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CANDLE-SNUFFING ROBOT IEEE 2003 ENTRY “ ROBBY JR.”
Stephen Rochelle, CoE Mark Randall, EE
University of Evansville
Presented at 2003 MUPEC Student Paper Conference April 26, 2003
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I. INTRODUCTION Each year, Region 3 of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), comprising the southeastern United States and the Caribbean) sponsors
a student Hardware Design Competition, usually envisioned as some sort of
autonomous robotics project. Consequently, the projects themselves are not
solely hardware but a mix of hardware and embedded software design
encompassing the skill sets of electrical, computer, and often mechanical
engineering students.
This year’s competition was fashioned after the Trinity College Fire-
Fighting Robot contest held yearly. However, though superficially similar, we
decided in April 2002 that a single robot design was unlikely to fare competitively
in both Trinity and IEEE formats. Consequently, we decided to focus our design
on the IEEE rules set, as Mark and I have both been involved in past IEEE
competitions.
The competition itself was designed as a mock-up of a robotic fire-fighting
force. Particularly in light of the destruction of the World Trade Center, there is
currently great interest in the use of robots to enter high-risk areas in lieu of
humans. Due to hostile conditions, however, even remote-control robots could
prove unusable in some environments, spurring an interest in fully-autonomous
self-contained robots. The goal of the competition, then, was to create such an
autonomous self-contained robot capable of, at the sound of a fire alarm,
traversing a floor plan, finding a light-emitting diode (LED) “fire,” dropping a paper
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cup over the LEDs to “extinguish” the fire, and exiting the floor plan within a set
amount of time.
Since the robot needed little physical capability beyond navigating the
track and dropping a cup, Mark decided to reuse the chassis of the 2001 IEEE
robot “Robby.” Our robot, being his direct descendant and requiring moderate
size reduction, was shortly christened “Robby Junior” (Fig. 1), though often still
called “Robby” for
simplicity. Further
references to Robby
herein specify the
2003 revision of the
chassis unless
otherwise noted.
Robby was outfitted
with a battery of
optical sensors to
allow him to detect lines on the ground, walls, and the candle. Additional
hardware was tested for the purpose of sensing distance and bearing, including
position encoders on the motors, ultrasonic echo sensors, an electronic
compass, and an optical mouse.
The driving idea behind Robby’s software was to maintain a precise state
of his position within the floor plan, cross-referencing that against a scale copy of
the floor plan written to firmware to determine his next course of action. Beyond
Figure 1: Robby Junior – The Fire-Fighting Robot (Development Version)
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that, Robby’s code was intended to be driven from section to section by various
interrupt triggers linked to external events. While the original design proved
unworkable with the resources at hand, significant portions of it survived through
to the final version and in fact remained the basis of Robby’s primary decision
making.
The final design proves quite workable, successfully completing around
ninety percent of runs made on our test track under the competition constraints
and regulations available in March 2003. At IEEE SoutheastCon 2003 in April,
Robby finished tied for ninth place in a field of twenty-six. Unannounced
competition conditions and rule changes, we feel, reduced our ability to compete
effectively and cost us a shot at a top-three finish.
II. PROBLEM BACKGROUND
The IEEE SoutheastCon 2003 Student Hardware Competition was
designed and overseen by the IEEE student chapter at the University of
Technology, Jamaica (Appendix A). The requirements are listed as “Final” and
dated December 1, 2002; however, they do not necessarily reflect the actual
competition, as neither clarifications by email nor rules changes at SoutheastCon
were made publicly available. For that matter, clarifications were made by email
only on a case-by-case basis and not sent to every participating school, so we
remain unconvinced that all participants had the same set of information
available.
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Generally speaking, however, the problem centered on the cup drop itself.
Teams could earn a maximum of 128 points per round (Table 1). A successful
drop itself earned 70 of those points, and without a perfect drop, no more than 20
Meet Size Requirement with Cup 10 pts
Leave Home Area 10 pts
Perfect Cup Drop 70 pts
*Return to Home Area 20 pts *Completion Time 18 – (time in seconds / 10) pts
Incorrect Drop - 20 pts
*Enter Wrong Room - 15 pts (per room)
Hit Wall - 5 pts (per round)
Overturn Candle Disqualified (per round) *Prerequisite of Cup Drop
points per run could be achieved. Maximum robot size was restricted to a 21 cm
x 21 cm footprint with a 20 cm ceiling. Additionally, the robot was required to be
autonomous and self-contained. Such restrictions naturally lend themselves (as
is usually the case with IEEE hardware competitions) to microcontroller / DC
battery solutions.
III. DESIGN APPROACH
III.1. HARDWARE DESIGN
Due to a combination of project budget constraints and size restrictions,
we decided to base the entry off the 2001 robot “Robby.” Budget was a concern
primarily because, in addition to hardware expenses, travel costs necessitated
airfare. By reusing the Robby chassis, no additional expenses were incurred for
Table 1: Scoring System
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the motor / encoder assembly, and it was hoped that the motors would not
require remounting.
The electronics hardware design centered around the LEGO7A single-
board computer (Fig. 2) developed within the department for various projects.
Powered by a Philips P89C51RD2, an Intel 8052 microcontroller variant, the 8-bit
system runs at 2MHz with 256 bytes of RAM and 64 kilobytes of Flash ROM.
Additionally, the SBC assembly provides for in-system programming via serial
link cable to PC, an 8-bit eight-channel analog-to-digital converter, four high-
current H-drivers for motors, two 8-bit D-latches, and miscellaneous processor
pins brought to external connections. Besides providing a robust feature set, the
SBC is an already-verified circuit layout, eliminating a potentially major source of
development errors.
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For navigation, an array of four infrared detectors interspersed with three
infrared emitters (Fig. 3) was mounted on the bottom of Robby, facing downward,
Figure 2: The Lego7A Board schematic. Robby-specific alterations are noted in red.
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orthogonal to the axis of motion. Of the four detectors, the center two track tape
lines in hallways, providing Robby with feedback to avoid traveling at odd angles.
The outer two detectors search for hallway corners and doorways, and their
relatively large separation allows Robby to correct his alignment. All four
detectors are coupled to the ADC present on the Lego board. The emitters are
used to ensure a relatively constant amount of detectable IR radiation
underneath Robby, helping counter external conditions and prevent interference
from cameras and the
like. Additionally, Robby
was equipped with a pair
of position encoders
providing 512 pulses per
revolution. Coupled with
a 40:1 gear ratio on the
motors, these sensors
put out a whopping
20480 pulses per
revolution, a resolution of approximately ten micrometers per pulse!
Three other infrared detectors were retrofitted with red optical filters and
biconvex lenses to look for the fire (red LED assembly). One, mounted on a
servo swiveling across the front 180° arc, determines an approximate bearing to
the LED candle. The remaining two, mounted above the motors facing aft,
provide stereo feedback to allow Robby to back towards the candle making
Figure 3: Robby’s line following hardware consists of 4 IR detectors (green) and 3 IR emitters (Yellow).
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needed corrections. Like the floor IR detectors, these three also feed into the
ADC. A final IR emitter / detector pair is mounted on the aftermost portion of
Robby’s base to create an “electric eye” across the U-shaped indention. When
the candle is reached, it interrupts the IR beam, providing hardware confirmation
that the objective has been reached without physically contacting the candle and
risking disqualification. Rather than feeding into the ADC, this detector’s output
goes to a Schmitt trigger for direct digital interpretation.
Various options were considered for providing Robby with reliable position
data within rooms, including outfitting him with an optical mouse and IR distance
sensors. Finally, a digital compass module, outputting either an I2C serial signal
or a PWM waveform, was selected to provide bearing data to be trigonometrically
analyzed against linear position encoder data. Proximity to severe
electromagnetic interference from the motors, solenoid, processor, and timing
crystal, however, precluded reliable compass readings, relegating intra-room
navigation to a software solution.
III.2. SOFTWARE DESIGN
Robby’s code was initially envisioned as operating almost entirely out of
interrupt service routines. However, by the time I began formally laying out
Robby’s code, I settled on a design primarily triggered by interrupts but executed
in the main code sequence (Fig. 4). The design relied heavily on the features of
the P89C51RD2 microcontroller that stretch beyond Intel’s original 8051
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specification such as a programmable counter array, extended RAM, and the
maximum addressable Flash ROM. From the beginning, the inclusion of a servo
motor required a PCA channel plus two timers: Timer 0 to clock the PCA
appropriately and another using an interrupt to update the servo’s position in the
background. The drive motors required two more PCA channels and had no
problems using the clock provided for the servo. The digital filter needed to
detect the start signal needed a timer and interrupt routine to maintain a constant
input rate. Moving to the Lego board as a whole, the two drive motors and
solenoid each needed motor drivers, and ADC channels were filled by the four
floor sensors, three candle sensors, and microphone.
Real software design began from this point. My first decision was to
create and maintain a file of #define directives and declarations to map standard
8051 addressing schemes to meaningful Robby-specific names (defines.h). For
example, CCAP2H was renamed MOTOR_STBD_HREG, the high-byte register holding
the speed of the starboard motor. Additional defines were made for ADC
channels, external memory addresses, and common function arguments. These
allowed for far more readable code such as ReadADC(MICROPHONE),
XBYTE[MOTOR_CONTROL], and Turn(PORT), respectively. This file allowed for more
readable code throughout (particularly for those other than me) as well as easier
modification when hardware changed. For example, when Robby had to be
disassembled for major work, his microphone might or might not be plugged back
into the same channel. Once the new channel was known, though, changing the
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Room Select
Find Room
Scan & Enter Room
Find Candle
Escape Room
Return Home
Poll Microphone
Track Distance
Control Servo
Real-Time Clock
Candle Sensor
Real-Time Clock
Track Distance
T0
EX0
T2
T2
T1
PCA
PCA
Start Signal
Cup Drop
Make Turn
Circle-Seek
Probable Bearing
Position Updates
Position Updates
Find Doorway
U-Turn Complete
Room Reached
Find Home Area
STOP
MAIN CODE INTERRUPTS
Figure 4: Software Flowchart
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single #define MICROPHONE directive in defines.h reflected the new configuration
throughout the rest of the code.
Armed with this reasonably inflexible list of hardware interface needs, I
began mapping out resource allocation (Table 2). I realized early that Timer 0
could be used for both the digital filter interrupt and the PCA clock, as they had
no overlap in execution and no interrupt need be generated when clocking the
PCA. I then decided to tie servo position control to Timer 1. Since Timer 2 is
used to generate a baud rate clock, which we wanted available for debugging
output via HyperTerminal, I decided to leave it otherwise unallocated for as long
as possible.
Three PCA channels were quickly allocated for the two drive motors and the
servo. Once the encoders were examined, we realized that the two remaining
PCA channels, 3 and 4, were ideal for use as 16-bit counters for the motor
encoders. The Lego board defaults those channels to use on motor drivers,
however, which led to our first board alteration – cutting the traces connecting
those processor port pins to their NOR gates and re-routing them to the
encoders. The two least significant bits on the output D-latch were then attached
to the chip select signals for the two disconnected motors, allowing their use in
simple on-off or software PWM modes. LEDs were then attached to the
remaining output bits for human feedback and debugging purposes.
Remaining allocations involved choices of little practical consequence.
The eight analog sensors were connected arbitrarily to the ADC. The solenoid
was placed on motor driver 3, its on-off use complementing the lack of
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Processor: RAM: 82 bytes of data plus stack space (256 bytes available) ROM: 5KB code (64KB available) Interrupts: 5 used (7 available) – EX0, T0, T1, T2, PCA PCA Channels: 5 used (5 available) – port motor, starboard motor, port encoder,
starboard encoder, servo I/O Ports: P0: Address/Data Bus P1: Pin 0 – pin 2: sirens Pin 3 & 4: motors (PCA channels 1 & 2) Pin 5 & 6: encoders (PCA channels 3 & 4) Pin 7: servo (PCA channel 5) P2: Address Bus P3: Pin 0 & 1: RXD / TXD for in-system programming Pin 2: candle-detecting interrupt Pin 3 & 4: unused Pin 5: ADC conversion finished flag Pin 6 & 7: Read / Write lines for Address/Data bus system Peripheral Board: ADC: Channel 1 – 4: floor sensors Channel 5 – 6: rear light sensors Channel 7: servo sensor Channel 8: microphone Input D-Latch: Pin 0: room select button Pin 1 – 7: unused Output D-Latch: Pin 0 & 1: enable for motors 3 & 4 Pin 2 – 7: diagnostic LEDs H-Drivers: Motor 1: port motor Motor 2: starboard motor Motor 3: solenoid Motor 4: unused
Table 2: Resource Allocation
hardware PWM on the driver. The output from the electric eye went to an
external interrupt pin. A room select button was placed on an input D-latch pin,
and the three fire truck siren toggles went on unused processor port pins.
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Finally, once the rest of the system was reasonably debugged, Timer 2 was
changed to use as a real-time clock for driving in-room events.
The first developed application for Robby was his line-following code. The
final version is a near-identical copy of Mark’s prototype code. Robby polls his
floor IR detectors on initialization and saves those readings as ambient values.
From that point on, the difference in current and ambient (checked for possible
negative overflow) is multiplied by a gain factor (checked for possible positive
overflow) to produce a motor drive value. This method has two potential
shortfalls. First, Robby must be turned on or reset while resting on a black
surface to accurately measure an ambient value. Second, that ambient value will
not change to adjust to a potentially different ambient value elsewhere on the
course. The obvious solution is to poll the sensors occasionally and maintain a
running average of ambient value. However, with this method, a naturally line-
following routine will saturate the ambient value with non-ambient data. If the
rate of average is accelerated, this compromises line-following even more
quickly. If slowed, the change in average will accrue too gradually to be of
benefit. Faced with this, we decided to stick with a one-time ambient check and
hope for the best, as it worked consistently in the lab.
Navigation within the room was designed from the ground up to use a
code-space memory map compared against a hardware source of positioning
data. As noted, however, such hardware solutions proved unworkable, leaving
just the position encoders as a means of navigation. Tracking to the candle was
never a serious issue – Robby simply applied his line-following algorithm to the
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twin optical sensors astride the cup drop area and homed in on the candle.
Finding the door to exit the room, however, was far trickier. We first attempted to
scan with the servo for a distinct signal from the gap in the wall, reasoning that
the extra space, additional lighting, and white tape would register the highest light
readings. Candle reflections off nearby walls, however, rendered this unreliable.
We then tried putting an LED astride the servo to illuminate walls and then find
the dimmest spot, as a doorway had no surface to reflect light from. Again
readings were inconsistent, as distant walls remained darker than the doorway
per the unaided lighting conditions. Additional attempts were made to record
encoder data while entering to retrace our steps out. We were unable, however,
to duplicate the proper turns at the proper times, and missed doorways more
than we hit them.
The solution, it seemed, was to find a distinct feature of doors
unmistakable from the rest of the room. We then settled on an algorithm
whereby, upon dropping the cup, Robby activated a real-time clock and started
driving directly forward at high speed. We hoped that, in the best case, he would
proceed fast enough to bank off his outboard rollers and reach the doorway. If
the tape line was not detected after five seconds, however, Robby reversed and
made a 40° turn, reset his clock, and proceeded forward again. This drive-and-
turn repeated a 40° - 40° - 180° pattern until the doorway was reached. For each
room Robby was programmed with the likely direction of the doorway for his
turns, though if missing, he nearly always escaped eventually. Tests even
showed he was capable of ramming a cup-covered candle without upsetting it, a
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condition allowed by the rules, while escaping. This algorithm was then
retrofitted to the cup search routine – if the cup was not dropped within 12
seconds of room entry, Robby assumed he had missed the cup and jammed
against a wall. He then pulled forward and began circling, looking for the first
bright light source before resuming his homing routine.
Robby’s position encoders were rigged to provide a variety of functions.
Under normal line-following conditions, they recorded 900-pulse increments
roughly equivalent to one centimeter, updating his stored (x,y) position as
necessary. In turns the (x,y) updates were disabled and the encoders switched
over to measure the distance turned, with options for either a zero-radius or line-
following turn – Robby’s line-following turns shifted him approximately 2 cm in
both his original and final direction. In those cases his (x,y) position was updated
accordingly. Finally, in-room, both of the above uses were disabled, and in the
final implementation, encoder data was ignored. Robby’s stored (x,y) position
remains unchanged from room entry to room exit, as only one door per room
means that he must effectively return to where he came in. While not completely
accurate, the approximation is sufficient for general navigation purposes.
The digital filter for starting Robby was the final piece of software to be
designed. Since the 1500 Hz signal was in the middle of the audible range,
Jamaica conceded that it would be virtually impossible to fairly penalize an
improper start and so through testing Robby could be started by any sufficiently
loud noise. Once the rest of the system worked satisfactorily, however, we
decided to tighten Robby’s starting constraints. Measurements demonstrated
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that Robby could sample at 5000 Hz while retaining about 300 computational
cycles between samples. With a 16-bit multiplication time of 23 cycles, Robby
had enough speed to run a second-order elliptic bandpass filter. Problems with
microphone voltage levels, however, prevented us from using this solution.
Instead, we coded a single-order lowpass filter. While passing many frequencies
besides the target 1500 Hz, the filter code requires consistency – without 5000
consecutive hits, one second’s worth, Robby will not accept a signal as valid.
Consequently, he ignores normal room noise like conversation but starts
accurately on application of a 1500 Hz tone.
IV. RESULTS
The biggest disappointment from the original design was our inability to
use the compass successfully. We believe the problem stemmed from
electromagnetic interference generated by the microcontroller and crystal,
mounted only an inch from the magnetic sensors. When we moved the compass
from its mount to a position six to eight inches above the microcontroller,
interference subsided and Robby was able to determine his bearing with a
reasonable degree of precision. Unfortunately, the size constraints did not allow
us to mount the compass that far off board, leading to our decision to eliminate
the compass from the final design.
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V. CONCLUSIONS
Competition results were far less than we hoped for (Appendix B).
Frankly, rules were changed upon arrival, several factors were inadequately
defined, and portions of the competition were poorly envisioned. For example,
despite explicit assurance to the contrary, teams were not permitted to see
candle placement prior to hands-off being declared. This torpedoed the
strategies of nearly every competitor. Additionally, the competition was held
outdoors in sunlight. While the rules did state that designs ought to be capable
of dealing with varied and unspecified light conditions, almost no one designed
anticipating a solar barrage of IR and red wavelengths. Our line-following, for
example, was nearly useless under the circumstances. Also, neither specific cup
dimensions nor vendors were specified, leaving us to guess at size. Robby was
tested at UE with a slightly smaller cup than at Jamaica, resulting in one run
where (despite perfect placement) the cup didn’t fall. Another run saw the cup
fall prematurely due to poor fit on the solenoid release mechanism. This one
missing piece of information, even with the other changes, cost us a third if not
second place finish. Finally, the scoring system resulted in preposterous
rankings. With no points accrued from leaving the home area until a cup drop,
three teams finished ahead of us by traveling five inches and then stopping.
Since we continued and bumped walls, we lost points on each run in entering the
correct room.
In spite of these issues, we are pleased with an 8th place finish, and the
traveling engineers are particularly grateful for the chance to visit Jamaica for
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conference purposes. While not finishing with stellar scores, UE’s participants
still placed higher than many prominent southeastern universities.
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APPENDIX A OFFICIAL RULES
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APPENDIX B COMPETITION RESULTS
School Trial Trial Trial Total Mississippi State University 15 125.2 124.9 265.1 Virginia Commonwealth University 80 123.4 15.0 218.4 Tennessee Technical University 20 10.0 85.0 115.0 Florida International University 15 10.0 85.0 110.0 Clemson University -5 15.0 80.0 90.0 University of Memphis 20 20.0 20.0 60.0 Chattahoochee Technical College 20 20.0 15.0 55.0 University of Alabama, Huntsville 15 20.0 20.0 55.0 University of Evansville 20 15.0 15.0 50.0 N. Carolina A&T State University 20 15.0 15.0 50.0 Florida Institute of Technology 20 15.0 15.0 50.0 University of Tennessee 10 20.0 20.0 50.0 Old Dominion University 20 15.0 10.0 45.0 University of Southern Indiana 20 10.0 15.0 45.0 S. Carolina State University 15 15.0 15.0 45.0 Virginia Tech 20 10.0 10.0 40.0 University of Florida 10 15.0 15.0 40.0 Western Kentucky University 5 15.0 20.0 40.0 Florida Atlantic University 10 5.0 20.0 35.0 University of Tennessee at Martin 10 10.0 10.0 30.0 S.Polytechnic State University 10 10.0 10.0 30.0 University of Kentucky Disq. 15.0 15.0 30.0 Guilford Tech Community College 10 5.0 15.0 30.0 Georgia Southern University 10 Disq. 10.0 20.0 Virginia Military Institute 5 5.0 -5.0 5.0