Transcript
Page 1: Architecture, History_ Evolution of Building Design

History of Architecture (3,000 BCE ­ present)Evolution of Building Design

Contents

• Architecture and Art• Egyptian• Sumerian• Early Irish• Minoan• Greek• Roman• Byzantine• Romanesque• Gothic• Renaissance• Baroque• Rococo• Neoclassical• 19th Century Architecture• Frank Lloyd Wright• American Skyscrapers• 20th Century Architecture

St Peter's Basilica, Rome, showingMaderno's facade and the adaptedDome, originally designed byMichelangelo. Renaissance style.

Taj Mahal, India (1632­54)A superb example of Mughal(Mogul) architecture.

RESOURCESFor architectural terms, see:Architecture Glossary.To see how architecture fitsinto the evolution of fine arts,see:: History of Art.

Relationship Between Architecture and Art

Ever since Antiquity, architecture ­ the art of designing and constructingbuildings ­ has always been closely intertwined with the history of art, for atleast three reasons. First, many public works (especially religious buildings)were designed with aesthetics in mind, as well as functionality. They werebuilt to inspire as well as serve a public function. As a result, they involvedthe services of a wide range of 'artists' and decorative craftsmen as well aslabourers. Second, in many of these buildings, the exteriors and interiorsacted as showcases for fine art painting (eg. Sistine Chapel), frieze andreliefsculpture (eg. The Parthenon, European Gothic cathedrals), stainedglass art(eg. Chartres Cathedral), and other artworks like mosaics andmetalwork. Thirdly, public building programs typically went hand in hand withthe development of visual art, and most major 'arts' movements(eg.Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical) influenced both architectureand the fine arts.

Ancient Architecture

Early architecture had two main functions: (1) to consolidate security andpower; (2) to please the Gods. The richer the society, the more importantthese functions became. See also: History of Art: Timeline.

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Egyptian Architecture

The first great civilization to emerge around the Mediterranean basin wasthat of Egypt (c.3100­2040 BCE). In addition to its own written language,religion and dynastic ruling class, it developed a unique style of Egyptianarchitecture, largely consisting of massive burial chambers in the form ofPyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs (in the desolate Valley of theKings, Luxor). Design was monumental but not architecturally complex andemployed posts and lintels, rather than arches, although Egyptian expertisein stone had a strong influence on later Greek architecture. Famous examplesof Egyptian pyramid architecture include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c.2630BCE) designed by Imhotep ­ one of the greatest architects of the ancientworld ­ and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c.2550 BCE), also called the Pyramidof Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops' ­ the oldest of the Seven Wonders of theWorld, as compiled by Antipater of Sidon (170­120 BCE). Later, during theMiddle and Late Kingdoms (c.2040­300 CE), the Egyptians constructed aseries of palaces at Karnak (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards). Thesestructures were adorned with a diverse range of artworks ­ few of whichsurvive ­ including murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork,depicting various Gods, deities, rulers and symbolic animals in the uniqueEgyptian hieratic style of art, together with hieroglyphic inscriptions. Formore specific details, see: Early Egyptian Architecture (3100­2181); EgyptianMiddle Kingdom Architecture (2055­1650); Egyptian New KingdomArchitecture (1550­1069); Late Egyptian Architecture (1069 BCE ­ 200 CE).

For a comparison with the pyramid architecture of the earlyAmericas, see: Pre­Columbian Art (c.1200 BCE ­ 1535 CE).

Sumerian Architecture

Meanwhile, in Mesopotamia and Persia (c.3200­323 BCE), the Sumeriancivilization was developing its own unique building ­ a type of steppedpyramid called a ziggurat. But in contrast to the pyramids of the EgyptianPharaohs, ziggurats were not built as tombs but as man­made mountains tobring the Sumerian rulers and people closer to their Gods who supposedlydwelt high up in mountains to the east. Ziggurats were constructed fromclay­fired bricks, often finished with coloured glazes. For more details,see:Sumerian Art (c.4500­2270 BCE). For other cultures of ancient Iraq,see:Assyrian art (c.1500­612 BCE) and Hittite art (c.1600­1180 BCE). For anoverall view, see: Mesopotamian art (c.4500­539). See also: Prehistoric ArtTimeline.

Early Irish Architecture

Towards the end of the Stone Age, ceremonial megaliths (structures builtfrom large stones) like the Knowth megalithic tomb (c.3300 BCE)andNewgrange passage tomb, began to appear in Northern Europe (This formofMegalithic art is exemplified by the Stonehenge stone circle.) Eitherarranged upright in the open, or buried and roofed over to form a 'dolmen',these heavy stone structures are believed by most archeologists to have hada religious or ritualistic function, and in some cases the alignment of theirstones reveals a sophisticated knowledge of astronomy. The complexengravings unearthed at Newgrange mark the beginning of visual arts inIreland. For more about ancient and medieval buildings, pleaseseeArchitectural Monuments of Ireland. For older types of historical site,seeArcheological Monuments of Ireland.

Minoan Architecture

The first European art of Classical Antiquity was created by the Minoans,based on the island of Crete. Minoan architecture utilized a mixture of stone,mud­brick and plaster to construct elaborate palaces (eg. Palace of Knossosc.1700­1400 BCE) as well as domed burial chambers (tholos) hidden in thehills. Many of these buildings were decorated with colourful murals andfresco paintings, depicting mythological animal symbols (eg. the bull) andevents. Unfortunately most Minoan architecture was destroyed byearthquakes around 1200 BCE. Crete was then taken over by the Myceneans

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from mainland Greece, from where a unified Greek culture and civilizationemerged a few centuries later.

Greek Architecture

The history of art and architecture in Ancient Greece is divided into threebasic eras: the Archaic Period (c.600­500 BCE), the Classical Period (c.500­323 BCE) and the Hellenistic Period (c.323­27 BCE). [See also: Aegean art.]About 600 BCE, inspired by the theory and practice of earlier Egyptian stonemasons and builders, the Greeks set about replacing the wooden structuresof their public buildings with stone structures ­ a process known as'petrification'. Limestone and marble was employed for columns and walls,while terracotta was used for roof tiles and ornaments. Decoration was donein metal, like bronze.

Like painters and sculptors, Greek architects enjoyed none of the enhancedstatus accorded to their successors. They were not seen as artists but astradesmen. Thus no names of architects are known before about the 5thcentury BCE. The most common types of public buildings were temples,municipal structures, theatres and sports stadiums.

Architectural Methods of Ancient Greece

Greek architecture used simple post­and­lintel building techniques. It wasn'tuntil the Roman era that the arch was developed in order to span greaterdistances. As a result, Greek architects were forced to employ a great manymore stone columns to support short horizontal beams overhead. Moreover,they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces, without havingrows of internal support columns. The standard construction format, used inpublic buildings like the Hephaesteum at Athens, employed large blocks oflimestone or a light porous stone known as tuff. Marble, being scarcer andmore valuable was reserved for sculptural decoration, except in the grandestbuildings, such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis.

Greek Building Design

The typical rectangular building design was often surrounded by a columns onall four sides (eg. the Parthenon) or more rarely at the front and rear only(eg the Temple of Athena Nike). Roofs were laid with timber beams coveredby terracotta tiles, and were not domed. Pediments (the flattened triangularshape at each gable end of the building) were usually filled with sculpturaldecoration or friezes, as was the row of lintels along the top of each sidewall, between the roof and the tops of the columns. In the late 4th and 5thcenturies BCE, Greek architects began to depart from the strictly rectangularplan of traditional temples in favour of a circular structure (the tholos),embellished with black marble to highlight certain architectural elements andprovide rich colour contrasts.

These buildings were famously adorned with a huge range of Greeksculpture­ pedimental works, friezes, reliefs and various types of free­standing statue­ of a figurative nature, depicting mythological heroes andevents in Greek history and culture.

Principles of Greek Architecture: Classical Orders

The theory of Greek architecture ­ arguably the most influential form ofclassical Greek art ­ was based on a system of 'Classical Orders' ­ rules forbuilding design based on proportions of and between the individual parts.This resulted in an aesthetically pleasing consistency of appearanceregardless of size or materials used. There were three orders in early Greekarchitecture: the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The Doric style was commonin mainland Greece and later spread to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionicstyle was employed in the cities of Ionia along the west coast of Turkey andother islands in the Aegean. Where the Doric style was formal and austere,the Ionic was less restrained and more decorative. The third style,Corinthian, came later and represented a more ornate development of theIonic order. The differences between these styles is most plainly visible inthe ratio between the base diameter and height of their columns. Doric

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architecture (exemplified by Greek structures, like the Parthenon and theTemple of Hephaestus in Athens) was more popular during the Classical age,while the Ionic style gained the upper hand during the more relaxed periodofHellenistic Art (c.323­30 BCE).

Famous Buildings of Ancient Greece

Famous examples of ancient Greek architecture include: the Acropoliscomplex (550­404 BCE) including the Parthenon (447­422 BCE), the Templesat Paestum (550 BCE onwards), the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (468­456BCE), the Temple of Hephaistos (c.449 BCE), the Temple of Athena Nike (427BCE), the Theatre at Delphi (c.400 BCE), the Tholos Temple of AthenaPronaia (380­360 BCE), and the Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166­156 BCE).See also: Sculpture of Ancient Greece.

Roman Architecture

Unlike the more creative and intellectual Greeks, the Romans wereessentially practical people with a flair for engineering, construction andmilitary matters. In their architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavilyfrom both the Etruscans (eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp­clearingand in the construction of arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regardedas their superiors in all visual arts. However, without Roman art ­ with itsgenius for copying and adapting Greek styles ­ most of the artisticachievements of Greek antiquity would have been lost.

Architectural Priorities of Ancient Rome

Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keento impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confinedurban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This,together with Rome's growing desire to increase its power and majestythroughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large­scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architecturalachievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the aqueduct at Segovia,100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome itself, such as AquaClaudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du Gard) roads, municipalstructures like public baths (eg. the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths ofDiocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72­80CE), even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres werealso built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized theopportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid­plansbased on two wide streets ­ a north­south axis (the cardo) and an east­westaxis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of thetwo roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city nearRome, boasted a number of 5­storey apartment blocks.

Architectural Advances: Arches & Concrete

Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and newmaterials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in theconstruction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency andcapability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed tosupport the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building oflarger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressiveappearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular andChristian basilicas, like the Pantheon.

Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Romanarchitect Vitruvius (c.78­10 BCE) in his book De Architectura. This isexemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), amixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BCE. Thisexceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionizedRoman engineering and architecture. As tile­covered concrete began toreplace marble as the main building material, architects could be moredaring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design­plan (with itsundomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and becameless geometric and more free­flowing.

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Like their Egyptian and the Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Romeembellished their public buildings with a wide range of artworks,including:Roman sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of theEmperor), fresco murals, and mosaics.

Famous Buildings of Ancient Rome

Two of the greatest structures of Ancient Rome were the Colosseum (theelliptical Flavian amphitheatre in the centre of Rome) and Trajan's Column (amonument to the Emperor Trajan). Situated to the east of the Roman Forum,the Colosseum took 8 years to build, had seating for 50,000 spectators.Historians and archeologists estimate that a staggering 500,000 people andover 1 million wild animals perished in the 'games' at the Colosseum.Trajan'sColumn, located close to the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum, wasfinished in 113 CE. It is renowned for its magnificent and highly detailedspiral bas relief sculpture, which circles the shaft of the monument 23 times,and narrates Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. The shaft itself is madefrom 20 huge blocks of Carrara marble, each weighing about 40 tons. Itstands about 30 metres in height and 4 metres in width. A smaller but noless important Roman monument was the Ara Pacis Augustae (13­9 BCE).

Impact of Politics and Religion on Roman Architecture

In 330 CE, about the time St Peter's Basilica was completed, the RomanEmperor Constantine I declared that the city of Byzantium (later renamedConstantinople, now Istanbul in Turkey), was to be the capital of the RomanEmpire. Later, in 395 CE, following the death of Emperor Theodosius, theempire was divided into two parts: a Western half based first in Rome until itwas sacked in the 5th century CE, then Ravenna (See Ravenna mosaics); andan eastern half based in the more secure city of Constantinople. In addition,Christianity (previously a minority sect) was declared the sole official religionthroughout the empire. These twin developments impacted on architecture intwo ways: first, relocation to Constantinople helped to preserve and prolongRoman culture, which might otherwise have been destroyed by the barbarianinvaders of Italy; second, the emergence of Christianity provided whatbecame the dominant theme of architecture and the visual arts for the next1,200 years.

Byzantine Architecture (330­554 CE)

Byzantine architects ­ including numerous Italians who had moved to the newcapital from Italy ­ continued the free­flowing tradition of Romanarchitecture, constructing a number of magnificent churches and religiousbuildings, during the era of


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