil problems

Checklist to implement questionnaire/ inventories in schools

Determine the objectives of the questionnaire

Determine the respondents in the study

Prepare an inventory of tools and questionnaires.

Distribute checklist followed by a presentation on the respondent to answer.

Collect back and do a mental checklist

Provide a report with recommendations to overcome the parties concerned.

Follow-up

8.4.3 Use of inventories

Career tests and assessments can provide information that might take years to get any

other way. Some of them measure interests, others aptitudes, and yet others measure

values. They can deliver an objective message about what part of a person’s

behaviours or personality might get in the way into choosing a career or readiness for

the future undertakings. These inventory results may help them be ready for the

challenges ahead. These inventories or psychological tests may also point out

strengths they can leverage more deliberately and consistently.

a. Benefits using inventories them in schools

i. Career assessments are designed to discover the skills, aptitude and talents of students.

ii. Helpful in assessing the areas in which students/children have strengths and where they are weak.

iii. Useful in helping to choose a career that is in tune with their goals and talents.

iv. Several types of assessments have been proven to introduce more career options, increase satisfaction in one’s career plan and increase the understanding of oneself (Prince et al., 2003).

v. Enables one to make the best career decision to grow both personally and professionally.

vi. Counsellors can guide students on how to go about planning their career to achieve professional success.

b. Problems using inventories

i. The results of individual career assessments provide targeted information that may not address a particular individual's needs.

ii. Counsellors may not have formal training to interpret the results correctly and usefully.

iii. Many of the tests are based on the person’s view of himself or herself, who are often not clearly aware of their own strengths and weaknesses (they may have natural blind spots).

iv. Students are not always good at accurately describing their own behaviour. They tend to over or under estimate certain tendencies (especially ones that are viewed as socially desirable) while underestimating other characteristics. This can have a serious impact on the accuracy of a personality test.

v. Tests can also be quite long, in some cases taking several hours to complete. Some students can quickly become bored and frustrated and will often answer questions as quickly as possible, often without even reading carefully the test items.

8.4.4 Conclusion

The elementary years in primary 1 to 6, are a time when students begin to develop their

academic self-concept and their feelings of competence and confidence as learners.

They are beginning to develop decision-making, communication and life skills, as well

as character values. It is also a time when students develop and acquire attitudes

toward school, self, peers, social groups and family. Comprehensive developmental

school counselling programs provide education, prevention and intervention services,

which are integrated into all aspects of children’s lives. Early identification and

intervention of children’s academic and personal/social needs is essential in removing

barriers to learning and in promoting academic achievement. The knowledge, attitudes

and skills that students acquire in the areas of academic, career and personal/social

development during these elementary years serve as the foundation for future success.

By providing education, prevention, early identification and intervention, school

counsellors can help all children achieve academic success.

Chapter References

Gibson, R.L., & Mitchell. M.H. (1995). Introduction to counselling and guidance (4 th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Leong, F.T.L., Hartung, P.J., Goh, D., & Gaylor, M. (2001). Appraising birth order in career assessment: Linkages to Holland's and Super's models. Journal of Career Assessment, 9(1), 25-39.

Nystul, M.S. (2003). Introduction to counselling: An art and science perspective (2nd

ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Sciarra, D.T. (2004). School counselling: Foundations and contemporary issues. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

Watkins, C.E., Jr. (1993). Psychodynamic career assessment: An Adlerian perspective. Journal of Career Assessment, 7(4), 355-374.

Watkins, C.E., Jr. (1984). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: Toward an Adlerian vocational theory. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 24, 28-47.

Factors affecting career choice at http://www.articlesbase.com/careers-articles/factors-affecting-career-choices-3053543 ,html#ixzz 16pTM6B72: http://www.ehow.com/list 6685028 factors-affecting-career-choices, html

Godot, D. (20\0).Adlerian career assessment and counselling at http://chicagopsvchology. Org/adlerian/adlerian-career-assessment-counselling/

Holland, J.L. (1985) Making vocational choices (2nd ed.) Odessa, FL.: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

Interest inventory - Vocational test, test, vocational, activities, occupational inventories, and scales. http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/343/Interest-Inventorv. html#ixzz 16vz4S71D

Lifestyle at http:// www.thefreedictionary.com/lifestvleSelf-Directed Search. At http://www.self-directed-seareh.com/

(http://woman.thenest.com/career-theories-eli-ginzberg-15464.html}

Liptak, John J. (2001). Treatment Planning in Career Counselling. Wadsworth downloaded at http://voices.yahoo.com/using-ginzberg-theory-occupational-choice-to-438920.html

Krumboltz’s Theory, downloaded

at : http://www.ehow.com/about_5427029_krumboltz-career-choice-theory.html#ixzz2rU5sgQgn

Glossary

Altruism Altruism means an unselfish concern for other people. It means doing things simply out of a desire to help, not because you feel obligated to out of duty, loyalty, or religious reasons as opposed to egoism.

Concept of life The value of the question pertaining to the purpose of life may coincide with the achievement of ultimate reality, or a feeling of oneness, or even a feeling of sacredness

Existential theory Existentialism is a philosophical outlook that stresses the importance of free will, freedom of choice, and personal responsibility. It emphasizes the unique experiences of each individual and the responsibility of each person for their choices and what they make of themselves.

Hierarchy of needs

It one of the best-known theories of motivation by psychologist Abraham Maslow. It is displayed as a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom and more complex needs at the peak. The four lowest-level needs are what Maslow referred to as D-needs (or deficiency needs). These needs are due to a lack of something and need to be satisfied in order to avoid unpleasant feelings and to move on to higher level needs. The uppermost needs in the hierarchy are referred to B-needs (being needs or growth needs) and involve the desire to grow as an individual and fulfil one’s own potential.

Humanistic The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.

Likert scale A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, such that the term is often used interchangeably with rating scale, or more accurately the Likert-type scale. The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be, sstrongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree and strongly agree.

Logo therapy It's an active-directive therapy aimed at helping people living with a healthy sense of purpose in our normal relationships and activities than by dealing with mental illness through psychotherapy or psychotropic drugs. Basic assumptions of logo therapy are, 1. Life has meaning under all circumstances. 2. People have a will to meaning. 3. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to meaning and to find meaning

Malingering One exaggerate or feign illness in order to escape duty or work.

Self-actualization Self-actualization is identified as the highest drive but before a person can turn to it, he or she must satisfy other lower motivations like physiological, safety, social and esteem needs, respectively

Self-concept A general term used to refer to how someone thinks about or perceives themselves. Self-concept is how we think about and evaluate ourselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself.

Stimuli Something causing or regarded as causing a response.

Vocational behaviour

It refers to individual’s process of psychosocial adaptation and how they cope with vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and work traumas. How, why and what individual behaviour makes one fit to work in chosen field.