AIR NAVIGATION

• Periods 1&2

• INTRODUCTION• HOW IS AIR NAVIGATION DIFFERENT FROM • NAVIGATION ON LAND AND WATER?

• FORM OF THE EARTH• SHAPE, SIZE, AXIS OF ROTATION, GEOGRAPHIC

POLES• GREAT CIRCLES, SMALL CIRCLE• GRATICULE, LATITUDE, PARELLELS OF LAT, D

LAT• MERIDIANS, PRIME MERIDIAN, ANTE MERIDIAN,• LONGITUDE, D LONG , LAT/LONG POSITION , • BEARING AND DIST, PLACE NAME, GRID,

GEOREF SYSTEM

AIR NAVIGATION

• AIR NAVIGATION is the ART and SCIENCE of taking an Aircraft from Place ‘A’ to Place ‘B’, Safely and in Shortest Possible TIME, ie Most Economically

• Most Important aspect of Aviation and involves not only the in depth knowledge of a wide variety of subjects but also their interdependence and co-relation and their impact on the flight operations

THE THREE W’S OF NAVIGATION

WHERE AM I ?

WHY AM I HERE?

WHAT DO I DO NEXT?

How is Air Navigation different from navigation on land and water?

PILOTAGE NAVIGATION WITH REFERENCE TO VISIBLEFEATURES

EARTH

• FORM SHAPE SIZE AXIS OF ROTATION GEOGRAPHIC POLES GREAT CIRCLES SMALL CIRCLES EQUATOR, MERIDIANS & PARELLELS GRATICULE

SOLAR SYSTEM

The Solar System consists of the Sun ,nine major planets , including the earth, and approximately 2000 minor planets and asteroids.

MercuryVenusEarthMars JupiterSaturnUranusNeptunePlutoAll the Planets orbit around the sun in elliptical orbits in accordance with Keppler’s Laws of Planetary motion.

Similarly the Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit at an average distance of 93 million statute miles from the Sun.

THE EARTH’S ORBIT

The Earth not only orbits the Sun but also spins on its own axis, presenting a continuously changing face to the Sun. This causes day and night.

The Earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of approx 66.5 degrees to the Orbital Plane. This causes the seasons on the Earth as well as the changing time interval between Sunrise and Sunset throughout the year.

THE POLES

The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about which the Earth spins.

When viewed from above a Pole, if the Earth appears to rotate in an anti-clockwise direction then that Pole has been named as the North Pole.

Similarly, if viewed from above a Pole , the Earth appears to rotate in a clockwise direction then that Pole has been named as the South Pole.

SHAPE OF THE EARTH

OBLATE SPHEROID a solid generated by revolution of an ellipse about its minoraxis

Equatorial Diameter= Polar Diameter + 27 Statute Miles

6865 NM

6888 NM

Compression or Flattening = Eq Dia – Polar Dia Eq Dia

Topographical SurfaceTopographical surface Mountain

Geoid Ellipsoid Ocean

GREAT CIRCLE

• IS A CIRCLE ON THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE (EARTH) WHOSE CENTER AND RADIUS ARE THE SAME AS THOSE OF THE SPHERE.

• IT IS THE LARGEST CIRCLE THAT CAN BE DRAWN ON THE SPHERE .

• IT CUTS THE SPHERE INTO TWO EQUAL HALVES.• ONLY ONE GREAT CIRCLE CAN BE DRAWN

THROUGH ANY TWO POINTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH WHICH ARE NOT DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE TO EACH OTHER.

• THE SHORTER ARC OF THE GREAT CIRCLE PASSING THROUGH TWO POINTS REPRESENTS THE SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN THE POINTS

• SMALL CIRCLE: ANY CIRCLE WHICH IS NOT A GREAT CIRCLE IS CALLED A SMALL CIRCLE.

• EQUATOR: EQUATOR IS A GREAT CIRCLE WHOSE PLANE IS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE AXIS OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH. IT CUTS THE EARTH INTO NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.

• PARALELS OF LATITUDE: SMALL CIRCLES WHOSE PLANE IS PARALEL TO THE PLANE OF THE EQUATOR .

• MERIDIANS: ARE SEMI GREAT CIRCLES PASSING THROUGH THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH POLES.A MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH A PLACE ALWAYS DEFINES THE NORTH SOUTH DIRECTION.

• PRIME MERIDIAN: THE MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH GREENWICH (LONDON) IS CALLED THE PRIME MERIDIAN

• ANTI MERIDIAN: THE OTHER HALF OF THE GREAT CIRCLE COMPLETING THE MERIDIAN IS CALLED ITS ANTI MERIDIAN

• GRATICULE: NETWORK OF MERIDIANS AND PARALELS OF LATITUDE IS CALLED GRATICULE.

NP

SP

EQUATOR

GREAT CIRCLES

SMALLCIRCLES

BASIC DIRECTIONS ON THE EARTH

NEED FOR A DATUM…………

THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THE EARTH IS SPINNING IS DEFINED AS EAST. THE DIRECTION OPPOSITE TO EAST IS NAMED WEST.

FACING EAST, THE POLE ON THE LEFT IS NORTH POLE AND DIRECTION NORTH IS DEFINED AS THE DIRECTION TOWARDS THE NORTH POLE

LIKEWISE THE POLE ON THE RIGHT IS THE SOUTH POLE AND THE DIRECTION SOUTH IS DEFINED AS THE DIRECTION TOWARDS THE SOUTH POLE. SOUTH IS ALSO THE DIRECTION OPPOSITE TO NORTH

NORTH EASTSOUTH WEST

CARDINAL DIRECTIONSOR POINTS

NORTH-EASTSOUTH-EASTSOUTH-WESTNORTH WEST

QUADRANTAL DIRECTIONS OR POINTS

N

S

EW

NE

SESW

NW

SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM / TRUE DIRECTION

• SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM USES THE FACT THAT A CLOCKWISE ROTATION OF DIRECTION FROM NORTH THROUGH EAST, SOUTH AND WEST AND BACK TO NORTH IS A CIRCLE OF 360 DEGREES. NORTH IS THUS 000 Degrees, EAST BECOMES 090 Degrees, SOUTH 180 Degrees AND WEST 270 Degrees. NORTH CAN BE 360 OR 000 Degrees.

• WHEN THE NORTH DATUM IS WITH RESPECT TO THE GEOGRAPHIC NORTH POLE , THEN THE DIRECTIONS ARE TERMED AS TRUE DIRECTIONS AND SHOWN AS 000(T) , 090(T), 135(T) etc

• 090(M) WILL BE THE DIRECTION WITH RESPECT TO THE MAGNETIC NORTH AND 090(C) WILL BE THE DIRECTION WITH THE DATUM AS THE COMPASS NORTH

LATITUDE,PARELLELS OF LATITUDE

DIFF OF LAT/DIFF OF LONG

PRIME MERIDIAN/ ANTI MERIDIAN

STANDARD MERIDIAN

POSITIONS EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF LAT & LONG, BEARINGS AND DISTANCES

DEFINITIONS

• LATITUDE : LAT OF A POINT IS THE ARC OF THE MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH THE POINT INTERCEPTED BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND THE POINT. MEASURED IN DEG, MIN, AND SEC AND IS TERMED NORTH OR SOUTH DEPENDING ON WHETHER THE POINT IS NORTH OR SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR

• LONGITUDE : LONGITUDE OF A PLACE IS THE SHORTER ARC OF THE EQUATOR INTERCEPTED BETWEEN THE PRIME MERIDIAN AND THE MERIDIAN PASSING THROUGH THE PLACE . MEASURED IN DEG, MIN, AND SEC AND IS TERMED EAST OR WEST DEPENDING ON WHETHER THE POINT IS EAST OR WEST OF THE PRIME MERIDIAN.

• Latitude 40 N

Equator

A Latitude 40 N

E Q

N

S

40°

.

NP

Greenwich

B

0°

GreenwichMeridian

180° Meridian

DEFINITIONS• CHANGE OF LAT (Ch Lat/D Lat): BETWEEN

TWO PLACES IS THE SMALLER ARC OF THE MERIDIAN INTRRCEPTED BETWEEN THE PARALLELS OF LATITUDE OF THE TWO PLACES AND IS NAMED NORTH OR SOUTH DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE CHANGE. MEASURED IN DEG, MIN AND SEC.

• CHANGE OF LONG (Ch Long/D Long): BETWEEN TWO PLACES IS THE SMALLER ARC OF THE EQUATOR INTRRCEPTED BETWEEN THE MERIDIANS OF THE TWO PLACES AND IS NAMED EAST OR WEST DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE CHANGE. MEASURED IN DEG, MIN AND SEC

Periods 3&4

DIRECTION

MAGNETIC POLES, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHICAND MAGNETIC POLES

VARIATION, ISOGONALS, DEVIATION , HEADING (C),(M),(T)TRACK – MAGNETIC AND TRUE

CONVERSION AND C D M V T PRACTICE PROBLEMS

AircraftHEADING

True

Magnetic

Compass

TN

MN

CN

Variation (E)

Deviation (W)

Measurement of Direction

• DIRECTION

MAGNETIC POLES

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOG

& MAGNETIC POLES

VARIATION, ISOGONALS, AGONIC

LINE

DIP-ISOCLINALS, ACLINIC LINE

TRACK – MAGNETIC AND TRUE

CONVERSION OF COMP DIR TO

MAG AND TRUE AND VICE VERSA

Periods 5&6

UNITS OF MEASURE MENT

NAUTICAL MILE , STATUTE MILE, KILOMETER

RELATIONSHIP NAUTICAL MILE AND LAT

METERS , FEET AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

TEMPERATURE, UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

POUNDS AND KILOGRAMS

US GALLONS, IMP GALLONS, LITERS AND

THEIR CONVERSION

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

• NAUTICAL MILE, STATUTE MILE, KM• METERS AND FEET & THEIR REL’SHIP 1M=3.3 ft• TEMP; UNITS OF MEASUREMENT• °C °F °K ( Absolute Temp) X°F=(X-32)x 5/9 °C Y°C=(Y+273) °K Z °C = (Z x 9/5) + 32° F• APPRECIATION OF VARIATION OF LENGTH OF NAUTICAL MILE WITH LAT• POUNDS, KG 1 Kg = 2.2 lbs• US GALLONS, IMP GALLONS,LITRES 1 Imp Gal = 1.2 US Gal = 4.55 Ltr 1 US Gal = 3.6 Ltr • CONVERSION OF THE ABOVE

Periods 7&8

CONVERGENCY, CONVERGENCE OF MERIDIANS

VARIATION OF CONVERGENCY WITH LAT

ITS EFFECT ON G/C TRACKS

RHUMB LINE, DEFINITION, ADV/ DISADV OF R/L TR

VIS-À-VIS G/C TR

CONVERSION ANGLE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH

CONVERGENCY

APPLICATION OF THE SAME

CONVERGENCY

• CONVERGENCE OF MERIDIANS

• VARIATION OF CONVERGENCY WITH LAT

• EFFECT OF CONV ON GREAT CIRCLE TRACKS

x

xx

CONVERGENCY between Long A and Long BAt Lat C

A

B

Convergency = Ch Long X Sine Mean Lat

CONVERGENCY IS DEFINED AS THE ANGLE OF INCLINATION BETWEEN TWO SELECTED MERIDIANSMEASURED AT A GIVEN LATITUDE

C

RHUMB LINE• DEFINITION : IT IS A REGULARLY CURVED LINE WHICH CUT ALL THE

MERIDIANS AT THE SAME ANGLE• ADVANTAGES : IT REPRESENTS THE CONSTANT DIRECTION FLIGHT. SO

CONSTANT HEADING CAN BE MAINTAINED. IT OBVIATES THE NEED TO CONSTANTLY KEEP CHANGING THE HEADING AS IS THE CASE WITH G/C TRACKS

• DISADVANTAGES : IT DOES NOT REPRESENT THE SHORTEST DISTANCE. SO IT IS LESS ECONOMICAL IN COMPARISON WITH GREAT CIRCLE

• CONVERSION ANGLE : THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE G/C TRACK AND THE RHUMB LINE TRACK BETWEEN ANY TWO PLACES IS CALLED THE CONVERSION ANGLE.

• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONV ANGLE AND CONVERGENCY: CONVERSION ANGLE IS EQUAL = ½ CONVERGENCY THEREFORE CA = ½ CH LONG X SINE MEAN LAT

• ITS APPLICATION; IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT THE C/A IS APPLIED AT THE POSITION WHERE THE G/C DIRECTION IS MEASURED

• Convergency= 70 x Sin30 = 35 Deg

• C/A= 17 ½ Deg

E Q

60N

50W 20E

A

BNP

SP

R/L

G/C

C/A

C/A

DEPARTURE

• DEPARTURE IS THE E – W DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO MERIDIANS ALONG A SPECIFIED LATITUDE, USUALLY IN NAUTICAL MILES

• IT IS MAXIMUM AT THE EQUATOR AND ZERO AT THE POLES, WHERE ALL MERIDIANS CONVERGE

• THEREFORE, DEP VARIES AS Cos LAT Departure (nm) =Ch Long (Min)xCos Lat

A B

C D

10 W 20 W

20 N

40 N

POSN A – 40 N 10 W B - 40 N 20 W C - 20N 10 W D - 20 N 20 W

GIVE:THE R/L DIST FROM A – B THE DEP FROM B TO C THE DEP FROM CTO B?

Q.1 GIVEN THAT THE VALUE OF EARTH’S COMPRESSION IS 1/297 AND THAT THE SEMI-MAJOR AXIS OF THE EARTH, ( MEASURED AT THE EQUATOR) IS 6378.4 KM , WHAT IS THE SEMI-MINOR AXIS (MEASURED AT AXIS OF THE POLES)?

a) 6399.9 km b) 6356.5 km c) 6378.4 km d) 6367.0 km

Q.2 GIVE THE DIRECTION AND CHANGE OF LATITUDE FROM “A” TO “B” IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CASES:

A B a) 31°27’S 091°47’E 35°57’N 096°31’E b) 61°47’N 003°46’W 62°13N 001°36’E c) 43°57’S 108°23’E 43°57N

071°37W

Q.3 YOU ARE AT POSITION “A” AT 54°20’N 002°30’W. GIVEN A ChLat OF 16°20’N AND A ChLong OF ) 020°30’W, WHAT IS THE POSITION OF “B” ?

• Q.4 WHAT IS THE POSITION OF THE RHUMB LINE BETWEEN TWO POINTS RELATIVE TO THE GREAT CIRCLE BETWEEN THE SAME TWO POINTS, IF THE POINTS ARE:

a) IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

b) IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

• Q.5 COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE HDG (C) DEVN. HDG(M) VARN HDG(T)

095 100 5W

312 3E 315

138 3W 13 E

• Q.6 GIVE THE SHORTEST DISTANCE IN NAUTICAL MILES AND IN KILOMETERS BETWEEN THE FOLLOWING POSITIONS:

A B a) 52°06’N 002 32’E 53°36’N OO2°32’W b) 04°41’S 163°36’W O3°21’N 163°36W c) 62 00’N 093°00’E 62°00’N 087°00’W d) 00°00’N 176°00’E 00°00’N 173°00W e) 43°57’N 071°37’W 43°57’S 108°23’W

Q.7 WHAT IS THE SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN “A” ( 5130N 00000E) AND

“B” (5130S 18000E)

Q.8 WHAT IS THE ANGLE BETWEEN TRUE G/C TRACK AND THE TRUE R/L TRACK JOINING THE POINTS “A” (7000S 16000W) AND “B” (7000S 17900E), AT THE PLACE OF DEPARTURE ?(Cos70 = 0.34 , Sin70 = 0.94)

Q.9 POSITION “A” IS 58°N 030°W AND POSITION “B” IS 51°N 020°W. WHAT IS THE RHUMB LINE BEARING FROM ‘A’ TO ‘B’ , IF THE GREAT CIRCLE TRACK FROM ‘A’ TO ‘B’ MEASURED AT ‘A’ IS 100°(T)?

a) 110°(T) b) 284°(T) c) 104°(T) d) 090°(T)°

Q.10 THE GREAT CIRCLE BEARING OF ‘E’ FROM ‘F’ IS O90°(T) AND THE GREAT CIRCLE BEARING OF ‘F’ FROM ‘E’ IS 265°(T). IN WHICH HEMISPHERE ARE ‘E’ AND ‘F’ LOCATED ?

AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

• SIMPLE THEORY OF PROJECTIONS

• SCALE

• SCALE ERROR

• RELIEF

• SYMBOLS

• PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL CHART A. Representation of the Earth’s surface Areas should be represented in their true shape on the chart Equal Areas ON THE Earth Should be shown as Equal Areas on the Chart Angles on the Earth should be represented by the Same (Equal) Angles on the Chart Scale Should be Constant and Correct B. Navigation Requirements R/L Should Be A Straight Line G/C Should Be A Straight Line Lat and Long should be easy to plot Adjacent sheets should fit correctly Coverage should be Worldwide

SCALE

• DEFINITION

• REDUCED EARTH

• R.F./STATEMENT IN WORDS/ GRADUATED SCALE

• DEVELOPABLE SURFACE

• TYPES OF PROJECTIONS

a) PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONS

b) MATHEMATICAL PROJECTIONS

SCALE• Definition: It is the ratio of Chart Length to the

Earth Distance in the same Units

• Scale = Chart Length/ Earth Length (in same

units)

RF 1: 1,000,000

Statement : 0ne inch equals one mile

:Quarter inch Map

Graduated Scale

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

PROJECTIONS IDEAL REQUIREMENTS FOR NAVIGATION• APPEARANCE OF GRATICULE• SCALE VARIATION• ORTHOMORPHISM• CHART CONVERGENCY• APPEARANCE OF GREAT CIRCLE• APPEARANCE OF RHUMB LINE• AVAILABLE COVERAGE• FITMENT OF ADJACENT SHEETS

SCALE FACTOR• Scale can never be constant and correct• Scale Factor is the Factor at which the Scale is

Expanding/ Contracting.• SF at A = Scale at A / Scale of Reduced Earth

therefore, Scale at A = Scale of RE x SF• Also, Scale at A = SF at A x Specified scale, Scale at B = SF at B x Specified scale Therefore, Scale at A = SF at A Scale at B SF at B

SCALE ERROR• Difference between 1 and Scale Factor

SF = 1.1 , Scale Error = 1.1-1 = +0.1

or, if SF = .99, Scale Error = - 0.01

• Scale Deviation is the scale error expressed as a percentage.

So

Periods 11&12

MERCATOR / TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTIONS

CONSTRUCTIONPROPERTIESADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGESUSES LIMITATIONS

MERCATOR PROJECTION

N

S

MERCATOR PROJECTION - PROPERTIES• A MATHEMATICAL PROJECTION – BASED ON NORMAL CYLINDRICAL• ORTHOMORPHIC BY CONSTRUTION• RHUMB LINES ARE STRAIGHT LINES• GREAT CIRCLES ARE CURVES CONCAVE TO THE EQUATOR• SCALE IS CORRECT ONLY AT THE EQUATOR: BUT SCALE CAN BE MADE CORRECT AT ANY OTHER STATED LAT SCALE IS NOT CONSTANT – EXPANDS AWAY FROM THE EQUATOR• AREAS ARE NOT CORRECTLY REPRESENTED: EXAGERATED – LAT• SHAPES DISTORTED SPECIALLY IN HIGHER LATITUDES• CONVERGENCY IS CONSTANT AT 0°(Correct only at Equator) - MERIDIANS ARE ALL PARELLEL ST. LINES• COVERAGE – POLES CAN NEVER BE PROJECTED

PROJECTION IS USEFUL FOR NAV UPTO ABOUT 70 DEG LAT. IT WAS ONE OF THE MAIN PROJECTIONS USED FOR PLOTTING CHARTS. MAIN DISADVANTAGES- DOES NOT FOLLOW SHORTEST DIST. TR. AND RADIO BEARINGS NEED TO BE CORRECTED BEFORE PLOTTING ( APPLICATION OF CONVERSION ANGLE)

MERCATOR PROJECTION

• SCALE FACTOR: AT EQUATOR SF = 1 MEANS SCALE IS CORRECT AT THE EQUATOR

SCALE EXPANDS AWAY FROM THE EQUATOR AS

SECANT OF LAT

SO SCALE AT ANY LAT = SCALE AT EQ X SEC LAT• SCALE CAN ALSO BE MADE

CORRECT AT TWO

PARALLELS• SCALE CONTRACTS

BETWEEN THEM

EXPANDS OUTSIDE

SCALE CORRECTAT THESE LAT’S

SCALE REDUCESTOWARDS EQUATOR

OBLIQUE MERCATOR

E Q

NP

SP

FALSE EQUATOR

THE PROPERTIES ARE IN RELATION TO THEFALSE EQUATOR.PROJECTION OF THE GRATICULE IS COMPLICATED.

OBLIQUE MERCATOR

OBLIQUE MERCATORAPPEARANCE OF GRATICULE

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

E Q

NP

SP

TRANSVERSE MERCATOR OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

Periods 13&14

SIMPLE CONIC/ LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL

CONSTRUCTIONPROPERTIES, CONSTANT OF THE CONEPARALLEL OF ORIGIN, STANDARD PARALLELGRATICULEPROPERTIES – SCALE, G/C , R/L USESLIMITATIONS

CONICAL PROJECTIONS• CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS ARE MOST SUITED TO COVER AREAS

CLOSE TO A GREAT CIRCLE, LIKE THE EQUATOR • AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS ON THE OTHER HAND ARE MOST SUITED

TO COVER AREAS AROUND A POINT, LIKE THE POLES• CONICAL PROJECTIONS ARE THE MOST SUITED FOR THE AREAS IN

BETWEEN THE TWO, NAMELY THE MID LATITUDES• IF YOU PLACE A CONE WITH THE APEX ABOVE THE POLE AND

PLACE THE LIGHT SOURCE AT THE CENTER OF THE REDUCED EARTH, THE GRATICULE WILL BE PROJECTED ON TO THE DEVELOPABLE SURFACE

• THE LAT ITUDE AT WHICH THE CONE IS TANGENTIAL, THE LENGTH OF THE PARALLEL OF LAT ON THE REDUCED EARTH AND ON THE PROJECTION WILL BE EQUAL. IN OTHER WORDS , THE SCALE FACTOR WILL BE ONE : SCALE WILL BE CORRECT. THIS LAT IS CALLED THE PARELLEL OF ORIGIN.

• NUMERICALLY, THE VALUE OF PARELLEL OF ORIGIN IS EQUAL TO HALF THE APEX ANGLE.

THE FAMILY OF TRUE (PERSPECTIVE) PROJECTIONS

CONSTANT OF THE CONE = 1

CONSTANT OF THE CONE = 0

CONSTANT OF THE CONE =>0 <1

CYLINDRICAL CONICAL

AZIMUTHAL

CONICAL PROJECTIONS

Semi Apex Angle= Lat of Parallel of Origin

ө = ө

ө

PARALLEL OF ORIGIN

E Q

NP

SP

NORMAL CONICAL APEX OF THE CONE IS ON THE AXIS OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH (EXTENDED)

PARALLEL OF ORIGIN THE PARELLEL AT WHICH THE CONE IS TANGENTIAL TO THE REDUCED EARTH DEPENDS ON THE APEX ANGLE SCALE WILL BE CORRECT ALONG THIS

STANDARD PARELLEL ONE WHICH IS PROJECTED AT THE REDUCED EARTH SCALE. ON A ONE STANDARD PARELLEL PROJECTIONIT IS ALSO THE PARELLEL OF ORIGIN

CONSTANT OF THE CONE RATIO OF ANGLE OF THE SEGMENT WHEN DEVELOPED TO 360° IS CALLED THE CONSTANT OF THE CONE

CONSTANT OF THE CONE• Basically depends on the apex (semi-

apex) angle.

• Constant of the cone varies from 0 for cylindrical projections to 1 for azimuthal projections

• Constant of the cone is mathematically equal to sine of the parallel of origin/standard parellel i.e. sine of semi apex angle for the simple conic .

LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL• A NON PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION ON TO

A CONE TANGENTIAL AT A LAT CHOSEN AS THE PARELLEL OF ORIGIN

• IT HAS TWO STANDARD PARELLELS i.e. SCALE IS MADE TO BE CORRECT ALONG THESE TWO PARELLELS WHICH ARE APPROXIMATELY EQUALLY SPACED ABOUT λ○. SCALE FACTOR AT THESE PARELLELS IS ONE .

LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL

Parellel of Origin

Standard Parellels

• PROPERTIES MATHEMATICAL PROJ BASED ON CONIC WITH TWO STANDARD PARALLELS ORTHOMORPHIC SCALE : CORRECT ALONG THE TWO STANDARD PARELLELS ; EXPANDS OUTSIDES AND CONTRACTS INSIDE THE STD PARELLELS : EXPANSION OUTSIDE THE STD PARELLELS IS UNEQUAL i.e. IT IS MORE TOWARDS THE POLES THAN TOWARDS THE EQUATOR : SCALE MIN AT THE PARELLEL OF ORIGIN CONVERGENCE = n x Ch long GREAT CIRCLES ARE CURVES CONCAVE TO THE PARELLEL OF ORIGIN. DEVIATION BETWEEN G/C AND A STRAIGHT LINE IS SO SMALL THAT FOR ALL PRACTICAL PURPOSES A ST LINE IS A GREAT CIRCLE RHUMB LINES : WILL APPEAR AS CURVES CONCAVE TO THE NEARER POLE SHAPES AND AREAS : SHAPES ARE DISTORTED : BUT FOR SMALL AREAS SHAPES MAY BE CONSIDERED REASONABLY CORRECT

SCALE VARIATION ON A LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL

APPEARANCE OF G/C AND R/L ON LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL

Periods 15 &16

AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONSGnomonic ,Stereographic & Equidistant

POLAR GNOMONIC /POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

CONSTRUCTIONPROPRETIESUSESLIMITATIONS

NP

PARALLELS OF LAT

PROJECTING LIGHT SOURCE

Appearance of Graticule

NPMERIDIANS

STRAIGHT LINES RADIATING OUT FM THE CENTER,

Ie THE POLE

• POLAR GNOMONIC• Construction:• This Is An Perspective Projection In Which A Plane Surface

Is Placed Tangential To The Pole And The Light Source Is Placed At The Center Of The Reduced Earth

POLAR GNOMONIC – PROPERTIES

PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

POLAR GNOMONIC: GRATICULE APPEARANCE MERIDIANS – RADIAL STRAIGHT LINEs PARELLELS OF LAT ARE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES

POINT OF TANGENCY IS ONE OF THE POLES

SCALE INCREASES AWAY FROM THE POLE OFTANGENCYSCALE FACTOR IS GIVEN BY SECANT (90 – Lat) ALONG THE LAT AND AS SECANT ² (90 –Lat) ALONG THE MERIDIANSO PROJECTION IS NEITHER ORTHOMORPHIC NOR EQUAL AREA

COVERAGE IS LIMITED TO LESS THAN 90 DEGREES, i.e. EQUATOR CAN NEVER BE PROJECTED

POLAR STEREOGRAPHICTHIS IS A PERSPECTIVE PROJECTIONPOINT OF TANGENCY : ONE OF THE

POLESPOINT OF

PROJECTION :

DIAMETRICALLY

OPP THE PT OF

TANGENCY

R

R

ө

POINT OF TANGENCY

LIGHT SOURCE

*

*

**

R Cosine ө

ө

2R

** Tan ½ (90- ө)=D/2R

D =2Rx Tan ½ Co Lat

R

POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

E Q

NP

NP

MERIDIANS

EQUATOR

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE

REDUCED EARTH

LIGHT SOURCESP

PLANE OF PROJECTION

PRORERTIES : POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC

IT IS ALSO A PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION SCALE EXPANDS ALONG MERIDIANS WITH DIST FM POINT OF TANGENCY SCALE AT ANY POINT IS SAME ALONG PARELLELS AND MERIDIANS. HENCE IT IS CONFORMAL GRATICULE: MERIDIANS ARE STRAIGHT LINES

RADIATING FROM THE POINT OF TANGENCY PARALLELS OF LAT ARE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES RHUMBLINES - CURVES CONCAVE TO THE POLE GREAT CIRCLES : ALL MERIDIANS ARE STRAIGHT LINES,

OTHER G/C ARE ARCS OF CIRCLES. DIFFICULT TO PLOT SCALE NEARLY CONSTANT : SD < 1% UPT0 7 8.5 Deg IT CAN BE EXTENDED BEYOND THE EQUATOR, i.e. MORE THAN ONE HEMISPHERE CAN BE PROJECTED

Periods17 & 18

TYPES OF CHARTS - Purpose and Uses of different chartsTOPOGRAPHICAL CHARTSPLOTTING CHARTSPOLAR CHARTSRADIO FACILITY CHARTSAERONAUTICAL NAVIGATION, RADIO NAVIGATION, PLANNING CHARTSTRRMINAL AREA CHARTS/ INSTRUMENT APPROACH LETDOWN CHARTS

TYPES OF CHARTS• TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARTS

• PLOTTING CHARTS

• POLAR CHARTS

• RADIO FACILITY CHARTS

• AERONAUTICAL NAV CHARTS

• RADIO NAV CHARTS

• PLANNING CHARTS

• DANGER AREA/PROHIBITED AREA/RESTRICTED AREA CHARTS

• TERMINAL AREA / IAL CHARTS

Periods 19 ,20,21 & 22

ELEMENTS OF FLIGHT NAV

SPEEDS – IAS,RAS,CAS,EAS,TASDIRECTION- TRUE, MAG, COMP, RELTRACK- REQD, TMG, TRACK ERRORHEADINGBEARING/ BACK BEARINGDISTANCETEMPERATURE-INDICATED, OAT OR FATWIND VELDRIFTGROUND SPEEDAIR POSITIONGROUND POSITION / DEDUCED RECKONING (DR) POSNMEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION AND DIST ON A CHART

ELEMENTS OF FLIGHT NAV• SPEEDS – IAS,RAS,CAS,EAS,TAS• DIRECTION- TRUE, MAG, COMP, REL• TRACK- REQD, TMG, TRACK ERROR• HEADING• BEARING/ BACK BEARING• DISTANCE• TEMPERATURE-INDICATED, OAT OR FAT• WIND VEL• DRIFT• GROUND SPEED• AIR POSITION• GROUND POSITION / DEDUCED RECKONING (DR) POSN• MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION AND DIST ON A CHART

• DIRECTION

AircraftHEADING

True

Magnetic

Compass

TN

MN

CN

Variation (E)

Deviation (W)

Measurement of Direction

MEASUREDCLOCKWISE000° TO 360°

FROM: TRUE NORTH (T)

MAGNETIC NORTH (M)

COMPASS NORTH (C)

• Track Error

AircraftHEADING

True

Magnetic

Compass

TN

MN

CN

Variation (E)

Deviation (W)

Track RequiredDrift

TMG

©

TRACK ERROR : Angle between Track Required and Track Made Good Measured Port or Starboard of Track Required

Track Error 20PHdg

140(M)=130(T)

Bearings• The direction or orientation of the fore and aft

(longitudinal) axis of the aircraft, expressed as an angle measured clockwise from a reference.

• The angle is the bearing from one point to another.

• Bearings are named by the nature of the reference:

True North reference – True bearingMagnetic North reference – Magnetic bearingStraight ahead – Relative bearings

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

Rel Brg Ind

BEARINGS: DIRECTION OF PLACE “A” FROM PLACE “B”

N

N

A

BBEARING OF A FROM B 290°(T)

BEARING OF B FROM A

i.e. RECIPROCAL OF BRG OF B FROM A290°(T) ± 180° = 11O°(T)

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

Rel Brg Ind

N000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

Rel Brg Ind

A

A Brs 225(R)+ HDG(T) 270 = 495-360 = 135(T)

Periods 23 & 24

TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

• EFFECT OF WIND ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

• SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS BY ESTIMATION

• INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER / SLIDE RULE

TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

• EFFECT OF WIND ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

• SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS BY ESTIMATION

Periods 25 &26,27&28

USE OF COMPUTER/ SLIDE RULE

• PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUTION• MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION• CONVERSIONS• CALCULATION OF:• CAS TO TAS , MACH NO. TO TAS,

INDICATED ALT TO TRUE ALT, INDICATED ALT TO DENSITY ALT , CAS TO MACH NO.& VICE VERSA , FUEL CALCULATIONS

• SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTIONCIRCULAR SLIDE RULE BASED ON THE

LOGRARITHMIC SCALE IF 10ª = A NUMBER “X”, THEN Log X= a

Conversely Anti Log of a = XSO IF WE WANT TO MULTIPLY X and Y,

10ª=X and 10ⁿ=Y, X x Y= 10ª x 10ⁿ= 10ª+ⁿLIKEWISE, X/Y Can be solved by Log X/Y = 10ª - ⁿ

PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUCTION : Based on Logarithmic Scale

• Log 10 = 1 ( 10 = 10¹ ) • Log 100 = 2 ( 100 = 10 ² )• Log 10000 = 4• Log 10ⁿ = n_____________________________________________

Log 1 = 0.00000 Log 2 = 0.30103 Log 3 = 0.47712 Log 4 = 0. 60205 Log 5 = 0.69897 Log 6 = 0.77815 Log 7 = 0.84510 Log 8 = 0.90309 Log 9 = 0.95424 Log 10 = 1.00000 Log 90 = 1.95424 Log 8000= 3.90309

Flight Computer• UNIT INDEX …………………………….. Against 10• IMP GALLON CONV. ARROW………….. Against 10.7• KILOMETER -----,,-------,,-----------,,------ Against 12.2• US GALLON -----,,-------,,-----------,,------.. Against 12.8• FOOT -----,,-------,,-----------,,------ ……… Against 14.3• PRESSURE ALTITUDE WINDOW• LBS CONV. ARROW……………………. Against 35.3 • DENSITY ALT WINDOW• AIR TEMP WINDOW• “A” SCALE MILES, MPH,GALLONS, GPH,TAS, TRUE ALT• “B” SCALE ( TIME IN MIN, CAS, CAL ALT )• “C” SCALE … TIME IN HOURS AND MINUTES• TEMP CONV SCALE• KILOGRAM CONV ARROW …………… Against 16.5 (INNER SCALE)• SECONDS ARROW ………………………Against 36 (INNER SCALE)• METERS-----,,-------,,-----------,,------ …… Against 43.5 (INNER SCALE)• LITERS -----,,-------,,-----------,,------ …… Against 48.5 ( OUTER SCALE)• SPEED INDEX …………………………… Against 60 (INNER SCALE)• NAUTICAL MILES CONV. ARROW…… Against 66 ( OUTER SCALE)• STATUTE MILES CONV ARROW…… Against 76 ( OUTER SCALE)• FUELPOUNDS CONV ARROW …… Against 77 ( OUTER SCALE) • OIL/POUNDS CONV ARROW ………… Against 96 ( OUTER SCALE)

FLIGHT COMPUTERSlide Rule

Time-Speed-Distance Calculations

Fuel CalculationsNautical/Statute ConversionsCAS/TAS ConversionDensity Altitude CalculationsExercise

USE OF COMPUTER/ SLIDE RULE

• PRINCIPLE OF CONSTRUTION• MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION• CONVERSIONS• CALCULATION OF:• CAS TO TAS , MACH NO. TO TAS,

INDICATED ALT TO TRUE ALT, INDICATED ALT TO DENSITY ALT , CAS TO MACH NO.& VICE VERSA , FUEL CALCULATIONS

• SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES

Period 31

METHODS OF DETERMINING WIND VELOCITY

• TRACK AND GS METHOD- ITS ACC & LIMITATIONS

• AIR PLOT METHOD – ITS ACC AND ADVANTAGES

• FMS/GPS/INS WIND VEL

METHODS OF DETERMINING WIND VELOCITY

• TRACK AND GS METHOD- ITS ACC & LIMITATIONS

• AIR PLOT METHOD – ITS ACC AND ADVANTAGES

• FMS/GPS/INS WIND VEL

Periods32&33

NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES• MAP READING – INTERPRETATION OF

MAP/CHART SYMBOLS• NECESSITY OF CROSS-CHECKING PIN-POINTS• MONITORING PROGRESS OF THE AIRCRAFT BY

MAP READING• MAP READING TECHNIQUES MAP TO

GRD WHEN SURE OF POSN , GRD TO MAP WHEN UNSURE OF POSN

• DR POSN AND ITS CIRCLE OF ERROR• METHODS OF DETERMINING TR ERROR AND

ALTERATION OF HDG• CALCULATION OF GS AND ETA WITH THE AID OF

TIME AND DIST MARKS ON MAP

NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES• MAP READING – INTERPRETATION OF

MAP/CHART SYMBOLS• NECESSITY OF CROSS-CHECKING PIN-POINTS• MONITORING PROGRESS OF THE AIRCRAFT BY

MAP READING• MAP READING TECHNIQUES MAP TO

GRD WHEN SURE OF POSN , GRD TO MAP WHEN UNSURE OF POSN

• DR POSN AND ITS CIRCLE OF ERROR• METHODS OF DETERMINING TR ERROR AND

ALTERATION OF HDG• CALCULATION OF GS AND ETA WITH THE AID OF

TIME AND DIST MARKS ON MAP

0900

0910

0920 0935

0945

Track Plot of DR Tracks

FIXING POSITION• POSITION LINE

• USES OF A SINGLE POSITION LINE

TO CHECK TR

TO CHK HDG

TO CHK GS

TO REVISE ETA

TO HOME ON

TO CONSTRUCT AN MPP

• USE OF VISUAL, RADIO AND RADAR OBSERVATIONS IN FLIGHT

Periods 35&36

PILOT NAVIGATION/MENTAL DR

• ESTIMATION OF TAS BY MENTAL CAL

• MENTAL DR

• ESTIMATION OF TR ERRORS

• 1:60 RULE AND ITS APPLICATION

• CORRECTION TR ERROR

• AH PARELLEL TR / CLOSING ON TR ESTIMATION OF WIND EFFECT, DIST, DIR, FLIGHT TIME,TAS AND GROUND SPEED

PILOT NAVIGATION/MENTAL DR• ESTIMATION OF TAS BY MENTAL CAL

• MENTAL DR

• ESTIMATION OF TR ERRORS

• 1:60 RULE AND ITS APPLICATION

• CORRECTION TR ERROR

• AH PARELLEL TR/ CLOSING ON TR ESTIMATION OF WIND EFFECT, DIST, DIR, FLIGHT TIME,TAS AND GROUND SPEED

MENTAL DR

• X-TRACK / ALONG TR COMPONENT

• RAS-TAS ESTIMATION

• SPEED/DIST/TIME CALCULATIONS

• FUEL FLOW/ FUEL AVAILABLE/ ENDURANCE CALCULATIONS

• FEET-METERS/ LBS-KGS

Period 37 PRESSURE PATTRRN• PRINCIPLE

• MINIMUM TIME TRACKS

PRESSURE PATTRRN

• PRINCIPLE

• MINIMUM TIME TRACKS

Period 38&39

NAVIGATION DURING CLIMB ,DESCENT AND TURN

CLIMB :-VARIATION OF RATE OF CLIMB WITH AIRCRAFT WT AND ALTITUDE

CLIMB AT CONSTANT POWER INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

RATE OF CLIMB, SPEED AND CLIMBCLIMB AT CONSTANT AIR SPEEDDETERMINATION OF MEAN WIND VEL FOR CLIMB BY

INTERPOLATIONDETERMINATION OF MEAN HDG AND MEAN GROUND SPEED FOR THE CLIMB

DESCENTNAVIGATION DURING DESCENT INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RoD, AIR SPEED AND ANGLE OF DESCENT DETERMINATION OF MEAN HDG AND MEAN GS FOR THE DESCENT

NAVIGATION DURING CLIMB, DESCENT AND TURN

CLIMB :-• VARIATION OF RATE OF CLIMB WITH

AIRCRAFT WT AND ALTITUDE • CLIMB AT CONSTANT POWER INTER-

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF CLIMB, SPEED AND CLIMB

• CLIMB AT CONSTANT AIR SPEED• DETERMINATION OF MEAN WIND VEL FOR

CLIMB BY INTERPOLATION• DETERMINATION OF MEAN HDG AND MEAN

GROUND SPEED FOR THE CLIMB

DESCENT• NAVIGATION DURING DESCENT INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RoD, AIR SPEED AND ANGLE OF

DESCENT DETERMINATION OF MEAN HDG

AND MEAN GS FOR THE DESCENT

Period 40&41 NAVIGATION DURING TURN & ENROUTE NAVIGATIONAL

PROCEDURES

INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF TURN, AIR SPEED ANGLE OF BANK AND RADIUS OF TURN

TRACKING IN, TRACKING OUT, DETERMINATION OF RANGE BY CHANGE OF BEARING, UPDATING OF INS/IRS / FMS BY USE OF GROUND FACILITIES INFLIGHT DIVERSION, CRUISING LEVEL SPEED SCHEDULE , AERODROME CONSIDERATION ETA TO ALTERNATE, FUEL CALCULATIONS

NAVIGATION DURING TURN & ENROUTE NAVIGATIONAL

PROCEDURES• INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF TURN, AIR SPEED ANGLE

OF BANK AND RADIUS OF TURN

Turn radius R = V² . g Tan Ф

Rate of turn = TAS/ RADIUS = g Tan Ф Radians/ Sec V• TRACKING IN• TRACKING OUT• DETERMINATION OF RANGE BY CHANGE OF BEARING• UPDATING OF INS/IRS / FMS BY USE OF GROUND FACILITIES• INFLIGHT DIVERSION CRUISING LEVEL SPEED SCHEDULE AERODROME CONSIDERATION ETA TO ALTERNATE FUEL CALCULATIONS

TURNS• NAVIGATION DURING TURN

• INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF TURN, AIR SPEED ANGLE OF BANK AND RADIUS OF TURN

Turn radius R = V² , g Tan Ф Rate of turn = TAS/ RADIUS = g Tan Ф Radians/ Sec V

Rate 1 turn ……180Deg /min i.e. 3 deg / sec(In constant Rate turn, Angle of Bank depends on TAS)

Rate 2 Turn …….360 Deg/Min i.e. 6 Deg/Sec

Rate 3 Turn …….540 Deg/Min i.e. 9 Deg/Sec

R

ENROUTE NAV PROCEDURES• TRACKING IN

• TRACKING OUT

• DETERMINATION OF RANGE BY CHANGE OF BEARING

• UPDATING OF INS/IRS / FMS BY USE OF GROUND FACILITIES

• INFLIGHT DIVERSION

CRUISING LEVEL

SPEED SCHEDULE

AERODROME CONSIDERATION

ETA TO ALTERNATE

FUEL CALCULATIONS

Period 42&43 FLIGHT PLANNING• PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING SELECTION OF ROUTE AND ALTERNATE AIRFIELD PREPARATION OF MAPS / CHARTS SPEED SCHEDULES METHODS OF CRUISE CONTROL EXTRACTION OF DATA FROM FLIGHT PLANNING GRAPHS & TABLES AND ITS

APPLICATION SELECTION OF OPTIMUM CRUISING LEVELNAVIGATION PLAN USE OF NAVIGATION CHARTS FOR PLANNING FLIGHTS WITHIN AND OUTSIDE CONTROLLED AIRSPACE INTERPRETATION AND USE OF THE INFO ON THE CHARTS SELECTION OF OPTIMUM LEVEL TERRAIN AND OBSTACLE CLEARANCE NAVIGATION CHECK POINTS VISUAL/ RADIO MEASUREMENT OF TRACKS AND DISTANCES OBTAINING WIND VEL FORECAST FOR EACH LEG COMPUTATION OF HEADING, GS, AND TIMES ENROUTE FROM TRACKS AND DISTANCES TAS AND WIND VELOCITIE COMPLETION OF PRE-FLIGHT PORTION OF THE NAVIGATION LOG

FLIGHT PLANNING• PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING

SELECTION OF ROUTE AND

ALTERNATE AIRFIELD

PREPARATION OF MAPS / CHARTS

SPEED SCHEDULES

METHODS OF CRUISE CONTROL

EXTRACTION OF DATA FROM FLIGHT

PLANNING GRAPHS & TABLES AND ITS

APPLICATION

SELECTION OF OPTIMUM CRUISING LEVEL

NAVIGATION PLAN USE OF NAVIGATION CHARTS FOR PLANNING FLIGHTS WITHIN AND OUTSIDE CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

INTERPRETATION AND USE OF THE INFO ON THE CHARTS

SELECTION OF OPTIMUM LEVEL

TERRAIN AND OBSTACLE CLEARANCE NAVIGATION CHECK POINTS

VISUAL/ RADIO MEASUREMENT OF TRACKS AND DISTANCES

OBTAINING WIND VEL FORECAST FOR EACH LEG

COMPUTATION OF HEADING, GS, AND TIMES ENROUTE FROM TRACKS AND DISTANCES

TAS AND WIND VELOCITIES

COMPLETION OF PRE-FLIGHT PORTION OF THE FLT PLAN

OBTAINING WIND VELOCITY FORECAST

FOR EACH LEG

COMPUTATION OF HEADINGS/ GS AND

TIMES ENROUTE FROM TR TAS & WV

COMPLETION OF THE PREFLIGHT

PORTION OF THE NAVIGATION

FLIGHT LOG

• FUEL PLANNING

CALCULATION OF FUEL BURN OFF

FOR EACH LEG AND TOTAL BURN

OFF FUEL FOR THE FLIGHT

AIRCRAFT MANUAL FIGURES FOR

FUEL CONSUMPTION DURING CLIMB

ENROUTE AND DURING DESCENT

FUEL FOR HOLDING AND DIVERSION

TO ALTERNATE AIRFIELD

RESERVES , TOTAL FUEL REQD FOR

THE FLIGHT

Period 44&45

FUEL PLANNING CALCULATION OF FUEL BURN OFF FOR EACH LEG AND

TOTAL BURN OFF FUEL FOR THE FLIGHT AIRCRAFT MANUAL FIGURES FOR FUEL

CONSUMPTION DURING CLIMB, ENROUTE AND DURING DESCENT

FUEL FOR HOLDING AND DIVERSION TO ALTERNATE AIRFIELD

RESERVES AND TOTAL FUEL REQD FOR THE FLIGHT COMPLETION OF PRE FLIGH PORTION OF FUEL LOG CALCULATION OF PAY LOAD FACTORS AFFECTING PAYLOAD AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AT T/O & LDG COMPILATION OF LONG DISTANCE FLIGHT PLANS (PRACTICAL)

FUEL PLANNING

CALCULATION OF FUEL BURN OFF FOR EACH LEG AND TOTAL BURN OFF FUEL FOR THE FLIGHT AIRCRAFT MANUAL FIGURES FOR FUEL CONSUMPTION DURING CLIMB, ENROUTE AND DURING DESCENT FUEL FOR HOLDING AND DIVERSION TO ALTERNATE AIRFIELD RESERVES AND TOTAL FUEL REQD FOR THE FLIGHT

FUEL PLANNING (CONT)

COMPLETION OF PRE FLIGHT

PORTION OF FUEL LOG CALCULATION OF PAY LOAD FACTORS AFFECTING PAYLOAD AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AT T/O & LDG COMPILATION OF LONG DISTANCE

PLANS (PRACTICAL)

Period 46

RADIO COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION PLAN

COMMUNICATION FREQUENCIES AND CALL SIGNS FOR APPROPRIATE CONTROL AGENCIES AND INFLIGHT SERVICE FACILITIES SUCH AS WEATHER BROADCASTS, NAVIGATION AIDS (SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION)

RADIO COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION PLAN

COMMUNICATION FREQUENCIES AND CALL SIGNS FOR APPROPRIATE CONTROL AGENCIES AND INFLIGHT SERVICE FACILITIES SUCH AS WEATHER BROADCASTS, NAVIGATION AIDS (SELECTION and IDENTIFICATION)

Period 47&48 FLIGHT PLANNING CHARTS• INTERPRETATION AND USE OF AERODROME CHARTS /SID

STAR CHARTS, TERMINAL AREA CHARTS, ENROUTE LOW LEVEL/HIGH LEVEL AIRWAYS CHARTS, INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHARTS.

• TERMINAL CHARTS • AREA, SID, STAR, AERODROME, INSTRUMENT APPROACH

FORMAT• TOPOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION• PROJECTION SCALE• RADIO NAV AIDS• REPORTING POINTS/ FIXES• COMMUNICATIONS• AIRFIELD INFORMATION• MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDES• PLAN & PROFILE VIEW OF APP PROCEDURE CHARTS

FLIGHT PLANNING CHARTS

• INTERPRETATION AND USE OF AERODROME CHARTS /SID STAR CHARTS, TERMINAL AREA CHARTS, ENROUTE LOW LEVEL/HIGH LEVEL AIRWAYS CHARTS, INSTRUMENT APPROACH CHARTS.

ATC PROCEDURES

• KNOWLEDGE AND COMPLIANCE WITH ATC PROCEDURES

TERMINAL CHARTS

• Area, SID, STAR, Aerodrome, Instrument Approach FORMAT

• Topographical Information• Projection Scale• Radio Nav Aids• Reporting Points/ Fixes• Communications• Airfield Information• Minimum Sector Altitudes• Plan & Profile view of App Procedure Charts

Period 49&50 ATC PROCEDURES/INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES

• KNOWLEDGE AND COMPLIANCE WITH ATC PROCEDURES• ATIS• AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORIES• ENTRY INTO HOLDING PATTREN• SPEED LIMITATIONS• MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA)• MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE (MHA)• OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE/ HEIGHT• CHARTED ALTITUDES PRECISION APP PROCEDURES - (ILS, LOC, VOR, VOR

DME, NDB ,VDF, ASR ,PAR) • NON-PRECISION APPROACH PROCEDURES• STRAIGHT IN APPROACH, CIRCLING APPROACH• APPROACH SEGMENTS• INITIAL APPROACH FIX• INTERMEDIATE APPROACH FIX• FINAL APPROACH FIX• STEP DOWN FIX• LANDING MINIMA, DECISION ALTITUDE/ HEIGHT• MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE/ HEIGHT

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES

• ATIS

• Aircraft Approach Categories

• Entry Into Holding Pattern

• Speed Limitations

• Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA)

• Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA)

• Obstacle Clearance Altitude/ Height

• Charted Altitudes for Precision App Procedures - ( ILS, LOC, VOR, DME,

NDB ,VDF, ASR ,PAR )

AIRCRAFT APPROACH CATEGORIES

• AIRCRAFT ARE CATEGORISED BASED ON THEIR SPEED AT THRESHOLD (V at). THESE SPEED RANGES ARE ASSUMED FOR CALCULATION OF AIRSPACE AND OBSTACLE CLEARANCE FOR EACH PROCEDURE

AIRCRAFT CATEGORY V at (K)

A Less Than 91

B 91- 120

C 121-140

D 141-165

E 166-210

Entry Into Holding Pattern(Left Hand Hold )

• DIRECT ENTRY• PARALLEL ENTRY• OFFSET ENTRY

D

I

R

E

C

T

S

E

C

T

O

R

PARALLELENTRY

SECTOR

OFFSET ENTRYSECTOR 70º

110º

SPEED LIMITATIONSLEVELS

Altitudes or Flt Lvl

Depending on Alt Setting

NORMAL

CONDITIONSTURBULENCE

CONDITIONS

Up to and Inclusive 4250 M

(14000 Ft )

425 Km/h (230 K)

315 Km/h (170 K)

(For Cat A & B A/C)

520 Km/h (280 K)*

*Prior ATC Clearance

Required

315 Km/h (170 K)

(For Cat A & B A/C)

ABOVE 4250 M (14000 Ft) TO 6100M (20000 Ft) (Inclusive)

445 Km/h (240 K)

Wherever Possible 520 Km/h should be used for airway Holds

520 Km/h (280 K)

0.8 Mach Whichever is less

ABOVE 6100 M (20000 Ft) TO 10350 M (34000 Ft) (Inclusive)

490 Km/h (265 K)

Wherever Possible 520 Km/h should be used for airway Holds

520 Km/h (280 K)

0.8 Mach Whichever is less

ABOVE 10350 M (3400000 Ft) 0.83 Mach 0.83 Mach

Minimum Sector Altitudes• These are the altitudes which would provide the

necessary vertical clearance above the terrain/ obstacles in the respective circle

MINIMUM SECTOR ALTITUDE3200 FEET WHEN APPROACHONGON HEADING 090 DEG TO300DEG

AND3700 FEET FROM HEADING 300 DEG

TO 090 DEG

MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE• MHA – IT IS THE LOWEST ALTITUDE

SPECIFIED FOR EACH HOLDING PATTERN

• OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE/ HEIGHT:

• CHARTED ALTITUDES FOR PRECISION APP PROCEDURES -

INST. APP. PROCEDURES• Non-Precision Approach Procedures• Straight in Approach, Circling Approach• Approach Segments• Initial Approach Fix• Intermediate Approach Fix• Final Approach Fix• Step Down Fix• Landing Minima, Decision Altitude/ Height• Minimum Descent Altitude/ Height

INST. APP. PROCEDURES• Visibility/ RVR Minima

• Missed Approach Point

• Missed Approach Procedure

• Diversionary Procedure- Operational Control

Period 51&52

POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)

• DEFINITION• IMPORTANCE AND USE • CALCULATION OF DISTANCE AND TIME TO PNR

(BY FORMULA AND BY USING NAV COMPUTER)• EFFECT OF CHANGE OF WIND VELOCITY ON POSN

OF PNR• EFFECT OF ENGINE FAILURE• LAST TIME TO DIVERT TO ALTERNATE• PRACTICE PROBLEMS ON PNR

Period 53&54

CRITICAL POINT (CP)

• DEFINITION• IMPORTANCE AND USE• CALCULATION OF DISTANCE AND TIME TO CP

(BY FORMULA AND BY USING NAV COMPUTER)• CRITICAL POINT FOR AERODROMES NOT FALLING ON THE

ROUTE• EFFECT OF CHANGE OF WIND VELOCITY ON POSITION OF CP• PRACTICE PROBLEMS ON CP

CRITICAL POINT (CP)• Definition

• Importance and Use

• Calculation of Distance and Time to CP

(By Formula and by Using Nav Computer)

• Critical Point For Aerodromes Not Falling on the Route

• Effect Of Change of Wind Velocity on Position of CP

CP• THE PILOT SOMETIMES HAS TO DECIDE ON THE

BEST COURSE OF ACTION IN THE SITUATIONS WHICH DEVELOP IN THE AIR. FOR EXAMPLE IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY, LIKE ONE ENGINE FAILURE IN A TWIN/ MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT, THE NEED IS TO LAND AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE. HENCE HE HAS TO DECIDE, WHETER TO PROCEED TO DESTINATION OR RETURN TO THE STARTING POINT

• CRITICAL POINT IS THAT POINT ON THE TRACK FROM BASE “A” TO DESTINATION “B” FROM WHERE IT TAKES THE SAME TIME TO PROCEED TO “B” AS TO RETURN TO “A”. IT IS AN EQUI-TIME POINT.

CP• IN THE AIR TIME IS ALWAYS AT A

PREMIUM. TO HELP US TO SAVE TIME AND TO BE ABLE TO TAKE A QUICK AND OBJECTIVE DECISION, PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION INCLUDES THE CALCULATION OF CRITICAL POINT BETWEEN THE BASE AND DESTINATION AS WELL AS BETWEEN BASE AND A DIVERSION OR A DIVERSION AND THE DESTINATION.

CP - CALCULATION

A B

D NM

XCPX NM

LET “O” BE THE G/S OUT (A TO B)AND “H” BE THE G/S HOME (B TO A)LET “X” BE THE DIST FROM A TO CP Therefore, Dist From CP To B = D-XBy Definition Time From CP To A = Time From CP To B i.e. X = D-X or OX = H(D-X) H O So, OX+HX = DH i.e X(O+H) = DH Therefore, X = D H O+H

CP• TIME TO CP Will Be, DIST TO CP = X G/S OUT O• EXAMPLE• DIST A To B = 400 NM• G/S OUT “O” = 160 K• G/S HOME “H” = 200 K• THEN, DIST TO CP X = 400 x 200 I60 + 200 i.e. 80000/360 = 222 NM• And Time To CP = 222 / 160 = 83.5 Min i.e. 1 hr 23.5 Min

CP- ON MORE THAN SINGLE LEG ROUTES

• ON A ROUTE , A To B, To C, To DRoute Track Dist W/V G/S TIME CUM

TIME

A-B

B-A

350

170

273

273

330/25 137

183

2:00

1:29

B-C

C-B

045

225

356

356

330/25 154

166

2:19

2:09

C-D

D-C

080

260

127

127

330/25 166

154

0:39

0:30

TAS=180 RED TAS= 160

• GIVEN

• A - B 230 NM H/W COMP 20 Kts

• B – C 140 NM H/W COMP 10 Kts

• C – D 330 NM T/W COMP 15 Kts

• FULL TAS = 200 Kts , RED TAS = 180 Kts

• CALCULATE DISTANCE AND TIME TO CRITICAL POINT.

LEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S(O)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

LEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S (H)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

A-B

B-C

C-D

CP CALCULATION

DIST TO CP:………………………X=DH (Treat This CP as Reporting Point O+H

Time to CP= X Normal G/S Out

*Use revised TAS as per Contingency Planned. Generally Engine Failure

D-E

E-F

F-G

CP CALCULATIONLEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S (O)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

LEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S (H)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

A-B 020 050/

25

180 77 B-A

B-C 050 050/

25

180 132 C-B

C-D 075 050/

25

180 167 D-C

D-E 045 075/30

180 258 E-D

E-F 015 075/30

180 132 F-E

F-G 025 075/30

180 87 G-F

DIST TO CP:………………………X=DH (Treat This CP as Reporting Point O+H

Time to CP= X =…………… Normal G/S Out

*Use revised TAS as per Contingency Planned. Generally Engine Failure

CP CALCULATIONLEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S (O)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

LEG TR W/V HDG TAS

*G/S (H)

DIST/CUM DIST

TIME/CUM TIME

A-B 275 260/

70

400 332 473 1:25 B-A 260/

70

473 400 468 473 1:01

B-C 245 260/

70

400 332 512 1:33 C-B 260/

70

512 400 468 512 1:06

C-D 220 260/

70

400 350 627 1:47 D-C 260/

70

260/

70

627 400 450 627 1:24

D-E E-D

E-F F-E

F-G G-F

DIST TO CP:………………………X=DH (Treat This CP as Reporting Point) O+H

Time to CP= X =…………… Normal G/S Out

*Use revised TAS as per Contingency Planned. Generally Engine Failure

POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)• Definition

• Importance and Use

• Calculation of Distance and Time to PNR (By Formula and by Using Nav Computer)

• Effect of Change of Wind Velocity on Posn of PNR

• Effect of Engine Failure

• Last Time To DIVERT to Alternate

POINT OF NO RETURN(Also Called POINT OF SAFE RETURN)

• DEFINITION: IT IS THAT POINT ON THE TRACK FROM BASE TO DESTINATION UPTO WHICH AN AIRCRAFT CAN FLY AND RETURN TO THE STARTING POINT WITHIN THE SAFE ENDURANCE OF THE AIRCRAFT

BASE• •DESTINATION

X

POINT OF SAFE RETURN

Distance = X NM

IF G/S OUTBOUND =OAND G/S INBOUND =H

THEN X/O + X/ H = SAFE END

PNR / PSR

• X + X = P O H Where , X is the distance from base to PNR O is the G/S out H is the G/S home and P is the safe enduranceMULTIPLYING Both Sides By OH, we have XH+XO = POH or X( O+H ) = POHTHEREFORE, X = POH O+H

• EFFECT OF CHANGE OF WIND VEL ON PNR• IN NIL WIND CONDITIONS, G/S OUT=G /S HOME• HENCE TIME OUTBOUND = TIME INBOUND• SO DIST TO PNR = ½ P x O• INCASE OF HEAD WIND/TAIL WIND ON THE OUTBOUND

LEG, THE PNR WILL ALWAYS SHIFT TOWARDS THE BASE. Why ?

• EXAMPLE: LET P BE 4 HOURS, TAS IS 200K• IN NIL WIND THE PNR WILL BE 2x200=400nm• INCASE OF A 50K HEAD WIND ON OUTBOUND, O = 150 and

H = 250• THEREFORE DIST TO PNR= 4x150x250 = 375 nm 150+250• INCASE OF A TAIL WIND ON OUTBOUND ALSO PNR WILL

BE 4x250x 150 = 375 nm 250+150

CP/PNR PRACTICE QUESTION

• Q.1.

GIVEN, TAS=200 KTS, Engine out TAS = 160 KTS

• ROUTE :

BAGHDAD – BASRA TR 115º (T), DIST 170NM, W/V 180/20 KTS

BASRA-KUWAIT TR 178 º (T), DIST 110NM, W/V 230/30 KTS

KUWAIT-BAHRAIN TR 129 º(T), DIST 147NM, W/V 250/15 KTS

• CALCULATE ETA CP if ATD BAGHDAD is 1115 Z

• Q1-A

• FULL TAS = 350

• RED TAS= 300 K

• A – B TR/DIST 350/297 W/V 140/25

• B – C 040/335 100/25

• CALCULATE DIST AND TIME TO CP

• A - B G/S OUT = 321 HOME = 279

• B – C 288 312

•

Q.2. An aircraft has to fly a single leg route of 1000NM. The cruising TAS is 480KTS and Engine out TAS is 350 KTS. Track is 120º(T) and average wind velocity is 090/50.

Determine:• Distance and Time to CP. • Safe Endurance (excluding use of reserve fuel)• • Distance to PNR.

Assume that total fuel capacity is 15,600 kgs, consumption at 480 Kts = 3150 kgs/hr, fuel reserve to be carried are holding fuel of 50 minutes at cruising consumption plus 15% of total fuel required. Ignore climb and descent for all calculations.

Q.3. Given TAS is 480 KTS, Engine out TAS is 380 KTS

• Route: FROM-TO TRACK DIST.

W/V

DAR-ES-SALAAM-MAURITIUS 137 º 1441NM 140/30

MAURITIUS-COCO ISLANDS 080 º 2305NM 100/45

COCO ISLANDS- JAKARTA 060 º 693NM 170/25

• CALCULATE TIME TO CP.

• Q.4 AN AIRCRAFT IS TO FLY FROM ‘A’ TO

‘B’ ON A TRACK OF 280(T), DISTANCE 959 NM, MEAN TAS 230 Kt, W/V FOR THE FIRST 430 NM IS 200/50, AND 260/65 FOR THE REMAINING DISTANCE. FUEL ON BOARD IS 26,500 Kg, 3100 Kg TO BE HELD IN RESERVE. CONSUMPTION IS 3400 Kg/Hr. GIVE THE TIME AND DISTANCE TO:

(a) POINT OF NO RETURN/ PSR (b) CRITICAL POINT/ PET/ ETP

ASSUMING ENGINE FAILURE AT THE CP AND A REDUCED TAS OF 190 Kt

SOLUTIONS

A

B929 NM

X

430 NM

529 NM

G/SO 2I7H 232

G/SO 167H 291

200/50

260/65 Q.4

• Q.5• GIVEN: MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT 61000 Kg WEIGHT (No Fuel and No P’Load) 37000 Kg TAS 410 Kt DISTANCE 2250 NM CONSUMPTION 2800 Kg/Hr RESERVE (Assume Unused) 3200 Kg HEADWIND Component 40 Kt• DETERMINE: (a) Maximum Payload That Can Be Carried (b) Time and Distance to CP (c) Time and Distance to PNR(a) 3773 Kgs (b) 3:20 1235 NM (c)

• Q.6• AN AIRCRAFT IS TO FLY FROM ‘A’ TO ‘B’ VIA

‘X’ AND ‘Y’ ; ROUTE DATA IS AS GIVEN: Stage Wind Component (Kt) Distance(NM) ‘A’ to ‘X’ +20 400 ‘X’ to ‘Y’ +15 630 ‘Y’ to ‘B’ +25 605 Mean TAS 500 Kt (4 Eng) & 435 Kt (3 Eng) Mean Fuel Cons 5300 Kg/Hr ( 4 Engines ) & 4100 Kg/Hr ( 3 Engines )Fuel On Board ( Including Reserve 5500 Kg, unused) 30,000 Kg Calculate the Time and Distance to the Point of

Safe Return from departure ‘A’, the RETURN flight to ‘A’ to be made on 3 Engines

• Q.7• ON A TRIP FROM ‘A’ TO ‘C’ VIA ‘B’, AN AIRCRAFT IS

ORDERED IN THE EVENT OF TURNING BACK,TO PROCEED TO ITS ALTERNATE ‘D’ VIA ‘B’. TAS ON 4 ENGINES IS 500 Kt, AND ON 3 ENGINES IS 420 Kt. Route Details Are:

From To Wind Component Distance ‘A’ ‘B’ -25 Kt 565 NM ‘B’ ‘C’ -45 Kt 900 NM ‘B’ ‘D’ +30 Kt 240 NM• (a) IF THE RETURN FROM CRITICAL POINT IS MADE ON THREE ENGINES, GIVE THE TIME AND DISTANCE ‘A’ TO THE CRITICAL POINT BETWEEN ‘C’ AND ‘D’.• (b) Fuel On Board 38000 Kg, Cons 6300 Kg/Hr, Reserve (Assume Unused) 6500 Kg, and the Whole Flight Is Made On 4 Engines, What Is the Distance From ‘A’ To The Point Of Safe Return to ‘D’

Q.5

Q.6

Q.7

A B

C

D

565 NM

900 NM

240

NM

O 475 Kt

O 455 KtH 465 KtO

450

Kt

FLIGHT PROGRESS CHART

Period 55&56 SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIME• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONGITUDE AND TIME• STANDARD TIME, LOCAL MEAN TIME & UTC• INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE• SUN RISE/ SUN SET-• DEFINITION, VARIATION OF TIMES OF PHENOMENA WITH

LATITUDE, HEIGHT AND WITH DECLINATION OF THE SUN• EXTRACTION OF TIMES OF PHENOMENA FROM AIR ALMANAC• TWILIGHT- DEFINITION VARIATION OF PERIOD OF TWILIGHT WITH LATITUDE, DECLINATION OF SUN AND HEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT• MOON RISE/ MOONSET DEFINITION TABULATION IN AIR ALMANAC

SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIME• Relationship Between Longitude and Time

• Standard Time, Local Mean Time & UTC

• International Date Line

• SUN RISE/ SUN SET-

Definition, Variation of Times Of Phenomena with Latitude, Height and With Declination of the Sun

Extraction of Times of Phenomena From

Air Almanac

• MEASUREMENT OF TIME IS BASED ON :

• EARTH’S ROTATION – OWN AXIS

• ROTATION AROUND THE SUN ( MOVEMENT OF THE SUN IN THE GALAXY AND THE GALAXY

ITSELF IN THE UNIVERSE HAVE A NEGLIGIBLE EFFECT ON

MEASUREMENT OF TIME)

• PERIHELION ( 04 JAN ) 91.4 M Miles

• APHELION (03 JULY ) 94.6 M Miles

( MEAN DIST 93 M Miles )

• THE SEASONS:

• PREDOMINANT CAUSE – INCLINATION OF EARTH’S AXIS TO ITS ORBITAL PLANE AT 66.5°

• THIS CAUSES THE DECLINATION OF THE SUN TO CHANGE FROM

EQUATOR( LAT 0°) - Mar 21

Tropic of Cancer (Lat 23.5° N) -Jun 21

EQUATOR( LAT 0°) Sept 21

Tropic of Capricorn (Lat 23.5° S)- Dec 21

March21Spring Equinox

September 21Autumn Equinox

June 21Summer Solstice

December 21Winter Solstice

DECLINATION OF THE SUN

23.5º

23.5º

20º

20º

10º

10º

J F M A M J J A S O N D J

LargestChange

Smallest Change

DAYS AND YEARS• CIVIL DAY – Should be related to hours of daylight and

darkness and be of constant duration• SIDERIAL DAY – Measured with respect to a fixed point in

space - a distant star Not suitable as it is not related to daylight• APPARENT SOLAR DAY- Measured with respect to real or

apparent sun Related to daylight but not constant length Apparent Solar DAY is longer than Siderial Day

• MEAN SOLAR DAY – Mean Sun is an imaginary sun which appears to move around the earth at a constant speed equal to the average speed of the REAL SUN

• Mean solar day is measured in relation to the MEAN SUN, IS CONSTANT IN LENGTH AND IS RELATED TO HOURS OF DAYLIGHT AND DARKNESS

• Maximum diff between mean time and real sun time is 16 min in mid November and 14 minutes in mid February

Z

ZZ

Parallel Light Rays}Siderial day

Apparent Solar Day

A

B

C

YEAR• SIDERIAL YEAR – Time taken by the Earth to

complete one orbit of the Sun measured against a distant Star – 365 Days 6 Hrs

• TROPICAL YEAR – Time interval between two successive crossings of the Equator by the Sun from South to North (Declination = 0 Deg). It is the length of one cycle of Seasons – 365 Days, 5 Hrs 48 Min 45 Sec.

• CALENDER YEAR – Normally 365 days, kept in step with Tropical Year by adding a day once in 4 Yrs (LEAP year) and a fine adjustment by skipping 3 leap yrs in 400 yrs (when first two nos. of century not divisible by 4 - year is not a Leap Year)

HOUR ANGLE• HOUR Angle of a celestial body is defined as

the arc of the Equinoctial intercepted between the meridian of a datum (Greenwich or the observer) and the Meridian of the Body, measured Westward 0 to 360 Deg.

• EARTH SPINS 360°in 24 Hours

• HENCE in ONE Hour it Spins 15°

In 4 minutes , 1°

In 1 Minute , ¼ ° ie. 15’

In 4 Seconds ,1 Minute of rotation

TIME

LOCAL MEAN TIME STANDARD TIME IST GMT UTC ZONE TIME

CENTRAL MERIDIAN FOR THE ZONE

180W

165W

150W

135W

120W

105W

90W

75W

60W

45W

30W

15W

0° 15E

30E

45E

60E

75E

90E

105E

120E

135E

150E

165E

180E

Y X W V U T S R Q P O N Z A B C D E F G H I K L M

Z O N E

Z O N E N U M B E R+

12

+

11

+

10

+

9

+

8

+

7

+

6

+

5

+4

+

3

+

2

+

1 0

-

1

-

2

-

3

-

4

-

5

-

6

-

7

-

8

-

9

-

10

-

11

-

12

ZONE TIME

GM

00015°E

30E

45E

60E

75E

90E

105E

120E

135E

150E

165E

NP

AB

c

D

E

F

G

H

IK

LM

ZNO

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

WX Y

165W150W

135W

120W

105W

90W

75W

60W

45W

30W

15W

097 ½ E

082 ½ E

067 ½ E

052 ½ E

037 ½ E

022 ½ E

007 1/2E

112 ½ E

127 ½ E

142 ½ E

157 ½ E

172 ½ E180E/W

MY

NP

• TWILIGHT-

Definition

Variation of Period Of Twilight with

Latitude

Declination of Sun

Height of Aircraft

• MOON RISE/ MOONSET

Definition

Tabulation in Air Almanac

SENSIBLE/ VISIBLE HORIZON

EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION AND SUN’S SEMI DIAMETER OF SUN

N 72

0

NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS,

MAGNETISM&

COMPASSES

• Period 57&58

MAGNETISM &COMPASSES• INTRODUCTION• TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, MAGNETIC POLES• MAGNETIC MERIDIAN• MAGNETIC VARIATION: ISOGONAL AND AGONIC LINES• ANGLE OF DIP: ISOCLINAL AND ACLINAL LINES• HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS MAGNETIC

EQUATOR• REGULAR AND IRREGULAR CHANGES IN THE EARTH’S

MAGNETIC FIELD• LOCAL IRREGULARITIES IN EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

GENERAL• Terrestrial Magnetism, Magnetic Poles• Magnetic Meridian• Magnetic Variation: Isogonal and Agonic

Lines• Angle Of Dip: Isoclinal and Aclinal Lines• Horizontal and Vertical Components

Magnetic Equator• Regular and Irregular Changes in the Earth’s

Magnetic Field• Local Irregularities In Earth’s Magnetic Field

Period 59&60

DIRECT READING COMPASS

• REQUIREMENTS OF MAGNETIC COMPASS• UNRELIABILITY OF COMPASS INDICATIONS DURING

TURNS AND ACCELERATION/ DECELERATION• COMPASS AND MAGNETIC HEADINGS• EFFECT OF CHANGE OF GEOGRAPHIC POSITION AND MAGNETIC MATERIAL CARRIED IN THE AIRCRAFT• DEVIATION AND ITS APPLICATION• KNOWLEDGE OF COEFFICIENTS A,B AND C• KNOWLEDGE OF PREPARATION OF COMPASS CARD• IMPORTANCE AND PROCEDURE OF COMPASS SWING

ON THE GROUND• OCCASIONS FOR COMPASS SWING ON THE GROUND

DIRECT READING COMPASS• Requirements of Magnetic CompassHORIZONTALITY Directive Force H, is Horizontal. So for best results, the System must

be maintained HORIZONTAL. How? C of G Kept BELOW Pt of Pivot

SENSITIVITY For Higher accuracy the system must be capable of detecting even

small changes in Earth’s Mag. Fd. That is it must be very sensitive. How? i) By using IRIDIUM TIPPED PIVOT in a JEWELLED CUP ii) By Lubricating the Pivot with liquid filled in Compass Bowl iii) By reducing effective weight of the Mag. System APERIODICITY (Should NOT Oscillate, should come to rest quickly) How i) By using several short , powerful magnets ii) By using DAMPING WIRES which will dampen any oscillations due to the resistance by the liquid

• THE COMPASS LIQUID (Desired Properties)

• Low Coefficient Of Expansion• Low Viscosity• Transparency• Low Freezing Point• High Boiling Point• Non-corrosive

Dimethyl Siloxane Polymer – meets most of these requirements.

• Unreliability of Compass Indications During Turns and Acceleration/ Deceleration

• Compass and Magnetic Headings

• Effect of Change of Geographic Position

and Magnetic Material Carried in the Aircraft

• Deviation and its Application

TURNING AND ACCELERATION ERRORS

• Aircraft on Northerly Hdg

Turning right

N

S

N

S

Centrifugal Force at Pivot –F

Inertia at C of G – F’

F F’ Set up Clockwise Moment Result: Compass Turns in the Direction of Turn

So LESSER Turn Indicated

What Happens on a Southerly Course?What Happens on an Easterly Course?What Happens on an Westerly Course?

F

F’C of G

Point of Pivot

C of G

• ACCELERATION ERRORS

N

S

C of G

Pivot

AIRCRAFT ON AN EASTERLY HDG AND ACCELERATING

ACCELERATION FORCE ACTS AT THE PIVOT

INERTIA ACTS AT THE C OF G

THE TWOFORCES SET UP A MOMENT RESULT : COMPASS SYSTEM TURNS IN A CLOCKWISE DIRECTION

i.e. HEADING REDUCES AIRCRAFT APPEARS TO TURN TOWARDS NORTH

What Happens on an Easterly course?What Happens on a Northerly course?What Happens on a Westerly course?What Happens in case of a deceleration?

ACCLNINERTIA

• EFFECT OF CHANGE OF GEOGRAPHIC POSITION

Higher the Lat, More Dip, Reduction in H, Increase in Z Causing more tilt Errors more pronounced• EFFECT OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL

CARRIED IN THE AIRCRAFT Will affect the compass system Reducing effect of H, May cause Deviation

T

H

Z

T”Z”H”

DIRECT READING COMPASS - ERRORS

TURNING AND ACCELERATION ERRORSSCALE ERRORSALIGNMENT ERRORCENTERING ERRORPARALLAX ERROR

ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES OF DR COMPASSES

ADVANTAGES SIMPLE, LIGHT WEIGHT, LESS COSTLY, DO NOT REQUIRE ELECTRICAL POWERDISADVANTAGES SUFFER FROM ERRORS ACCURACY RESTRICTED AC MANEOUVRES AFFECTED BY A/C MAGNETISM NO REPEATER OR TORQUE OUTPUT TO OTHER SYSTEMS REDUCED “H” IN HIGHER LATITUDES

Period 61&62

REMOTE READING COMPASS

• GENERAL PRINCIPLES

• BASIC USE: PRESENTATION OF HEADING

• ADVANTAGES OVER DRC

SIMPLE FLUX VALVE

N

N

S

S

d̃

AC

Induced Voltage

Primary Windings

Secondary Windings

Core A

Core B

CONSTRUCTION

TWO IDENTICAL SOFT IRON CORES HAVE WINDINGSSUCH THAT AN AC INDUCES OPPOSITE POLARITY IN THE CORES. THE TWO CORES ARE WOUND WITH A COMMON SECONDARYAND THE SECONDARIES PICK UP THE TOTAL RESULTANT FLUX OF THE TWO CORES

~

FLUX VALVE – SIMPLIFIED VIEW

EARTH’S FIELD “H”

MAG HDG 000 ° 090° 180 ° 270 ° 360° 000°

MAX NIL MAX NIL MAXFLUX INDUCED IN A CORE AS THE ANGLE IS VARIED

Core A Core B

Output Voltage

+0-

Resultant Voltage induced inSecondary Windings when H= 0

Core B

Core A

AC

FLUX

+0--

Earth’s MagFd H

Saturation levelCore A Core B

Resultant Flux in Secondary Windings

AC

Resultant Voltage induced inSecondary Windings when H is not 0

Core A

Core B

FLUX

ONE OF THE THREE SPOKES OF THE SPERRY FLUX VALVE

SIGNAL SELSYN

DATA SELSYN

MASTERINDICATOR

AMPGYRO UNIT

PRECESSION FOLLOW UP

GYRO

BEVEL GEARS

HORIZONTALVERTICAL

400 CPSAC

400 CPSAC

GEAR TRAIN

TOREPEATERS

ROTOR

Precession

Coils

CenterShaft

Detector Unit

FOLLOW UP MOTORVarn Setting

Control

RIC (SCHEMATIC)

REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS(THE SLAVED GYRO COMPASS)

• COMPONENTS

THE DETECTOR UNIT

GYRO UNIT- ANNUNCIATOR, SYNC KNOB

AMPLIFIER UNIT

CORRECTOR CONTROL BOX

REPEATER SYSTEM

ANNUNCIATOR

AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM

Magnetic Materials Non Magnetic MaterialsHard Iron (Permanent)Soft Iron (Temp Magnetised)

Magnetisation methods Stroking Placing in a Strong Magnetic Field Electric FieldAircraft Magnetic Materials get Magnetised- Why?

• Aircraft Magnetism

Hard Iron Soft Iron

Permanent Temp – Only in

Does not Change presence of Mag Fd

With Hdg Effect Changes

with Ch in Hdg

• DEVIATION:

Is the angular difference between the Magnetic North and the Compass North and is termed E or W depending on whether the Compass North lies to the E or W of the Magnetic North

Hdg (C) +/- Devn E/W = Hdg(M)

DEVN EAST, COMPASS LEAST

DEVN WEST, COMPASS BEST

AIRCRAFT PERMANENT MAG• HOW IS IT ACQUIRED?

• WHAT EFFECT DOES IT HAVE?

• HOW DO WE ANALYSE/ CORRECT FOR IT?

• EFFECT OF CHANGE IN HDG?

• ASSUMPTIONS - P, Q, R

EARTH’S FIELD “H”

P – F& A COMPONENT OF A/C PERMANENT MAGNETISM

RESULTANT FIELD

NIL DEVN

N

E

S

W

000°

045°

09O°

180°

270°

315°

225°

135°

EFFECT OF +PON COMP DEVN

EARTH’S FIELD “H”

Q – ATHWARTSHIP COMPONENT OF A/C PERMANENT MAGNETISM

RESULTANT FIELD

MAX DEVN E

N

E

S

W

000°

045°

09O°

180°

270°

315°

225°

135°

EFFECT OF +QON COMP DEVN

MAX DEVN W

0DEVN

0DEVN

• Coeff A= Devn on(N+E+W+S+NE+NW+SE+SW)

8

• Coeff C= Devn on N- Devn on S

2

• Coeff B= Devn on E- Devn on W

2

• Knowledge Of Preparation of Deviation Card

• Importance Of Compass Swing

• Procedure

• Occasions for Compass Swinging on the Ground

• CORRECTOR

COMPASS SWING PROCEDURE• Check comp for “S”• TAKE A/C TO SUITABLE SITE( sw base)• ENSURE FLT CONTROLS, Engs, Rad/Elect Circuits – ON• PLACE A/C ON Hdg ‘S(M)’- Note Devn…(i)• PLACE A/C ON Hdg ‘W(M)’ - Note Devn…(ii)• PLACE A/C ON Hdg ‘N(M)’- Note Devn…(iii)• CALCULATE Coeff ‘C’ ….[ iii –i ]/2 ApplyTo Compass reading and Correct (No sign change)• PLACE A/C ON Hdg ‘E’ - Note Devn…(iv)• CALCULATE Coeff ‘B’ ….[ iv –ii ]/2 ApplyTo Compass reading and Correct (No sign change)• Carry out check swing on 8 Headings• CALCULATE Coeff ‘A’ –Sum of Devns on all Hdgs Devided by total number of Hdgs. Correct by moving Lubber Line/ VSC/ Detector Unit as Appropriate

OCCASIONS FOR A COMPASS SWING• WHENEVER THE A/C IS INITIALLY RECEIVED• PERIODICAL - EVERY THREE MONTHS OR AS

SPECIFIED IN THE C of A• AFTER A MAJOR INSPECTION• AFTER STANDING ON ONE HDG FOR MORE THAN

FOUR WEEKS• ANYTIME THERE IS A MAJOR COMPONENT

CHANGE• ANYTIME THERE IS A PERMANENT MAJOR

CHANGE IN LATITUDE• ANYTIME THE A/C IS STRUCK BY LIGHTNING• ANYTIME THE ACCURACY OF THE COMPASS IS

SUSPECT•

• QUESTION• The results of a compass swing are as follows:• Hdg (C) Hdg (M) 002 357 047 044 092 090 137 135 182 181 227 228 272 272 317 313• Calculate Coeffs A, B & C• What will you make the compass read on S & W • Hdgs to correct for Coeff C/B ?• What will you make it read on 313(M) to correct for A ?

0 0 1 2 3 EW 3 2 1 1 2 3 E W 3 2 1

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

RIC - ADVANTAGES• DET UNIT INSTALLED REMOTELY SO LEAST

AFFECTED BY A/C MAGNETISM• NO TURNING AND ACCLN ERRORS• REPEATERS ARE POSSIBLE: FEED TO

OTHER EQPT POSSIBLE• RIGIDITY OF THE GYRO IS USED TO OVER

COME THE T & A ERRORS WHILE THE GYRO WANDER IS CONTROLLED BY KEEPING IT ALIGNED WITH THE MAGNETIC MERIDIAN WHICH IS BEING CONTINUOUSLY SENSED BY THE DETECTOR UNIT (3 TO 5 DEG/ MIN)

GRID NAVIGATION

G/C TRACK ON POLAR STEROGRAPHIC OR LAMBERT’S CON.Represented by a straight LineBut the problem is that due to convergence of longitudes theTrue DIRECTION IS CONSTANTLY AND RAPIDLY CHANGING

30 WGM 30 E

30 WGM 30 E

GRIDNORTH

TRUE

NORTH

CONVERGENCE is the angle between GN and TNtermed E or W depending on whether TN liesE OR W OF GN

CONVERGENCE• IN NORTHERN HEMISPHERE CONV IS EAST WHEN

LONG IS WEST AND CONVERGENCE IS WEST WHEN LONG IS EAST

• IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE IT IS THE SAME AS THE LONGITUDE

• ITS VALUE IS SAME AS CHART CONVERGENCE. SO ON A POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC WITH GRID NORTH COINCIDING WITH GREENWICH MERIDIAN IT IS = LONG E OR W ( WITH SIGN CHANGE IN NH)

• GRID DIR+ CONVERGENCE = TRUE DIR

• G C T V M D C 090(G) 45E 045(T) 20W 025(M) 3E 028(C)

GM

45 E45 W

90 W

135 W

180 E/W

90 E

135 E

NP

A B

INSTRUMENTS• PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

Pressure Altimeter] Principal of op

ASI ] Basic Construction

VSI ]Use, Limitations &

Machmeter ] Errors

Period 63&64

PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

PRESSURE ALTIMETER

PRINCIPAL OF OP BASIC CONSTRUCTION (SIMPLE, SENSITIVE, SERVO) CALIBRATION USES, LIMITATIONS & ERRORS EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN TEMP AND PR ALTIMETRY PROBLEMS

ALTIMETER(SCHEMATIC)

ALTIMETER100 FEETPOINTER

1000 FEET POINTER

SUB SCALESUB

SCALESETTINGKNOB

SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

• ADDITIONAL1000 FEETPOINTER

WARNINGFLAG-YELLOWDIAGONAL LINESAPPEAR BELOW10000 FEET

PRESSURE ALTITUDE ERRORS

INSTRUMENT ERRORPRESSURE ERRORBAROMETRIC ERRORTEMPERATURE ERRORTIME LAGBLOCKAGES

7 1 50

1010

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

90

FIVE DIGIT COUNTERCROSS HATCHINGAPPEARS IN PLACE OFFIRST COUNTER WHEN BELOW 10000 Ft

POWER FAILURE OR MALFUNCTION WARNING:STRIPED FLAG APPEARSIN WINDOW

POINTER COMPPLETES

ONE REVOLUTION PER

1000 FEETSET PRESSURE

SERVO ALTIMETER DIAL

ADVANTAGES OF A SERVO ALTIMETER

• VERY SENSITIVE – CAN PICK UP A CAPSULE MOVEMENT AS LITTLE AS 0.0002Inches / Thousand Feet GIVING AN ACCURACY OF ± 100Feet at 40000 Ft

• VIRTUALLY ELIMINATES TIME LAG• ELECTRICAL SYSTEM – SO CORRN FOR PE CAN BE

MADE AND ALTITUDE ALERTING DEVICE CAN BE INCORPORATED

• DIGITAL READOUT- LESS CHANCES OF MIREADING• POINTER AVAILABLE – USEFUL TO ASSESS RATE OF

CHANGE OF HEIGHT SPECIALLY AT LOW LEVELS• CAPABLE OF HEIGHT ENCODING - SSR

• Period 65&66 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS

AIR SPEED INDICATOR(ASI)

• PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION• BASIC CONSTRUCTION• CALIBRATION• USES, LIMITATIONS• ERRORS• IAS, RAS/CAS, EAS , TAS

AIR SPEED INDICATOR• PRINCIPLE: P = D + S

• or D = P – S

• CONSTRUCTION:• CALIBRATION : AS PER ISA

PD = ½ ρ. V² 1 + V² 4C² PD IS THE DYNAMIC PRESSURE ρ IS THE AIR DENSITY

V IS THE IAS CIS THE SPEED OF SOUND

ASI ERRORS• INSTRUMENT ERROR• PRESSURE ERROR POSITION OF STATIC VENT AIRCRAFT SPEED ANGLE OF ATTACK AND THE A/C MANEOUVRE AERODYNAMIC STATE , i.e. POSN OF FLAPS, U/C• DENSITY ERROR• COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR [1 + V² ] [ 4C² ] i.e. COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR• BLOCKAGES• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT SPEEDS RAS = IAS ± PE ( Including Inst Error) EAS = RAS+ COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR CORRN TAS = EAS+ DENSITY ERROR CORRN

• Period 69&70

PRESSURE INSTRUMENT

MACHMETER

PRINCIPAL OF OP BASIC CONSTRUCTION CALIBRATION USE, LIMITATIONS & ERRORS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IAS/TAS/MACH NO./

AND ALTITUDE/ TEMPERATURE TAT/OAT,FAT – RAT (RAM RISE)

MACHMETER• MACH NO. =. TAS i.e. V LOCAL SPD OF SOUND C• NEED: IN HIGH SPEED FLIGHT SHOCK

WAVES ARE LIABLE TO BE SET UP AS THE SPEED APPROACHES THE SPEED OF SOUND AND CERTAIN AERODYNAMIC EFFECTS LIKE CONTROL FLUTTER/CONTROL REVERSAL CAN OCCUR. THESE EFFECTS OCCUR NOT AT ANY FIXED TAS OR IAS BUT AT FIXED V/C RATIO. MACHMETER CONTINUOUSLY MEASURES THIS RATIO AND DISPLAYS IT TO THE PILOT

• MCRIT- CRITICAL MACH NUMBER : IT IS THAT FREE STREAM MACH NO. AT WHICH THE AIRFLOW OVER SOME PART OF THE AIRCRAFT REACHES MACH -1

• PRINCIPLE: M = V/C TAS - IS A FUNCTION OF P-S & ρ

SP OF SOUND (C): FUNCTION OF S & ρ ρ , density being a common factor

EQUATION Becomes M = P-S SAIR SPEED CAPSULE MEASURES “P-

S”ALTITUDE CAPSULE MEASURES “S”MOVEMENT OF THE TWO CAPSULES

IS COMBINED TO GIVE THE RATIO P-S S

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

• PRINCIPLE : MEASURES RATE OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE TO INDICATE VERTICAL SPEED

• CONSTRUCTION : CAPSULE METERING UNIT, TEMP/ PR Compensation

• ERRORS :

INSTRUMENT ERROR

TIME LAG ERROR

PRESSURE ERROR

MANOEUVRE INDUCED ERROR

BLOCKAGES

V S I

DIAL POINTER

MECHANICALLINKAGE

METERING UNIT

CAPSULE

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR ( Schematic)

UP

DOWN

IVSI (INERTIAL- LEAD VSI) TO GET RID OF TIME LAG COSISTS OF TWO DASHPOTS, EACH WITH AN

INERTIAL MASS – PISTONS BALANCED BY SPRINGS, ONE SPRING BEING STRONGER THAN THE OTHER

DURING CLIMB/DESCENT, ACCELERATION PUSHES THE PISTONS UP OR DOWN RESULTING IN INSTANTANEOUS READING OF CLIMB/ DESCENT

AFTER A FEW SECONDS, EFFECT OF ACCELEROMETER PISTON DIES OUT, BUT BY THEN NORMAL VSI OPERATION IS EFFECTIVE

ERRORS :INSTRUMENT AND PRESSURE ERRORS NO LAG OR MANEOUVER INDUCED ERRORS TURNING ERRORS

Inertial-lead V S I ( IVSI)

Period 71&72

GYROSCOPES

• PROPERTIES – RIGIDITY AND PRECESSION

• METHODS OF IMPROVING RIGIDITY

• RULES OF PRECESSION

• PRECESSION RATE

• REAL WANDER

• APPARENT WANDER

• TYPES OF GYROSCOPES

GYROSCOPES• PROPERTIES – Rigidity And Precession

• Methods of Improving RIGIDITY

• Rules of Precession

• Precession Rate

• Real Wander

• Apparent Wander

• Types Of Gyroscopes

GYRO OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

• Description

• Principle of Operation

• Use and

• Limitations

OF

Direction Gyro Indicator

Artificial Horizon

Turn and Slip Indicator

Turn Coordinator

Period 73&74

GYRO OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

DIRECTION GYRO INDICATOR

DESCRIPTION PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION USE AND LIMITATIONS LATITUDE NUT DRIFT AND TOPPLE PROBLEMS

DI

DRIFT DUE TO EARTH’S ROTATION

ROTOR ALIGNEDWITH LOCALMERIDIAN

ө

өHDG 090°(T)

HDG 090°(T)

ONE HOUR LATER ROTOR REMAINS POINTING IN THE SAME DIRECTION

INDICATED HEADING IS 090, i.e LESS

THAN THE TRUE HEADING i.e.090+ өDeg

DI DRIFTAPPARENT DRIFT DUETO EARTH ROTATION

DRIFT DUE TO AIRCRAFT CHANGE OF LONG

DRIFT DUE TO EARTH’S ROTATION

INDICATED HEADING AFTER ONE HOUR FLIGHT IN AN EASTERLY DIRECTION LESS THAN 090 DEG ANDLESS THAN STATIONARY AIR CRAFT

ROTOR ALIGNEDWITH LOCALMERIDIAN

Ф

Ф

ө

өөHDG

090°(T)

HDG 090°(T)

HDG 090°(T)

DI DRIFT APPARENT DRIFT DUE TO AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT

• Period 75&76

GYRO OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

DESCRIPTION

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

USES AND

LIMITATIONS

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

ARTIFICIAL HORIZONIndicating: (a) Level (b) Climb

(c) Descent

(a) (b) (c)

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

Period 77&78

GYRO OPERATEDINSTRUMENTS

• TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

DESCRIPTION PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION USE AND

LIMITATIONS

•TURN COORDINATOR

TURN INDICATOR• NEED: THE PILOT NEEDS TO KNOW AT AT

WHAT RATE THE AIRCRAFT IS TURNING

• RATE TURNS:

• RATE 1 TURN IS WHEN A/C TURNS

THRO’ 360 DEG IN TWO MINUTES

OR 180 DEG IN 0NE MINUTE

Rate Of Turn Indicator

TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR (TSI)

Period 79&80

AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL

SYSTEM

BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF OPERATION AND USE

Period 81&82

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM/INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION & • ITS USES

RADIO AIDS

TO

NAVIGATION

Period 83&84

• PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES• NATURE OF RADIO WAVES• DEFINITIONS AMPLITUDE CYCLE FREQUENCY WAVE LENGTH• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WAVE LENGTH AND FREQUENCY

& THEIR CONVERSION• FREQUENCY SPECTRUM• POLARISATION• PRINCIPLES OF RADIO TRANSMISSION GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE DIFFRACTION ATTENUATION EFFECT OF TYPE OF SURFACE ON PROPAGATION RANGES OBTAINABLE AT DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES

PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES• Nature of Radio Waves

• Definitions

Amplitude

Cycle

Frequency

Wave length

• Relationship Between Wave length and Frequency & their Conversion

• Frequency Spectrum

• Polarisation

PHASE & PHASE DIFFERENCE

0 90 180 270 360

O N E C Y C L E

WAVE LENGTH ( DISTANCE) λ

WAVES AREIN PHASE

WAVE LAGS 90 DEG / 180 DEG

AMPLITUDE

Electro Magnetic Waves

Vertical PLANEHorizontal plane

POLARISATION VERTICAL

FREQUENCY BAND DESIGNATOR

Freq Band Name Abbr. Frequencies Wave Lengths

Very Low Freq VLF 3 – 30 KHz 100Km – 10 KmLow Freq LF 30 – 300 KHz 10 Km – 1KmMedium Freq MF 300 – 3000KHz 1 Km – 100MHigh Freq HF 3 – 30 MHz 100M – 10 MVery High Freq VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10 M – 1 MUltra High Freq UHF 300 – 3000 MHz 1M - 10CmSuper High Freq SHF 3 - 30 GHz 10 Cm – 1CmsExtremely High Freq EHF 30 – 300 GHz 1 Cm –1 mm

• Principles of Radio TransmissionGround Wave Propagation

Factors Affecting Range

Diffraction

Refraction

Reflection

Attenuation

Fading

Effect of Type of Surface on Propagation Ranges Obtainable at Different

Frequencies

Period 85&86

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

IONOSPHERE DEFINITION VARIATION WITH TIME OF DAY, SEASONS AND LATITUDE REFRACTION AND ABSORPTION WITHIN THE IONOSPHERE CRITICAL FREQUENCY / CRITICAL ANGLE SKIP DISTANCE AND DEAD SPACE PERFORMANCE AT DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES

DIRECT WAVE PROPAGATION

FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE DUCT PROPAGATION

• Sky Wave Propagation Ionosphere

Definition

Variation With Time of Day,

Seasons and LatitudeRefraction and Absorption Within the

IonosphereCritical Frequency / Critical AngleSkip Distance and Dead Space

Performance At Different Frequencies

• Direct Wave Propagation

Factors Affecting RangeDuct Propagation

MODULATION OF RADIO WAVES

• NEED FOR MODULATION

• AMPLITUDE MODULATION

• FREQUENCY MODULATION

• PHASE MODULATION

• PULSE MODULATION

DIRECTION FINDING / ADF

• PRINCIPLE• ELEMENTS OF DF• 180° AMBIGUITY AND ITS RESOLUTION• NIGHT EFFECT REFRACTION• QUADRANTAL ERROR• COASTAL• EFFECTS OF HIGH GROUND/ TERRAIN EFFECT• RANGE AND ACCURACY• AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION• FREQUENCY BAND• TUNING AND IDENTIFICATION• LIMITATIONS• USES – HOMING, TRACKING, & ORIENTATION

DIRECTION FINDINGADF

• Principle: BEARING BY LOOP D/F

• Elements of DF

• 180° Ambiguity and Its Resolution

• Night Effect Refraction

• Quadrantal Error

• Coastal

• Effects of High Ground/ Terrain Effect

• Range and Accuracy

• NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON(NDB)

A GROUND BASED TRANSMITTER WHICH TRANSMITS VERTICALLY POLARISED RADIO WAVES AT A UNIFORM SIGNAL STRENGTH IN ALL DIRECTIONS IN THE LF AND MF BANDS

THE ADF EQUIPMENT IN THE AIRCRAF,T WHEN TUNED TO THE SPECIFIC NDB FREQUENCY , INDICATES THE DIRECTION FROM WHICH THE RADIO WAVES ARE COMING i.e. THE DIRECTION OF THE NDB

A “CONE OF SILENCE” EXISTS OVERHEAD THE NDB WHERE THE AIRCRAFT DOES NOT RECEIVE ANY SIGNALS. THE DIA OF THE CONE INCREASES WITH INCREASE IN HEIGHT

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATIONBEARING BY LOOP DIRECTION FINDING:

IF YOU PLACE ALOOP AERIALIN THE PLANE OF A RADIO WAVE A VOLTAGE WILL BE PRODUCED IN THE VERTICAL MEMBERS

MAX EMF INDUCED

NO EMFINDUCED

• IF THE LOOP IS ROTATED THE VOLTAGE INDUCED WILL DECREASE UNTIL IT IS ZERO WHEN

ADF – THE LOOP AERIAL

-

-+

ADF – THE LOOP AERIAL

-

-+ +

- +

+

+

RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR

000

180

090270

030

060

120

150210

240

300

330

RBI

ADF• FREQ BAND: 2OO – 1750 KHz• EMISSION: NON AIA, NONA2A, A2A• RANGE: 200 NM BY DAY(DO NOT USE OUTSIDE PROTECTED

RANGE) , 70 NM BY NIGHT• FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE: Tx POWER,

FREQ, NIGHT EFFECT, EMISSION, TERRAIN• ACCURACY: ± 5° (WITHIN PROTECTED RANGE)

• FACTORS:N/EFFECT, TERRAIN, STATIC, QE, STN INTERFERENCE, ALIGNMENT

• FAILURE WARNING: NIL• BFO: NON A1A –TUNING AND IDENTIFICATION NON A2A – TUNING ONLY A2A – BFO NOT TO BE USED

0365.5FREQUENCY TEST

TONE

OFF

ADFANT

GAINOFF

ADF CONTROL UNIT

ADF

ADF Frequencies : Allocated Freq 190-1750 KHz Normally most NDBs 250-450 KHzTypes of NDBs: Locator - Low Powered 10-25nm Enroute – More power giving ranges of 50nm-Hundreds of milesAIRCRAFT EQPT: A LOOP AERIAL A SENSE AERIAL A CONTROL UNIT A RECEIVER A DISPLAY - RBI or RMI

ADF• Emission Characteristics:• ALL NDBs have 2 or 3 Letter Identification• and two types of emission NON A1A and NON A2A• “NON” PART OF THE EMISSION IS UNMODULATED

CARRIER WAVE, WHICH WILL NOT BE DETECTED ON A NORMAL Rx. SO A BFO IS PROVIDED ON ADF EQUIPMENT. WHEN BFO IS “ON” IT PRODUCES AN OFFSET FREQ in the receiver WHICH IN COMBINATION WITH THE RECEIVED FREQ PRODUCES A TONE OF SAY 400 OR 1020 Hz

• “A1A” PART IS IS THE EMISSION OF AN INTURRUPTED CARRIER WAVE WHICH REQUIRES THE BFO TO BE ON FOR AURAL RECEPTION.

• “A2A” IS THE EMISSION OF AN AMPLITUDE MODULATED CARRIER WHICH CAN BE HEARD ON A NORMAL RECEIVER

ADF• WHEN USING NON A1A Beacons - BFO‘ON’ For manual Tuning, Identification and

Monitoring• WHEN USING NON A2A Beacons – BFO ‘ON’ For

Manual Tuning But Off For Identification And Monitoring

PRESENTATION OF INFO RBI - GIVES RELATIVE BEARING RMI – RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR:

COMBINES RELATIVE BEARING INFO FROM THE ADF WITH HEADING MAGNETIC

Relative Bearing

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210ADF

Indicator

RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR

RMIHDG(M)

000

180

090

270

030060

120

150

210240

300

330

Period 91&92 VOR (VERY HIGH FREQ OMNI RANGE )

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• FREQUENCY BAND• RANGE – LINE OF SIGHT• TUNING AND IDENTIFICATION• RANGE – LINE OF SIGHT RANGE CALCULATION• USES• ADVANTAGES• ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY• D VOR

TO/ FROM INDICATION

VOR• VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE – STD

SHORT RANGE NAV AID BY ICAO -1960• GIVES 360 RADIALS, EACH 1° APART

STARTING FROM MAGNETIC NORTH AT VOR LOCATION

• VHF AND HENCE VOR IS FREE FM STATIC INTERFERENCE, NO SKY WAVES SO CAN BE USED DAY AND NIGHT

• VOR FREQ CAN BE PAIRED WITH CO-LOCATED DME GIVING INSTANTANEOUS Rho-Theta FIX

• VOR• Frequency (Band) (VHF) 108.00-111.95MHz using even decimals,

112.00-117.95MHz using all• Emissions A9W• Range VHF formula - 12√F(flight level), or accurately 1.25 √H1=1.25 √h2• DOC (Designated Operational Coverage)• Range factors Transmission power, station elevation, aircraft altitude• Accuracy ±5º on 95% of occasions• Accuracy factors Beacon alignment, site error, propagation error,

airborne equipment error, pilotage• Failure warning : Warning flag appears if: Low signal strength Airborne equipment failure Ground equipment failure Indicator failure Low or no power Tuning in progress• Test VOR VOT – Preflight check, 000º from or 180º TO, ±4º

VOR USES• MARKING BEGINNING/END OF

AIRWAYS

• FOR TERMINAL LET-DOWN PROCEDURES

• AS HOLDING POINT / MARK HOLDING PATTERNS

• FOR ENROUTE POSITION LINES

VOR PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• BEARING BY PHASE COMPARISON• VOR TX Transmits two SIGNALS a) A 30 Hz FM Omni-directional REFERENCE SIGNAL PRODUCES A CONSTANT PHASE , IRRESPECTIVE OF THE Rx BRG FM VOR Tx b) A 30 Hz AM VARIABLE PHASE (Directional)

SIGNAL created by a rotating transmission pattern (LIMACON)

• BOTH a) and b) above are synchronised such that i) THE TWO ARE IN PHASE WHEN THE A/C VOR

Rx IS DUE MAGNETIC NORTH OF THE VOR Tx ii) THE PHASE DIFFERENCE MEASURED AT ANY

POINT WILL EQUATE TO THE AIRCRAFT’S MAGNETIC BEARING FROM THE VOR

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210VOR

Radials

VOR

(QDR)

MAG NORTH

VOR : FREQUENCIES• OPERATE IN VHF BAND( 30 to 300 MHz )• ALOTTED Freq : 108 To 117.95 MHz• a) 40 CHANNELS - 108 – 112 MHz PRIMARILY

ILS BAND Short Range & Terminal VORs ( Even Decimal Digits for VOR) i.e. 108.0, 108.05, 108.2, 108.25, 108.4 etc (ODD Decimal Digits ARE USED BY ILS) b) 120 CHANNELS 112 to 117.95

• EMISSION CODE: A 9 W• A- Main carrier is amplitude modulated

• 9 – Composite System

• w - COMBINATION OF TELEMETERY, T-PHONY &

T-GRAPHY

VOR(Very High Freq Omni Range )

• Principle Of Operation: BRG BY PHASE COMPARISON

• Frequency Band: 108 – 117.95 MHz 108- 112 SHARED WITH ILS-VOR EVEN

DECIMAL(108.20, 108.25….) AND ILS ODD DECIMAL (108.10, 108.15……)

• Range – Line of Sight Range Calculation• Uses: Navigation(Position Line), HOMING,

TRACKING OUT,• Advantages• Accuracy And Reliability• D VOR

Period 93&94

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION/ APPLICATION OF

• RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)

• HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

Relative Bearing

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

OB

SS

ELE

CTI

ON

FRO

M

TO

000030

330

060

09030

0120

180

270

150

240

210

OBSSELECTION

FROM

TO

000030

330

060

09030

0120

180

270

150

240

210

Phase QDR QDM HDG Rel OBS To/ L/R Diff (M) Brg From Dots A = B±180=C = D + E F±90=

050 010 240

035 005 To Fly left 2 dots

216 040 035

225 050 To Center

020 030 To Full scale

Fly Left

070 075 240

250 240 250

020 020 From Fly left 1 dot

Phase QDR QDM HDG Rel OBS To/ L/R Diff (M) Brg From Dots

050 050 230 010 220 240 To Fly left 5 dots

035 035 215 210 005 219 To Fly left 2 dots036 036 216 040 176 035 From Fly left 1/2 dots 225 225 045 355 050 045 To Center200 200 020 030 350 030 To Full scale

Fly Lrft070 070 250 075 175 240 240 Fly left 5 dots 250 250 070 240 190 250 From Center

Phase QDR QDM HDG Rel OBS To/ L/R

Diff (M) Brg From Dots

050 050 230 010 220 240 To Fly left 5 dots

035 035 215 210 005 219 To Fly left 2 dots

036 036 216 040 176 035 From Fly left 1/2 dots

225 225 045 355 050 045 To Center

200 200 020 030 350 030 To Full scale

Fly Lrft

070 070 250 075 175 240 240 Fly left 5 dots

250 250 070 240 190 250 From Center

020 020 200 180 020 018 From Fly left 1 dot

000030

330

060

090

300120

180

270

150

240

210 2

1

OBS075

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

OBS

COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR (CDI)

VOR060

RADIOMAGNETICINDICATOR

RMI

• RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)

HDG(M)

2

Presentation And Interpretation

1

N

EW

S

306

3

12

15

21

24

33

1

HDG(M)

N

EW

S

30

6

3

12

1521

24

33

1

21

000030

330

060090

300

120

180

270

150

240

210

Rel Brg Ind

VOR SUMMARY• CHARECTARISTICS: MAG BRGs, Day&night• FREQ : 108 TO 119.75 MHz; 160 Channels• USES : Airways, Airfield Let Downs, Holding

Pts , En-route Navigation• PRINCIPLE OF OP: Brg by Phase Comp OF

TWO 30 Hz SIGNALS • IDENTIFICATION: 3 Letter aural Morse or

Voice every 10 sec, Cont TONE for VOT

Also ATIS using AM on Voice• MONITORING: Auto Site Monitor +/- 1 Deg

Ident Suppressed at St By Initial Sw On

• TYPES: CVOR - Ref Sig FM, Var Sig AM• Limacone Polar Diagram Rot. Clockwise• DVOR – More Accurate, less site error• Ref Sig AM, VarSig FM, rot anti-clock.• TVOR: Low Power Tx at Airfields • VOT : TEST VOR giving 180 Radial• a/c Eqpt should give < ± 4 Deg error• OPERATIONAL RANGE: Tx Power. LoS.DOC• ACCURACY :Affected by, Site Error, Scalloping• Airborne Eqpt Error +/- 3 Deg• CONE of CONFUSION: OFF Flag may appear• TO/FROM FLUCTUATES

HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator)

• Presentation

• Modes of Operation

• Interpretation and Apllication

MODES

• Modes of Operation OFF HDG VOR/NAV GS

GS AUTO ALT APPR APPR II GA IAS VS MACH

Period 95&96

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATIONCOMPONENTS – GROUND INSTALLATIONCOVERAGE AND RANGEGLIDE PATH ANGLE, FALSE GLIDE PATHFREQUENCIES: LOCALISER & GLIDE PATH PAIRINGTUNING & IDENTIFICATIONRECEIVER & CONTROLSDATA PRESENTATIONAIRCRAFT HANDLINGWITH REFERENCE TO ILS INDICATIONSPERFORMANCE CATEGORIES

ILS( Instrument Landing System)

• Principle of Operation

• Components – Ground Installation

• Coverage and Range

• Glide path Angle, False Glide path

• Frequencies: Localiser & Glide path Pairing

• Tuning & Identification

• Receiver & Controls

ILS - PRINCIPLE• ILS IS A PRECESSION APPROACH AID

BASED ON BEARING BY LOBE COMPARISON

• IT PROVIDES GUIDANCE TO THE PILOT BOTH IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE (DEVIATION FROM EXTENDED RUNWAY CENTER LINE) AND THE VERTICAL PLANE (DEVIATION FROM THE GLIDE PATH)

• IT PROVIDES VISUAL INSTRUCTIONS TO THE PILOT RIGHT DOWN TO DH/DA.

ILS - COMPONENTSGROUND INSTALLATION• LOCALISER• GLIDE PATH• MARKER BEACONS• BACK COURSE APPROACHES• LOCATOR BEACONS• DMEILS FREQUENCIES• LOCALISER –108 –111.975( ODD 1st decimal)• GLIDE PATH - 329.15 –335 MHz(Paired with L)• MARKERS - 75 MHz

LOCALISER LOBES & THEIR COVERAGES

150 Hz

90 Hz

LOCALISER Tx

CoverageWithin +/- 10 deg ------25 NMWithin 10 – 35 deg -------17 NMOutside 35 deg ------------10 NM

20 Deg

25 NM

17 NM

35 Deg

BEYOND 35 Deg10 NM

Lclzr MHz G’Path108.10 334.70 108.15 334.55 108.3 334.10 108.35 333.95 108.5 329.90 108.55 329.75 108.7 330.50

108.75 330.35 108.9 329.30 108.95 329.15 109.1 331.40 109.15 331.25 109.3 332.00

109.35 331.85 109.50 332.60 109.55 332.45 109.70 333.20 109.75 333.05 109.90 333.80

109.95 333.65 110.1 334.40110.15 334.25 110.3 335.00 110.35 334.85 110.5 329.60 110.55 329.45 110.70 330.20 110.75 330.05 110.90 330.80 110.95 330.65 111.10 331.70 111.15 331.55 111.30 332.30 111.35 332.15 111.50 332.9

111.55 332.75 111.70 333.5

111.75 333.35 111.90 331.1

111.95 330.95  

Frequency Pairs Allocated For ILS

90 Hz

150 Hz

GLIDE PATH – LOBES &THEIR COVERAGES

LINE ALONG WHICH EQUAL 90 Hz AND 150HzSIGNAL IS RECEIVEDOR DDM IS ZERO

27

GP Tx

UPTO 10 NM WITHIN 8 DEG IN AZIMUTH EITHER SIDE

VERTICAL PLANE COVERAGEFROM 0.45 θ TO 1.75 θ ABOVE THE HORIZONTAL PLANEWHERE θ IS THE GLIDE SLOPE ANGLE

ILS

• Data Presentation – Display System

• Data Interpretation

• Aircraft Handling With Reference To ILS Indications

• Performance Categories

MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

Period 97&98

VHF MARKERS• PURPOSE• FREQUENCY AND RADIATION PATTERNS• RANGE• COCKPIT INDICATIONS• LOW / HIGH SENSITIVITY SELECTION

RADIO ALTIMETERS • PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION• FREQUENCY MODULATION & ITS APPLICATION TO HEIGHT MEASUREMENT• USES• ADVANTAGES AND • LIMITATIONS

VHF MARKERS

• Purpose

• Frequency and Radiation Patterns

• Range

• Cockpit Indications

• Low / High Sensitivity Selection

• Marker Passage Indications Marker Code Light

• OM -   -   - BLUE

• MM •  -  •  - AMBER

• IM • • • • WHITE

• BC • •    • • WHITE

RADIO ALTIMETERS

• Principle of Operation

• Frequency Modulation & Its Application to Height Measurement

• Uses

• Advantages and

• Limitations

RADIO ALTIMETER INDICATOR

WARNING FLAG

DECISIONHEIGHT

INDICATOR

DECISION HEIGHTSETTING KNOB

TEST

Period 99&100 RADAR

• PRINCIPLE

MEASUREMENT OF RANGE

MEASUREMENT OF BEARING

• RADAR PARAMETERS

FREQUENCY RANGES

PULSE WIDTH

PRF

RADAR• Principle

Measurement of Range

Measurement of Bearing

Radar Parameters

Frequency Ranges

Pulse Width

PRF

RADAR – RAdio Detection And Ranging• Developed before WW – II• USED on Ground and in Air• Initially Only PULSE Radars Later CW• Today Extensively used by Civil/ Mil/ Wx etc

• PRINCIPLE• EM Energy Transmitted in Short Pulses : They get

Reflected by Target A/C . Reflected pulses Picked up by the Rx at the Tx Locn. Time taken for the energy to travel to and fro depends on the distance. The direction in which the antenna is pointing at the time of the Reception gives the direction of the Target Aircraft.

• TYPES OF RADAR• PRIMARY RADAR-

TRANSMIT ENERGY( EM WAVES) IN PULSES ENERGY REFLECTED BY OBJECTS IN THEIR

PATH THIS IS PICKED UP BY THE Rx AND

DISPLAYED GIVING DIRECTION AND RANGE (DIST)

• SECONDARY RADAR

• A SECONDARY RADAR TRANSMITS ON ONE FREQ BUT RECEIVES OS A DIFFERENT FREQ.

• SYSTEM USES AN INTERROGATOR AND A TRANSPONDER.

• TRANSPONDER MAY BE ON THE GROUND OR IN THE AIRCRAFT

PULSE WIDTH

PULSE RECURRENCEINTERVAL

ORPULSE RECURRENCE

PERIOD

1 2

PULSE WIDTH

+

0

-+

0

-

TIME

• First Symbol• This tells the type of modulation on the main carrier wave.

This includes:• N No modulation.• A Amplitude modulated, double sideband.• H Amplitude modulated, single sideband and carrier wave.• J Amplitude modulated, single sideband, suppressed carrier

wave.• F Frequency modulated.• G Phase modulated.• P Pulse modulated, constant amplitude.• K Pulse modulated, amplitude modulated.

• Second Symbol• This designates the nature of the signal or signals modulating the

main carrier:• 0 No modulating symbol.• 1 Single channel containing quantised or digital information

without the use of a modulating sub-carrier.• 2 Single channel containing quantised or digital information,

using a modulating sub-carrier.• 3 Single channel containing analogue information.• Two or more channels containing quantised or digital

information.• Two or more channels containing analogue information.• Composite system comprising 1, 2 or 7 above, with 3 or 8 above.• X Cases not otherwise covered.

• Third Symbol• Type of information transmitted. (This does not include

information carried by the presence of the waves.)• N No information transmitted.• A Telegraphy - for aural reception.• B Telegraphy - for automatic reception.• C Facsimile.• D Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand.• E Telephony (including sound broadcasting).• F Television (video).• W Combination of the above.• X Cases not otherwise covered.

• Ground Waves

The term ‘ground wave’ is used to describe all types of propagation except sky waves. Thus, a surface wave is also a ground wave, so is a space wave.

• Direct wave and }

+ }

Ground reflected wave } = Space wave }

+ }

and Surface wave } = Ground wave

Period 101&102

DME( DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• USES

• RANGE

• ACCURACY AND

• LIMITATIONS

DME - PRINCIPLE• DME IS A SECONDARY RADAR SYSTEM

WHICH PROVIDES THE RANGE FROM THE GROUND STATION USING THE PULSE TECHNQUE.

• IN CONJUNCTION WITH A CO-LOCATED VOR IT GIVES A RHO-THETA ( RANGE AND BEARING ) FIX

• MILITARY EQUIVALENT IS THE TACAN (VORTAC – VOR AND TACAN CO-LOCATED BEACON )

DME - CHANNELS• SECONDARY RADAR – FREQ

BETWEEN 962 MHz TO 1213 MHz (UHF)

• DIFFERENCE OF ± 63 MHz BETWEEN Tx AND Rx FREQUENCY

• CHANNELS NUMBERED 1 TO 126 X AND 1 TO 126 Y (MIL AIRCRAFT USE CHANNELS AND CIVIL AIRCRAFT TUNE VOR/ DME PAIRED FREQUENCY)

• WHEN PAIRED WITH ILS LOCALISER, IT GIVES PILOT DISTANCE TO GO TO RUNWAY THRESHOLD

DME - USES• PROVIDES ACCURATE SLANT RANGE – SO

A CIRCULAR POSITION LINE

• CAN GIVE G/S AND ELAPSED TIME WHEN SUITABLE COMPUTER SYSTEM IS FITTED

• ACCURATE HOLDING PATTERNS & DME ARCS CAN BE FLOWN

• RANGE AND HT CHECKS (NON PREC APP)

• ACCURATE RANGES TO THRESHOLD (MARKER BEACONS CAN BE DISPENSED)

• EXACT RANGE ENABLES IMM RADR IDENT

• BETTER SEPARATION POSSIBLE IN NON-RADAR AIR SPACE

• VOR/DME FIXES PROVIDE BASIS FOR SIMPLEST FORM OF R-NAV (AREA NAV)

• PROVIDES ACCURATE RANGE INPUTS TO MORE ACCURATE AND ADVANCED R-NAV SYSTEMS (DME/DME FIXES )

BASIC WORKING – RANGE DETERMINATION• RANGE BY PULSE TECHNIQUE (SLANT

RANGE)• AIRCRAFT INTERROGATOR TRANSMITS

STREAM OF OMNI DIRECTIONAL PULSES, SIMULTANEOUSLY RECEIVER STARTS A RANGE SEARCH

• GROUND BEACON (TRANSPONDER) RE-TRANSMITS THE RECD PULSES AFTER DELAY OF 50 MICRO SEC AT A FREQ ±63 MHz OF RECD FREQ

• AIRBORNE EQPT IDENTIFIES OWN UNIQUE STREAM OF PULSESAND MEASURES THE TIME INTERVAL , ELECTRONICALLY & DISPLAYS IT AS RANGE ACCURATELY

(±0.2NM)

• THEORETICALLY UPTO 100 AIRCRAFT CAN USE ONE DME TRANSPONDER, SO AIRCRAFT RECEIVES OWN RESPONSE PULSES AS WELL AS OTHER AIRCRAFT RESPONSE PULSES

• INTERROGATION PULSES 3.5 MICRO SEC TRANSMITTED IN PAIRSWITH INTERVAL 12 M/SEC FOR X CHANNELS AND 36 M/SEC FOR Y CHANNELS

• TO AVOID AMBIGUITY, EACH AC TRANSMITS ITS PAIRED PULSES AT RANDOM INTERVALS ( JITTERING )

• AT TRANSMISSION TIME, RECEIVER SETS UP GATES TO MATCH THE RANDOM PRF OF TRANSMITTED TWIN PULSES

• THE RESPONSE INCLUDES THOSE FM OWN AC PAIRED PULSES & THOSE FM OTHER AC P/ PULSES• THE RECEIVING EQPT IS DESIGNED TO RECEIVE

RESPONSES WHICH MATCHITS OWN RANDOMISED PRF. WHEN THIS HAPPENS, A LOCK-ON IS ACHIEVED AND DME ENTERS TRACKING MODE

• AS AC RANGE INC/DEC THE GATES SHIFT TO ACCOMMODATE THE CORRESPONDING INC/DEC. THIS LOCK AND FOLLOW ENSURESRETURNING TWIN PULSES ARE CONTINUOUSLY TRACKED

• RANGE IS DISPLAYED BASED ON OFFSET BETWEEN TX & RX PULSE PAIRS

DME – TWIN PULSES

• THE USE OF TWIN PULSES ENSURES THAT THE RECEIVER NEVER ACCEPTS PULSES WHICH MAY BE MATCHING BUT WHICH ARE SINGLE , FOR EXAMPLE THOSE IN RESPONSE TO OTHER AIRCRAFT RADARS OR OTHER RANDOM TRANSMISSIONS

DME – RANGE SEARCH• TO ACHIEVE A LOCK-ON, DME

INTERROGATOR TRANSMITS 150 PULSE PAIRS PER SEC FOR 100 SEC.

• IF NO LOCK-ON IN 100 SEC, IT REDUCES TO 60 PP/SEC

• ONCE LOCK-ON ACHIEVED, IT REDUCES TO 25 PP/SEC

• DURING RANGE SEARCH COUNTERS/ POINTER ROTATE RAPIDLY FROM 0 TO MAX RANGE (4 TO 5 SEC IN MOD DME & 25 TO 30 IN OLDER SYSTEMS)

• IF NO LOCK-ON, DROPS TO 0 AND STARTS AGAIN

DME – BEACON SATURATION• GROUND STATION OUTPUT IS KEPT

CONSTANT AT 2700 PULSES/SECIF LESS NUMBER OF AC ARE USING THE DME TRANSPONDER, IT ADJUSTS ITS GAIN UPWARDS

• IF 2700 PULSES ARE BEING RECD, THE BEACON IS SAID TO BE SATURATED AND GAIN IS REDUCED

• THIS WILL CUT OFF RECEPTION FM THE FARTHEST ( WEAKEST ) AC

• THIS MEANS APPROX 100 AC CAN USE A DME TRANS PONDER AT ANY GIVEN TIME ie 95% OF AC IN LOCK-ON MODE AND 5% IN SEARCH MODE . AVERAGE 27 PP/SEC

DME – STATION IDENTIFICATION• 3 LETTER CALL SIGN TRANSMITTED

EVERY 30 SEC (USUALLY IN CONJUNCTION WITH A VOR )

• DURING IDENTIFICATION TX , THE RANDOM PULSES ARE REPLACED BY REGULARLY SPACED PULSES, SO RANGE INFO IS NOT AVAILABLE

• EQPT IS PROVIDED WITH 10 SEC MEMORY WITHIN WHICH TIME PP TRANSMISSIONIS RESUMED AND EQPT DISPLAYS RANGE

DME/VOR FREQUENCY PAIRING• DME IS NORMALLY CO-LOCATED

WITH VOR AND IS FREQ PAIRED WITH IT. SELECTING THE VOR AUTOMATICALLY SELECTS THE FREQ PAIRED DME

DME – RANGE MEASUREMENT FOR ILS

• WHEN PAIRED WITH ILS, DME IS GENERALLY CO-LOCATED WITH THE LOCALISER. BUT TRANSPONDER IS ADJUSTED TO GIVE THE AC RANGE FROM THE THRESHOLD

• DME RANGES CAN THEREFORE BE USED IN PLACE OF THE MARKER BEACONS

DME RANGE AND COVERAGELINE OF SIGHT RANGE (UHF BAND)INTERVENING OBSTRUCTIONS WILL

REDUCE RANGEIN CASE OF BANK ANTENNA MAY BE

SHIELDED AND SOINTERRUPTION MAY OCCUR (10 SEC MEMORY WILL MAINTAIN LOCK-ON)

ECHO PROTECTION CIRCUIT IS PROVIDED

–

DME – SYSTEM ACCURACY• ON A 95% PROBABILITY, ± 0.2 NM

ACCURACY

• FOR OLDER AIRCRAFT (PRE 1989) ±0.25 NM + 1.25 % OF RANGE , SO AT 100 NM 0.25 + 1.25 NM = 1.5 NM

• THIS IS ALL INCLUSIVE, AIRBORNE EQPT ERRORS, GRD EQPT ERRORS, PROPAGATION AND RANDOM PULSE INTERFERENCE ETC

DME – SLANT RANGE/ GROUND RANGE ACCURACY

• DME MEASURES SLANT RANGE

• AT GREATER RANGES DIFF BETWEEN THE TWO IS NEGLIGIBLE

• AS THE RANGE REDUCES ERRORS BECOME INCREASINGLY RELEVENT

• WHEN OVER THE BEACON, INDICATED RANGE =AC HEIGHT

DME – GROUND SPEED COMPUTATION

• G/S COMPUTATION DONE BY THE COMPUTER DEPENDING ON RATE OF CLOSING/ OPENING

• SO ACCURATE ONLY WHEN HEADING DIRECTLY TOWARDS THE BEACON OR AWAY FROM THE BEACON

Period 103&104

WEATHER RADAR

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• USES AND

• LIMITATIONS

• Principle of Operation: Need, Wx Hazards

• Freq. 10 GHz i.e. Wavelength 3 cms

• Conical Beam: 3 to 5 Deg Beam Width, Tilt +/- 15 deg

• Cosec ² θ Beam: For Mapping

• Displays : B&W, Iso-Echo Contour, Colour Display- Green,Yellow, Red/Magenta, Ranges ( up to 150 ) and Azimuth Coverage

• Turbulence indication – close contours, hooks

• Avoidance – Below FL 200 by atleast 5NM add 5 NM for each 5000 Feet

• RELATIVE HEIGHT CALCULATION

• Mapping Display

• Cockpit Controls:

• Windshear Detection:

Period 105&106

ARSR / PAR

• PROCEDURE FOR USE

• LIMITATIONS

ARSR / PAR

• Procedure for Use

• Limitations

Period 107&108 SSR

(SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR)

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• USES AND

• MODES

Period 109&110

CRT(CATHODE RAY TUBE)

• CONSTRUCTION AND

• USES

CRT(Cathode Ray Tube)

• Construction and

• Uses

The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented by German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1897, is the display device that was long used in most computer displays, video monitors, televisions, radar displays andoscilloscopes.

The CRT developed from Philo Farnsworth's work was used in all television sets until the late 20th century and the advent of plasma screens, LCD TVs, DLP, OLED displays, and other technologies. As a result of CRT technology, television continues to be referred to as "the tube" well into the 21st century, even when referring to non-CRT sets.

A cathode ray tube technically refers to any electronic vacuum tube employing a focused beam of electrons. This Lesson will concentrate on the families of cathode ray tubes used as displays in the instruments used in aviation

• A cathode ray tube technically refers to any electronic vacuum tube employing a focused beam of electrons. This study will concentrate on the families of cathode ray tubes used as displays for aircraft instruments, radar, oscilloscopes etc.

CATHODE RAY TUBE EMPLOYING ELECTROMAGNETIC FOCUS AND DEFLECTION

• Cathode rays exist in the form of streams of high speed electrons emitted from the heating of a cathode inside a vacuum tube, at its rear end. The emitted electrons form a beam within the tube due to the voltage difference applied across the two electrodes (the CRT screen typically forms the anode). The beam is then perturbed (deflected), either by a magnetic or an electric field, to trace over ('scan') the inside surface of the screen (anode). The screen is covered with a phosphorescent coating (often transition metals or rare earth elements), which emits visible light when excited by the electrons.

• In television sets and modern computer monitors, and many other display systems , the entire front area of the tube is scanned systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by modulating the intensity of the electron beam with a received video signal (or another signal derived from it). In all modern TV sets, the beam is deflected with a magnetic field applied to the neck of the tube with a "magnetic yoke", a set of wire coils driven by electronic circuits. This usage of electromagnets to change the electron beam's original direction is known as "magnetic deflection".

• The source of the electron beam is the electron gun, which produces a stream of electrons through thermionic emission, and focuses it into a thin beam. The gun is located in the narrow, cylindrical neck at the extreme rear of a CRT and has electrical connecting pins, usually arranged in a circular configuration, extending from its end. These pins provide external connections to the cathode, to various grid elements in the gun used to focus and modulate the beam, and, in electrostatic deflection CRTs, to the deflection plates. Since the CRT is a hot-cathode device, these pins also provide connections to one or more filament heaters within the electron gun.

• When a CRT is operating, the heaters can often be seen glowing orange through the glass walls of the CRT neck. The need for these heaters to 'warm up' causes a delay between the time that a CRT is first turned on, and the time that a display becomes visible. In older tubes, this could take fifteen seconds or more; modern CRT displays have fast-starting circuits which produce an image within about two seconds, using either briefly increased heater current or elevated cathode voltage. Once the CRT has warmed up, the heaters stay on continuously. The electrodes are often covered with a black layer, a patented process used by all major CRT manufacturers to improve electron density.

Electron Gun

• The interior side of the phosphor layer is often covered with a layer of aluminium. The phosphors are usually poor electrical conductors, which leads to deposition of residual charge on the screen, effectively decreasing the energy of the impacting electrons due to electrostatic repulsion (an effect known as "sticking"). The aluminium layer is connected to the conductive layer inside the tube, and disposes of this charge. Additionally, it reflects the phosphor light in the desired direction (towards the viewer), and protects the phosphor from ion bombardment.

THE FUTURE OF CRT TECHNOLOGY In recent years technologies such as liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and other newer technologies have made CRT-based displays mostly obsolete for mainstream users. The new screens are less bulky, consume less power and have a larger display area; LCDs are becoming directly comparable in price to CRTs of the same display area. However, color CRTs still find adherents in computer gaming, due to their high refresh rates, and higher resolution, and in the printing and broadcasting industries as well as in the video and photoshopping community, for the CRT's greater color fidelity and contrast. Improvements in LCD technology increasingly alleviate these concerns and demand for CRT screens is falling rapidly . Aircraft Displays have almost entirely changed over to LCD Displays

Y- Plates

X-Plates

1st Anode 3rd Anode0 V

2nd

AnodeGrid

GraphiteCoating

Cathode

Heater

FluorescentScreen

CRT SCHEMATIC

-4 kV

- 2 kV

-3 kV

-4.02 kV(variable)

DeflectingPlates

• TYPES of CRT

• Electro static CRT (ESCRT)

• Electromagnetic CRT (EMCRT)

Raster Screen(USED IN TV Displays)

SAW TOOTH VOLTAGE

TIME BASE• LENIAR Time Base: Saw Tooth Voltage

• Circular Time Base: Sin And Cos Waves

• PPI :

0 25 50 75 100

X X

Y

Y

a b c d e f g h a

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

CIRCULAR TIME BASE

YX

Period 111&112

GPWS / EGPWS(GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM /ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY SYSTEM)

• PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION

GPWS / EGPWSGround Proximity Warning System /Enhanced Ground Proximity System

• Principle and Operation

Period 113

MLS(MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM)

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND

• USES

MLSMicrowave Landing System

• Principle of Operation and

• Uses

Period 114&115

DOPPLER

PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION FOR MEASUREMENT OF GROUND SPEED AND DRIFT

DOPPLER

• Principal of Operation for Measurement of Ground Speed and Drift

Period 116

OMEGA

• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND USES

OMEGA• Principle of Operation and Uses

Period 117&118

GNSS/GPS(GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM)

(GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND USES

GNSS/GPSGlobal Navigation Satellite System)

(Global Positioning System)

• Principle of Operation and Uses

Periods 119&120

FMS(FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND USES

FMS(Flight Management System)

• Principle of Operation and Uses

FMS(Flight Management System)

OVER THE YEARS RELATIVELY SIMPLE AUTOPILOT SYSTEMS HAVE GIVEN WAY TO COMPLEX SYSTEMS THAT AUTOMATICALLY CONTROL ALL ASPECTS OF AIRCRAFT FLIGHT IN TERMS OF LATERAL (LNAV ) AND VERTICAL ( VNAV) AND SPEED FROM IMM AFTER T/O TO THE END OF THE LANDING ROLL AND EVEN BEYOND THAT.

TO ACHIEVE THIS, INPUTS ARE NEEDED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES – NAV AIDS, BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL, AND THE ENGINE THRUST NEEDS TO BE MAINTAINED AT THE OPTIMUM LEVEL TO OBTAIN OPTIMAL ECONOMY.

ALL MODERN LARGE PASSENGER A/C USE A COMPUTERISED FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM WHICH AIMS AT REDUCING THE CREW WORKLOAD WHILE GIVING THE BEST POSSIBLE FUEL ECONOMY THUS ENSURING MINIMUM OPERATING COSTS.

TYPES

SIMPLE SYSTEM – MAY BE PURELY AS ADVISORY UNIT PROVIDING SETTINGS REQUIRED FOR OPTIMUM FUEL ECONOMY DURING CLIMB, CRUISE AND DESCENT FULLY INTERFACED SYSTEM - PROVIDES FULL CONTROL FOR LNAV AND

VNAV USING OPTIMUM THRUST SETTINGS TO GET THE BEST FUEL ECONOMY

CRUISECLIMB

T/O

DESCENT

LATERAL FLIGHT PLAN

VERTICAL FLIGHT PLAN

MAP

GOAROUND

ARRIVALPROCEDURESAPPR STAR

TRANS

ENROUTE PROCEDURES

DEPPROCEDURE

RWY SID

TRANS

RWY

RWY

TYPICAL FMS FLIGHT PROFILE

FlightManagement

Computer

MCDU

InertialReference

System

IntegratedDisplay System

ElectronicInterface

Unit

EGPWS

EFIS

DigitalClock

ModeControlPanel

FlightControl

Computer

ILSDMEPILOTSVORADF

Auto-throttleServo

Electronic Engine Controls

FuelQuantity

Indicators

Weight &Balance

Computer

Air Data

Computer

CentralMaint

Computer

FlightDirectorSystem

FMS DATA INTERFACING

A B C D E

F G H I J

K L M N O

P Q R S T

U V W X Y

Z

INITREF

RTE DEPARR

ATC VNAV

FIX

MENU

PREVPAGE

NEXTPAGE

LEGS HOLDFMC

COMM PROG EXEC

NAVRAD

SP DEL CLR/

BRT

ANNUNCIATORS

ANNUNCIATORS

. 0

1

+/-

2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

TITLE FIELD

LEFTFIELD

RIGHTFIELD

SCRATCH PAD

LINESELECT

LINESELECT

KEYS

KEYS

R-1 TO R-6

L-1 TO L-6

MCDU(Multipurpose Control and Display Unit)

USED BY THE PILOTS TO COMMUNICATE WITH THE FMS DISPLAY SCREEN TITLE FIELD LEFT & RIGHT HAND FIELDS SCRATCH PAD FUNCTION KEYS EXEC, NEXT PAGE, PREV PAGE, CLR, DEL MODE KEYS INIT REF, RTE, DEP ARR, ATC, VNAV, FIX, LEGS, HOLD, FMC COMM, PROG, MENU, NAV RAD LINE SELECT KEYS BRIGHTNESS CONTROL ANNUNCIATORS DSPL, FAIL, MSG, OFST ALPHA-NUMERIC KEYS INCLUDE 0 to 9, A to Z, SPACE, DEL, / (SLASH) & + / - KEYS

ENG OUT CRZ

C R Z A L T

FL 3 3 0M A X A L T

F L 1 8 7

E N G O U T S P E E D

2 3 4 K T

C O N N 1

9 1 . 9 %

Periods 121&122

TCAS(TRAFFIC COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM)

• BASIC KNOWLEDGE

TCASTRAFFIC COLLISION AVOIDANCE

SYSTEM• Basic Knowledge

Period 123&124BASIC KNOWLEDGE ON

• ACARS(AUTOMATED COMMUNICATION ADDRESSING AND REPORTING SYSTEM)

• SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

• EDP(ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING)

• DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

COMMUNICATIONS

• Achieved by Voice Modulation of radio waves• Future – Data Transfer • VLF TO HF BANDS ONLY USEFUL, beyond that line of

sight ranges only.• VLF –Needs very large aerials, so choice between MF and

HF. HF preferred because• Shorter aerials, less static, longer ranges with lesser power,

higher freq suffer less attenuation in ionosphere, efficiency can be increased by beaming

• Short Range Commn: VHF• Long Range Commn: HF

ACARS(Automated Communication

Addressing and Reporting System)

• Basic Knowledge

EDPElectronic Data Processing

• Basic Knowledge

DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Period 125&126

LORAN(LONG RANGE NAVIGATION SYSTEM) AND DECCA HYPERBOLIC SYSTEMS (OBSOLETE)

• PRINCIPLE

• BASIC KNOWLEDGE

• FREQUENCY BAND

LORAN(Long Range Navigation System)

• PRINCIPLE OF OP: Diff range by pulse Tech Master sends Coded Pulse Groups, Slave Delays, Retransmits.Time Diff Gives Hyper Line Indexing provides freedom fm sky wave interfer.

• FREQ BAND: LF (100 KHz)• RANGE : 2000 NM• ACCURACY : 1 NM or Better at 1000 NM. Less Accurate

Sky Wave Positioning• FAILURE IND : Chain Transmits Warning Sig• DISPLAY : OLD - CRT or Time Diff Read out • NEW – Computerised Read out of Lat/Long• COVERAGE : Pacific , N Atlantic, Mediterranean, Arabia• CHAYKA – Russian Equivalent of Loran-C

• INDICATIONS : Measures Position Within Lanes (1/2 Wavelengthof Comparison Freq. wide)

• LINE IDENTIFICATION: Once Per Minute, Ea slave Transmits Signal to Give 1f(Others off)

Compares with Master Giving 1f, Gives Decimals of Zone – Know which lane

• RANGE : 300 nm by Day, 200 nm by night • ACCURACY : 1 nm by Day(95%) , 5 nm by Night

within Range, Less Accurate Along Baseline• ERRORS : Height Error – Max Above Tx

Night Error- sky waves possible

beyond 200 nm

Lane Slip – May reselect wrong lane after

Ident , Max along Baseline

• V-CHAINS : OLD SYSTEM AS ABOVE, V1 OR V2 DEPENDS ON LANE IDENTIFICATION SPACING

• LOCKED OSCILLATOR: REDUCES LANE SLIP BY CONTINUING SIGNALS DURING IDENTIFICATION

• MULTIPULSE : i) SHORT PULSE DRIVESOSCILLATORS TO BE PHASE LOCKED TO TRANSMISSION

• ii) EXTRA 8.2f TRANSMISSIONS ALLOW COMPARISON AT 0.2f FOR ZONE IDENT Tiii)

SAT 1SAT 2

RANGE 2

RANGE 1

SPHERE OF POSN 1

SPHERE OF POSN 2

CIRCLE OF POSN

SAT 1SAT 2

RANGE 2

RANGE 1

SPHERE OF POSN 1

SPHERE OF POSN 2

CIRCLE OF POSN

SPHERE OF POSN 3

A

B

C

1/4

1/2

3/4

Closing Angle = 5 Deg

D

EF

Closing Angle = 10 Deg

• Q No Ans Q No Ans Q No Ans

• 1 (b) 11 21 (a)

• 2 (a) 12 (c) 22 (c)

• 3 (b) 13 (d) 23 (c)

• 4 (a) 14 (b) 24 (b)

• 5 (b) 15 (a) 25 (b)

• 6 (d) 16 (c) 26 (c)

• 7 (b) 17 (d) 27 (a)

• 8 (a) 18 (c) 28 (d)

• 9 (a) 19 (c) 29 (b)

• 10 153º 03’ W 20 (d) 30 (a)

• Q No Ans Q No Ans Q No Ans

• 31

• 32

• 33

• 34

• 35

• 36

• 37

• 38

• 39

• 40

Hdg 110

W/V

050/30

Along Tr Component

Across TR Component

60

3o

90

A

Bc

ACROSS TR COMPAC/AB = Sin 60 °Therefore AC = ABx Sin 60°

ALONG TR COMPBC/AB = Cos 60 °Therefore BC = AB x Cos 60 °

000

180

090270

030

060

120

150210

240

300

330

RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR

0 90 180 270 360/0 90 180 270

360

FUEL DISTRIBUTION

VENT TANK

VENT TANK

OUTERTANK

OUTERTANK

CENTERTANK INNER

TANKINNERTANK