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Fiction and Drama 24.1December 2014©National Cheng Kung University & Airiti Press Inc.

“Stay, Illusion!”: The Image of the Ghost in Three Japanese

Interpretations of Hamlet during the Meiji Period1

Yilin ChenAssociate Professor

Department of English Language, Literature and Linguistics

Providence University

ABSTRACTIn the late nineteenth century, Hamlet was appropriated, adapted and translated

into Japanese. The ghost in Hamlet was thus represented in at least three different styles during the Meiji period. Kanagaki Robun’s Kabuki adaptation, Hamlet with Japanese Woodblock Prints, presented King Hamlet as a fox demon in human form. In Yamagishi Kayô and Dohi Shunsho’s adaptation of Hamlet (1903), King Hamlet became a pathetic ghost, performed by the Shimpa advocate, Kawakami Otojiro. Tsubouchi Shôyô’s translation of Hamlet (1911) was staged in the Shingeki theatre (New Theatre), also known as the western realist theatre, and the ghost in this production was a wretched victim rather than a military commander.

These diverse images of King Hamlet are related to the sudden and radical adoption of western culture at this time in Japanese history. In the 1880s, Kawakami and his Shimpa practitioners began to learn from western theatre and apply this knowledge to the Kabuki stage. The Shimpa movement then gradually declined after Tsubouchi brought the Shinengeki to the Japanese stage. As the process of westernization deepened with the passage of time, it became necessary to find ways to integrate Japanese theatrical practices western staging.

1 In this article, Japanese names are given in the Japanese order, that is, family name followed by given name. A macron (^) over a vowel means that the pronunciation is lengthened.

Received: March 16, 2014; accepted: November 11, 2014.DOI: 10.6271/fd.2014.24.1.03

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Fiction and Drama 24.1December 2014

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This paper examines stage directions and devices of the selected productions to detail the ways in which King Hamlet was fashioned into a ghost that was familiar to the Japanese audience. It also demonstrates the extent to which theatrical reforms affected the representation of the ghost, and claims that a degree of appropriation is essential when translating the ghost from one culture to another.

KEYWORDSHamlet; theatrical reforms in the Meiji period; appropriation; adaptation;

cultural translation

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小說與戲劇 24.1 二○一四年十二月 ©國立成功大學暨華藝數位股份有限公司

「留下，幻覺！」：明治時期《哈姆雷特》詮釋中縈繞記憶之日本鬼魅

陳怡伶靜宜大學英國語文學系副教授

摘要

從十九世紀末以來，《哈姆雷特》被盜用、改編並轉譯成日文。在明治時

期，《哈姆雷特》中的鬼魂至少以三種不同形式搬演。仮名垣魯文（Kanagaki Robun）的歌舞伎改編《葉武列土倭錦繪》（Hamuretto Yamato Nishikie 1876），

將哈姆雷特父親描繪成是由狐妖幻化成人形的角色。在山岸荷葉（Yamagishi Kayô）和土肥春曙（Dohi Shunsho）改編的《哈姆雷特》（1903），川上音二

郎（Kawakami Otojiro）飾演哈姆雷特之父變成一個可憐的鬼魂。坪內逍遙

（Tsubouchi Shôyô）翻譯的《哈姆雷特》（1911）在以西方寫實劇場為模範

的新劇（Shingeki）舞台上演，哈姆雷特之父的鬼魂形象與其說像是軍中司

令官，毋寧說像是悲慘 187 的受害者。哈姆雷特老父的多元形象與積極吸收

西方文化有關。1880 年代，川上和他的新派實踐者開始效法西方劇場改良歌

舞伎舞台。新派運動在坪內將新劇介紹到日本舞台後，逐漸式微。當西化隨

著時間與日劇增，與西方搬演方式的妥協變成必要。本論文檢視選定作品中

的舞台指示和設備，詳述以何種方式將哈姆雷特老父塑造成日本觀眾所能感

同身受的鬼魂。同時，也證明戲劇改革影響鬼魂的扮演到何種程度，闡明將

鬼魂從某文化轉譯成另一文化時，某種程度的盜用是不可或缺的。

關鍵詞：�《哈姆雷特》、明治時期戲劇改革、盜用、改編、文化轉譯

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I am thy father’s spirit,Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night,And for the day confined to fast in fires,Till the foul crimes done in my days of natureAre burnt and purged away. (I.5.9-13)2

I. IntroductionGhosts are depicted in many different cultures, and the image of the ghost

emerges as a product of collective illusion that is unique to each culture. In Elizabethan literature, the ghost is often a hallucination, a devil, or a soul from Catholic purgatory (Siegel 21) in part due to unresolved conflicts between Puritans and Catholics. This conflict can be seen in Hamlet, as Horatio thinks the ghost of King Hamlet that his colleagues see is an illusion (I.1.30). However, the ghost confesses to Hamlet that he suffers in the infernal flame (I.5.5), the hell described in Catholic doctrine. Hamlet thus believes that the ghost has returned from purgatory, and commands him to seek revenge for his murder. However, he also expresses doubt, “The spirit that I have seen/ May be a devil, and the devil hath power/ T’assume a pleasing shape, yea, and perhaps out of my weakness and my melancholy,/ As he is very potent with such spirits,/ Abuse me to damn me” (II.2.587-92). The ghost’s story draws the audience’s attention to the varied Elizabethan views of ghosts (McCoy 123). For a Puritan, purgatory does not exist, and the ghost is a devil. For a Catholic, the ghost has to do penance in purgatory. Seeking revenge is not compatible with Catholic beliefs; therefore, the ghost’s demand for vengeance violates traditional Christian ethic. To the Elizabethan audience, the ghost could be taken as “a devil working to lure Hamlet into deadly sin” (Siegel 22). Even with the same culture, different religious beliefs lead to disagreements on the existence of ghosts. The question whether the ghosts exist in the universe has remained unsettled after four centuries. Therefore, the image of the ghosts has varied across time and cultures.

2 All quotations from Hamlet come from Barron’s Shakespeare Made Easy, ed. Alan Durband.

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Chen“Stay, Illusion!”

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Hamlet came to Japan during the process of modernization and westernization in the Meiji period (1868-1912). It was one of the first Shakespearean plays introduced to the Japanese, probably because of its themes in relation to the state and revenge. Revenge plays were popular in the Edo period (1603-1868). For instance, the Kabuki play, Kanadehon Chusingura, tells of a samurai, Oboshi Yuranosuke, who sees his lord’s ghost and decides to avenge him. The emphasis upon loyalty to the state and family in Kanadehon Chusingura is the same as that in Hamlet (Takahashi 102).

Before Hamlet came to Japan, there was also a famous female ghost, Oiwa, in the Kabuki play, Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan (1825). Both King Hamlet and Oiwa are poisoned and seek revenge on their murderers. Kevin Wetmore observes that King Hamlet appears as a powerful warrior while Oiwa looks hideous, with a disfigured face to terrify her murderer (84-85).

The ghosts in these two plays are thus very different, and these differences confirm that the embodiment of a ghost reflects distinct attitudes towards the afterlife in the Elizabethan and Japanese cultures.

The representation of the ghost of King Hamlet on the Japanese stage materialized the conceptualization of supernatural spirits in Japanese folktale, literature, and performance. This article examines three representations of the ghost in Hamlet during the Meiji period: Kanagaki Robun’s Kabuki adaptation, Hamlet with Japanese Woodblock Prints, Yamagishi Kayô and Dohi Shunsho’s adaptation of Hamlet (1903), and Tsubouchi Shôyô’s translation of Hamlet (1911). It looks into reviews, promptbooks, and critical opinions to analyze the extent to which different adaptations and translations fashioned the ghost in several notable performances in the early twentieth century.

This paper argues that Kanagaki’s Kabuki rendering should be taken as an appropriation, while Yamagishi and Dohi’s Seigeki version as an adaptation, and Tsubouchi’s Shingeki production is a cultural translation. In a general sense, both Kabuki and Seigeki plays of Hamlet are adaptations because a genre shift is involved (Sanders 18). Shingeki, New Drama, is Japanese retelling of spoken drama in Western realist theatre during the late 19th century through to the early

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20th century while Kabuki is a Japanese practice of dance drama. According to Julie Sanders, “both the practice and the effects of adaptation and appropriation intersect and iinterrelate, … [yet] appropriation frequently affects a more decisive journey away from the informing source into a wholly new cultural product and domain” (26). Kanagaki’s Kabuki Hamlet falls into the category of appropriation because the text is apparently rewritten to make reference to the fox demon in Japanese mythology and the ghost is contextualized to fit into the Kabuki theatrical conventions. On the other hand, Yamagishi and Dohi’s Seigeki Hamlet features a significant theatrical reform in Japan. This play attempts to adapt the original text into the Japanese settings. It also demonstrates a preliminary transition from the reformed Kabuki style, shimpa to an imitation of the western spoken drama.

Unlike the other two versions examined in this paper, Tsubouchi’s Shingeki Hamlet aims to be a faithful translation. It was performed in the style of western spoken drama, and at the same time, it incorporated cultural references to the Buddhist hell in order to make Shakespeare relevant to the Japanese audience. Tsubouchi’s intention to give the audience an authentic experience of the western theatre was to some extent compromised by adding the Japanese Buddhist concept of hell. The image of the ghost in this production was also a hybrid creature derived from both the western and Japanese conventional portrayals of a deceased person who appears in visible form. Tsubouchi’s Shingeki Hamlet demonstrated the practice of faithful translation which deals with the cultural differences between the source and target language.

The Meiji period, was a time in which Japan began the process of learning and catching up with western civilization. By studying the three Meiji theatrical versions of Hamlet, this paper explores the changing images of the ghost during this period. It also offers a new perspective to look at the significance of intercultural exchanges because the ways in which the ghost is represented to engage the audience is highly correlated to the Japanese understanding of western ideology, religion, and theatre. Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the terms, appropriation, adaptation and cultural translation in reality sometimes, this paper does so based on the degree to which the three plays are close to the

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original. Although these plays may be considered as appropriations, adaptations or cultural translations to varying degrees, they all testify to an effort to translate the Elizabethan text into a Japanese context.

II. Image of the Ghost in HamletThe ghost appears in Act I Scene 1, Act I Scene 4, Act I Scene 5 and Act

III Scene 4 in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Each time the text gives further details of its appearance and movements as well as the characters’ conflicting view of the ghost. This play also reflects the religious conflicts in the Elizabethan period. In the opening, Horatio asks, “What, has this thing (emphasis added) appeared again tonight?” (I.1.28). His inquiry implies his doubts about the existence of the supernatural and brings up the debate over the dogma of purgatory between Catholicism and Puritanism. Horatio, as the Puritan who does not believe in ghosts, calls the ghost an illusion and demands the ghost to speak to him more than three times (I.1.141-51). Later, the stage direction reads, “the cock crows” (I.1.153). The ghost is probably attempting to leave and Horatio commands Marcellus to attack the ghost if it does not stop. However, when Horatio recalls the event in Act I Scene 2, he conveniently forgets to mention his insolence toward, and instead insists that the ghost’s expression is sadder than angry (I.2.244). Horatio thus tries to cover up his offense against the ghost, and his skepticism toward it changes after taking note of the ghost’s being startled, “like a guilty thing (I.1.165), on hearing the cockcrow. He is now inclined to believe in the existence of the ghost, as well as Purgatory. According to Catholicism, the manifestation of King Hamlet is regarded as a wandering ghost from hell or a demon. Horatio tends to believe the “thing” is the ghost.

Hamlet also wonders whether the ghost is really his late father’s soul, who has come to give him a message. He considers his father’s ghost in arms as an omen (I.2.274-77) after listening to Horatio’s report. When Hamlet first witnesses the ghost in Act I Scene 4, he appeals to “angels and ministers of grace” (I.4.39) for help. Since the angels of Christianity were not familiar to Japanese audiences, in

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early adaptations, the section is often culturally translated into Buddhism. When Hamlet sees the ghost of his father, he addresses it as follows:

thou, dead corse, again in complete steelRevisit'st thus the glimpses of the moon,Making night hideous; and we fools of natureSo horridly to shake our dispositionWith thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls?Say, why is this? wherefore? what should we do?Ghost beckons HAMLET (I.4.56-61)

Like Horatio, Hamlet questions the ghost’s intentions. The ghost does not answer, but gestures Hamlet to follow it. This is a theatrical moment because it is the very first time Hamlet sees his deceased father in visible form. It is arguable whether or not the Japanese could identify with Hamlet’s fear or doubts about the manifestation of the deceased, because Buddhism believes in ghosts and rebirth and the Shinto faith postulates an everlasting human spirit. Consequently, it is important to explore to what extent the Japanese adaptations transform the Christian ghost into an appropriate equivalence in the local religious beliefs.

When the play begins, Bernardo and Marcellus have seen the ghost twice. They are frightened by the “dreaded sight” (I.1.32) and Horatio believes the ghost is merely their illusion. When the ghost comes, Bernardo cries out that the ghost looks “like the king that's dead” (I.1.50). Horatio agrees with Bernardo that it is very much like the late King Hamlet, and admits that “it harrows me with fear and wonder” (I.1.53). Marcellus encourages Horatio to speak to it, and he scolds the ghost:

What art thou that usurp’st this time of night. Together with that fair and warlike formTo which the majesty of buried DenmarkDid sometimes march? By heaven, I charge thee speak. (I.1.56-59)

Through Horatio’s words, the image of the ghost becomes vivid. The ghost is dressed in the same armor as King Hamlet wore when he went to war against the

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ambitious King of Norway. While it is impossible to determine whether the ghost was clad in medieval or Renaissance armor on the Elizabethan stage, Horatio’s descriptions are useful for costume design. A photo of Basil Potter as the ghost, taken in the nineteenth century, shows the actor clad in armor, with a thick and heavy beard (see Fig. 1). His armor seems to be a variation of the Gaelic style with a scepter in his right hand.

The image of the ghost becomes clearer based on Horatio’s response to Hamlet’s inquiries in Act I Scene 2. According to Horatio, the ghost is “Armed” (I.2.207) and his visor is up. Horatio notices that the ghost looks “more in sorrow than in anger” (I.2.231). His face has a “very pale” (I.2.245) complexion with a “grizzled” (I.2.256) and “sable silvered” (I.2.258) beard. These clues are

Fig. 1. Basil Potter as the Ghost in Hamlet (Beau).

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instrumental to developing the image of the ghost that appears on stage. When

Horatio gives an account of his first encounter with the ghost, he describes its

temperament and movements. Interestingly, however, he does not mention that the

ghost “stalks away” (I.1.61) because of his insult. Instead, he just reports to Hamlet

that the ghost appears and walks solemnly at a slow pace. When Hamlet asks

whether he spoke to the ghost or not, Horatio cleverly responds:

My lord, I did,

But answer made it none. Yet once methought

It lifted up its head and did address

Itself to motion like as it would speak.

But even then the morning cock crew loud,

And at the sound it shrunk in haste away

And vanished from our sight. (I.2.223-29)

How does the ghost vanish from Horatio’s sight? Horatio’s testimony leaves it

up to the audience’s imagination; however, the magic has to be produced by means

of stagecraft in Act I Scene 1. Marcellus regrets striking the ghost with his partisan

(a long stick with a spike on the end), and observes that the ghost is regal, and

“as the air, invulnerable” (I.1.162). As to how to create an air-like ghost on stage,

it depends primarily on the technical equipments that is available for theatrical

effects. For example, when Marcellus prepares to attack the ghost, Barnado and

Horatio both yell out, “’Tis here” (I.1.157-58). Where does the ghost go? How

does it move? Is it on the ground or in the air? Marcellus misses it perhaps because

Barnado points in one direction and Horatio in the other. Although this is a brief

scene, it builds an intense and suspenseful moment due to the ghost’s untraceable

path. As noted earlier in this paper, the image of the ghost is culturally constructed.

Therefore, to observe the ways in which the ghost is represented, appears and

moves is essential to understanding its cultural reference to a specific time period.

The following sections will thus examine the representations of the ghost and

theatrical effects in various Japanese adaptations in the Meiji period.

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III. Appropriation: Kanagaki Robun’s Kabuki HamletThe Japanese have a long tradition of ghost stories. In the Edo period, there was

a popular game called Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai (A Gathering of One Hundred Supernatural Tales), in which people gathered by candlelight on summer evenings and then took turns telling a ghost story. After the last story was finished, a candle was extinguished and a ghost was said to appear. Famous ghost stories were also collected and published. These stories inspired famous woodblock print artists to produce their ghost series, and the Kabuki stage also featured ghosts coming back from the afterlife to seek revenge. The most famous of these ghosts on the Kabuki stage is Oiwa, created in 1825, in Tōkaido Yotsuya Kaidan (Ghost Stories at Yotsuya).

There are many correspondences between Oiwa and King Hamlet, with the most obvious being that they both return from the hell to seek vengeance. Moreover, in comparing King Hamlet and Oiwa, Kevin J. Wetmore Jr. notes that they have both been poisoned, but their appearances are very different. King Hamlet appears as a powerful warrior king while Oiwa looks hideous and her face is disfigured to terrify her murderer. In Ichyūsai Kuniyoshi’s woodblock print, which depicts a performance by Onoe Kikugorō III at the Ichimura Theater in 1833, Oiwa is presented as a typical Japanese onryō. The vengeful ghost is dressed in the white burial kimono that her corpse would have worn (see Fig. 2). One of her eyes droops due to poison, and h er long, ragged hair reaches the floor. As the typical Japanese ghost, Oiwa is footless, floating in the air, and she is accompanied a ghostly light.

The rendering of the ghost in Japanese adaptations of Hamlet in the Meiji period demonstrates the degree to which assimilation of western traditions and cultures has taken place. In 1875 (Meiji 9), Kanagaki Robun began to adapt Hamlet into Seiyô Kabuki Hamuretto (Western Kabuki ‘Hamlet’) for the Hiragana Eiri Shinbun (Hitagana Illustrated News). The adaptation, left unfinished, was completed a decade later under the title of Hamuretto Yamato Nishikie (‘Hamlet’ with Japanese Coloured Woodblock Prints) in 1886 (Meiji 19). Kanagaki’s Hamlet was “conceived as a totally traditional Kabuki piece” (Takahashi 102), and was

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never performed until the late twentieth century. However, an illustration of

Kanagaki’s adaptation (see Fig. 3) shows Hamlet’s encounter with his father’s

ghost. In the illustration, King Hamlet is surrounded by a ghostly light, called

jack-o-lantern or hitodama in Japanese. He is dressed in a pattered costume with a

samurai hairstyle. His facial expression is angry, echoing the fl oating fl ame next to

him. The shape of his hitodama, which resembles an oriental dragon, also suggests

his supreme identity. Infl uenced by Chinese culture, the dragon also represents the

emperor in several Japanese myths. Consequently, Japanese readers can recognize

the ghost’s unusual identity and identify with the ghost’s anger through the

elaborately depicted hitodama.

Fig. 2. Ichyūsai Kuniyoshi, illus. A Woodblock Print of Onoe Kikugorō III as Oiwa in Irohagana Yotsuya Kaidan. 1833. Lyon Collection. Lyon Collection. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://woodblockprints.org/index.php/Detail/Object/Show/object_id/606>

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In order to turn the ghost of King Hamlet into an image familiar to Japanese audiences, references to Christian beliefs are completely removed in Kanagaki’s adaptation. The ghost is reshaped and fashioned into a supernatural creature, kitsune, a mythical fox demon. It is believed a fox that lives a thousand years will turn into a demon who can assume human shape. The shape-shifting occurs in Act I Scene 3 when Hamura, equivalent to Hamlet, fi rst meets his father’s ghost. Hamura is told a wild fox demon has played a trick on people, and at midnight the ghost of King Hamlet appears beside a gutter. He comes with his three subordinates to see the demon. As Hamura arrives, the stage directions indicate that

(The sound of rumbling occurs, the ghost shows up, and Hamura is very surprised.)

HAMURA. Indeed, it is the appearance of Father King, but it should be the fox which grieves for my Father’s death and transforms into the shape of Father. I will catch it.

Fig. 3. Kanagaki Robun, “The Ghost.” Woodblock Print Tokyo Eiri Shinbun 19 Oct. 1886.

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[HAMURA]. grabs his sword. The ghost disappears suddenly, and reappears. He beckons and Hamura is absent-minded.

HAMURA. It is the appearance of my Father. He beckons me. No matter where he goes, I have to follow him.

[HAMURA]. wants to follow [the ghost], but Toranaga stops him.TORANAGA. Your Highness, be cautious. We all see the appearance of

the late King, but...MURASEI. Unable to distinguish the genuine or the false… Your well

respected…WATANABE. Do not travel secretly in the middle of the night.THREE [SUBORDINATES]. Don’t go!HAMURA. Ah, let me go. Let me go!(Hamura waves his hands furiously. In order not to separate from each

other, three [subordinates] follows closely. Following after Hamura, they all exit. The stage light dims. The light is on again. Hamura kneels in front of the dead Father.)3 (Kanagaki 19)

However, these stage directions offer little information about the chase, and it is thus ambiguous by what means the ghost shows up and how the dead father ends up on the floor. Kabuki theatres have many devices, such as revolving stage, trapdoors, and overhead rigging, for surprise entrances and exits. For instance, the Japanese Kabuki performance, Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees), which premiered in 1748, has a fox with the magical power to disguise itself as a faithful retainer, Satô Tadanobu. Productions with a fox demon often rely on the theatre’s rigging to simulate flying away. By employing trapdoors and other stage tricks, the actor transforms from Tadanobu into his real form, as a fox. Because of these theatrical devices, it is possible to present the transformation of the fox demon in the Kabuki version of Hamlet. Furthermore, a trapdoor can enable the samurai ghost to appear and disappear in the blink of an eye, while a change in lighting makes the scene of Hamura kneeling in front of the samurai ghost a dramatic tableau.

3 All Japanese text is translated into English by the author unless mentioned otherwise.

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Japanese audiences were familiar with the concept of a vengeful ghost from traditional Japanese theatre. Due to the popularity of ghost plays (kaidan mono) in the nineteenth century, many theatrical devices were developed to assist in presenting such ghosts. For instance, Tomomori in Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura was often dressed in white as the stereotypical Japanese angry ghost. The samurai ghost in Kanagaki’s Hamlet was presented with reference to the warrior ghosts in Kabuki and Noh performances. That Kanagaki turned the ghost of King Hamlet into a fox demon, which was capable of transforming into a human being, is a good example of cultural appropriation in this context. The name of Hamlet was also translated into Japanese kanji, as Hamura. Besides, the ghost also states that it will participate in act of vengeance when Hamura asks his subordinates to swear upon their swords in the Scene 3:

(The clank of metal sound. The [subordinates’] voices of swearing not to reveal the secret. The four people swear upon the swords, saying “I swear”.)

KANEYORI. I swear.(Only voice is heard. All listen with strained ears. They look puzzled and

wonder where Kaneyori’s voice comes from.)TORANAGA. What is this voice?MURASEI. It’s the late King’s voice.WATANABE. He wants to join our alliance.HAMURA. Thank you. I really appreciate your loyalty.MESSENGER. I understand the situation. I should report this news to the

Lord.(The messenger is about to leave. Hamura grabs him and throws him on the

floor. He is about to get up, but Hamura draws his sword and kills him.)THREE [SUBORDINATES]. Well done!(All shake hands and swear to take revenge. The ghost of the late king

appears, happily seeing this scene. Curtain falls.) (Kanagaki 19-20)According to Kevin J. Wetmore’s analysis, the Japanese ghost seems more active than its western counterpart. Oiwa, one of the most renowned Japanese ghosts,

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takes the initiative in avenging her death, and has to be “appeased, rehearsed, and integrated into performance” (Wetmore 87). It is evident that the ghost of King Hamlet has to rely on his son for vengeance. However, in Kanagaki’s adaptation, the ghost of King Hamlet is no longer a passive character. Watanabe suggests that the ghost wants to join their alliance, and later the stage directions say the ghost shows up and watches his son and subordinates to swear to seek revenge. The ghost’s presence reveals his desire to participate in such actions. The ghost in Kanagaki’s adaptation confirms Wetmore’s observations on this issue.

Kabuki theatre had much in common with Elizabethan theatre in terms of architecture and stage devices. Kanagaki’s Kabuki appropriation of Hamlet was never performed during the Meiji period. However, based on the clues in the text and stage directions in Kanagaki’s Hamlet, it is possible to infer what stagecraft and devices might be used to create the mystery as to how the ghost appeared and disappeared on stage. Besides, the ghost shows up in the scene when characters swear to take revenge in Kanagaki’s Hamlet and because of the ghost’s presence, the Japanese adaptation was more active than the English original. His adaptation also implied that one fundamental difference in the representation of the ghost in the Japanese plays is the power of taking the initiative. In order to fit into the Kabuki format and formula, Kanagaki’s creative work was destined to be an appropriation rather than an adaptation.

IV. Adaptation: The Ghost in Kawakami Otojirô’s Seigeki HamletThe process of acculturation proceeded rapidly during the Meiji period as a

result of frequent cultural exchanges and contacts with western cultures. In the 1880s, related reforms began in the Japanese theatre. The traditional Kabuki performance began to adopt the natural acting and realistic settings of the western stage. The reformed Kabuki, known as Shimpa, was popular in the first decade of the twentieth century. A famous Shimpa director, Kawakami Otojirô was the director of Yamagishi Kayô and Dohi Shunsho’s adaptation of Hamlet (1903). This adaptation premiered in 1903, staged by Kawakami’s company in Hongô-za, and it was later performed in Meiji-za in 1904. Kawakami was renowned for his

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experiments with western realist theatre, such as featuring actresses on a western-style proscenium stage, reducing the role of singing and dance, and incorporating western settings and lighting effects (Tierney 519-20). He travelled to London and witnessed Henry Irving’s portrayal of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice in 1899. Inspired by the performances he saw in the west, Kawakami intended to bring such acting to Japan. He called his Shakespearean adaptations Seigeki, straight drama, by which he meant spoken drama.

Compared with Kanagaki’s Kabuki Hamlet, Yamagishi and Dohi’s translation is closer to Shakespeare’s original play because they paid great attention to the soliloquies. Their play was first intended to feature all four of Hamlet’s soliloquies, but the last one “was finally dropped, despite having been incorporated in the script” (Ashizu n.p.). However, Kawakami set the tone for Yamagishi and Dohi’s play in the contemporary Meiji period. Its dialogue, settings, plot, costumes, and music all suggested a departure from the original work. Although the distinction between an appropriation and an adaptation is sometimes ambiguous, this paper contends that the representation of Kawakami’s Seigeki Hamlet was an adaptation. It was not only adapted into Japanese settings, but also performed in a new genre, badly combining the western natural acting and Kabuki theatrical conventions. Despite these changes, this adaptation remained faithful to the original plot and text with no reference to a fox demon, as in Kanagaki’s Kabuki Hamlet.

According to the cast list, Hamura Toshimaru (Hamlet) was played by Fujisawa Asajirô, Horio Orie (Ophelia) by Sada-Yakko, and Claudius and the ghost by Kawakami Otojirô. All theh characters were given Japanese names. Hamlet became a young graduate of Kyoto University, and Fujisawa’s Hamura wore aJapanese kimono most of the time. In contrast to Hamura, Kawakami’s ghost was dressed in a western-style military uniform, indicating the spread of westernization in the Meiji period. The first scene was set in the memorial library of the Hamura family, not outside the castle at Elsinore. One contemporary critic, Seriei, saw Kawakami’s adaptation in Hogô-za theatre and complained that when the ghost appeared, the scene was not scary at all because actors continued using the same flat tone to

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deliver their lines (39). This review reveals that the Japanese audiences expected to be scared when watching a ghost scene.

Kawakami’s adaptation featured the ghost as a miserable character. In Hongô-za theatre, Kawakami was dressed in modern military uniform (Fig. 4). Kawakami’s ghost followed the Japanese tradition of being rather horrible, and his portrayal impressed Yamagishi because of the sorrow Kawakami conveyed in Hamlet’s first encounter with the ghost. Yamagishi compared the ghost played by Kawakami with that by Yamamoto, and he stated:

The ghost [played by Kawakami] stood still in his early performances; after he performed several days, his right hand began to swing and his facial expressions showed differences. When playing the ghost, Yamamoto contemplated awhile, waved hands awhile, and his body shivered drastically. [The audience] was unable to tell whether it was a ghost or the human being. The role should be better played still as Kawakami did to convey a sense of horror. (31)

Yamagishi considered Kawakami’s portrayal of the ghost in Hongô-za theatre as one of the best renderings he had seen, and his review again confirmed the Japanese audiences’ expectations for a ghost scene. Furthermore, Seriei observed “the costume that Kawakami’s ghost wore was too yellow. His left hand covered the eyes with tears, but I believe the shivering shoulders would be enough to convey his sorrow” (41). According to the critics’ descriptions of Kawakami’s acting, it appeared to be naturalistic, and both praised his ability to highlight the necessary horror and sorrow in the ghost scene. Besides Kawakami’s acting, the stage sets and lighting also made great a contribution to creating a horrifying ghost to meet the demands of a Japanese audience.

In order to develop an appropriate atmosphere for the ghost scene, the famous artist, Yamamoto Hôsui designed elaborate hand-painted sets for Kawakami’s Hamlet. He was also in charge of lighting, but was not satisfied with his creation of the hitodama in the graveyard. This ghostly light was one of the most important elements seen with Japanese ghosts. Due to the limitations of the Japanese theatre, Yamamoto was unable to light the stage from the front. He complained,

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Trees looked unrealistic. The ghost achieved the way I imagined from the fi fth day onward. However, I was upset on the third fl oor because it did not proceed as I expected…. The hitodama in this scene was different from the flame produced by the alcohol burner. [I used] chemical to generate the sparks during the middle of the scene.” (Yamamoto 31)

Yamamoto’s statement revealed that the hitodama effect was often used in the Kabuki theatre as an important prop in a ghost scene. Seriei noted that “the hitodama was lit three or four times today, but I think the terrifying atmosphere could be done by [lighting it] twice at most” (41). The designer cared so much about the hitodama because he knew how important the ghostly light was to Japanese audiences. Yamamoto’s concern proved to be valid because the critics did comment on the representation of hitodama in the performance.

When Kawakami attempted to turn the western ghost into something accessible to Japanese audiences, a process of intercultural integration and hybridization seemed inevitable. For instance, Kawakami played Hamura at the Naka-za in November 1904. In this production, Hamura was dressed in a cycling outfit,

Fig. 4. “Kawakami Otojirô played the ghost of King Hamlet in Hamlet.” Enter Ghost. Enter Ghost. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://elsinore.ucsc.edu/Ghost/ghostHistory.html>

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riding a bike in the courtyard (Yamagishi 32). Later, Hamura wore a tuxedo with a dagger hidden in his right hand while confronting his mother in the chamber scene. When the ghost appeared before his eyes, he dropped to his knees and kowtowed (Yamagishi 32-33). Despite the western costumes, Hamura behaved in a Japanese manner, worshiping his deceased ancestor. It is unclear whether the ghost at the Naka-za theatre wore the same modern military uniform as that in Hongô-za theatre, but a sense of modernization was obvious in both productions. However, by incorporating the Japanese tradition of ancestor worship, the ghost scene was more likely to resonate with the audience.

Kawakami’s adaptation showed the assimilation to the western cultures that occured during the Meiji period. Western fashion also dominated Kawakami’s performances, but although most of the characters wore western clothes, Japanese ethics and values were incorporated into the performance. Nonetheless, it is not clear whether the contents that were referred to Christianity were modified or adapted to represent Buddhist or Japanese religious beliefs. However, a reference to Christianity can be seen in the scene when Hamura’s uncle drops to one knee to pray for forgiveness (Seriei 45), which is in contrast to Hamura’s bow to the ghost, a far more Japanese action. The use of both Christian and Japanese religious rituals and actions thus also reflects Kawakami’s negotiations with these two cultures.

A similar cultural compromise is also demonstrated in the combination of western naturalistic acting and traditional Japanese stylized acting. Fujisawa Asajiro, the actor who played Hamura confessed that he tried to portray the character as a Japanese Duke, a character that his contemporary audiences could identify with. However, the noble class had almost disappeared in Japan in the early twentieth century, and the audience had difficulty to relate to the Duke’s position and feelings (Fujisawa 35). Fujisawa Asajiro was aware of Kawakami’s ambition to incorporate western acting method into the performance. Consequently, when he portrayed Hamura’s fake insanity, he avoided acting in an exaggerated, slapstick manner, as in Kyôgen (38).4 Unfortunately, Fujisawa’s acting was not as

4 The kyôgen was a brief scene performed during the intermission of Noh acts. Although the performance was accompanied by the music of different instruments, it emphasized on the dialogue and action rather than the music or dance.

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natural as Kawakami’s, as he still followed Kabuki style and sometimes assumed a frozen pose (Ashizu n.p.). The incoherent acting styles in Kawakami’s Seigeki Hamlet demonstrated an awkward transition from traditional Japanese theatre to western spoken drama.

Kawakami’s Seigeki Hamlet revealed the difficulties in staging Hamlet in aJapanese context. The sense of foreignness remained apparent not only because of the western elements in Japanese settings, but also because of the change from the stylized acting in Kabuki theatre to the naturalistic acting in western theatre. In the midst of acculturation, such differences were forced to blend into a new possibility; in Kawakami’s adaption, there appeared a new imagination of the Japanese ghost, a wretched soldier in modern military uniform lit by ghostly light in the Hongô-za theatre.

As westernization spread over Japan, the first complete translation of Hamlet was done by Tozawa Koya and Asano Hyôkyo in 1905, although was never staged. Yamagishi and Dohi’s Hamlet remained the most frequently used text in 1907, and it was staged at Misaki-za in April, at Masago-za in August, and at Meiji-za in October. Tsubouchi Shôyô’s first edition of Hamlet then came out in November. He attempted to undertake a faithful translation of Hamlet in 1902 and he finally finished it in 1909. Given that the ghost can be seen s as reflecting the beliefs of the related culture, the process of translating the Christian ghost into a Japanese context became very challenging.

V. Cultural Translation: The Ghost in Tsubouchi Shôyô’s Shingeki Hamlet

Tsubouchi Shôyô’s translation of Hamlet, published partially in 1902, was first staged at the Hongô-za in 1907. His complete version, finished in 1909, was performed at the Imperial Theatre in 1911. Both Tsubouchi’s text and production illustrated his efforts to translate Christianity and the image of the Christian ghost into something compatible with Japanese culture in the early twentieth century. Japanese Buddhism also believes in ghosts and hell, and when translating Hamlet’s agony in Act III Scene 1, Tsubouchi created “a religious, if not specifically

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Christian, atmosphere by employing the Buddhist expression kataku [sic] (the world of sufferings)” (Rycroft 202). Tsubouchi’s decision to insert the Japanese idea of the underworld into the ghost scene was a successful practice of cultural translation, and he made use of Buddhist vocabulary to compensate for the lack of full equivalence between Christian and Japanese religious terms.

In Act I Scene 5, the ghost speaks to Hamlet for the first time, and urges him to listen carefully because he will soon return “to sulphurous and tormenting flames” (I.5.2). In reference to the flame of torturous hell, Tsubouchi uses the compound word, Abishônetsu, derived from two Buddhist terms, Abikyokan (cries of agony) and Shônetsu jigoku (a burning hell). Abi is the lowest part of Buddhist hell, where the ghosts endure their ultimate suffering. The Buddhist term Abishônetsu conveys the despair and torture that the ghost might experience, but it fails to include the stench mentioned in the original text. While Tsubouchi’s translation may not be the most accurate one, it gives “something of the allusiveness and density of meaning of the original” (Rycroft 223) with regard to the ghost’s suffering. Furthermore, the Buddhist terminology used ub tgus versio of the text becomes an important medium for the audience to identify with the purgatory that the ghost is suffering.

As for the production, Tsubouchi adhered to the aesthetics of western realistic drama, and was a key essential advocate of Shingeki, also known as spoken drama. Shingeki was modern western-style theatre, taking on features such as western costumes, sets and naturalistic acting. Hisaim to reprsent an authentic version of western theatre also was also seen in his tolerance of foreignness as all foreign names were kept and written in katakana. In the 1911 production, the ghost of King Hamlet wore a long veil and carried a scepter (Fig. 5). The ghost’s face was covered by a long veil, reminding the audience of the white gown worn by traditional Japanese ghosts. The ghost’s torso was armored; however, the lower part of its body was clad in white, making it look footless. Under the veil, the ghost’s face was almost invisible, with some silver armor partially noticeable. The wronged ghosts in Japanese revenge plays were often represented as wretched victims. Interestingly, even in this relatively authentic version of Shakespeare (Minami 78),

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there seemed to be a tendency to transform King Hamlet into a ghost that met the expectations of Japanese audiences.

Tsubouchi’s production in the Imperial Theatre seemed to have been revived and modifi ed from the performance in Hongô-za in November, 1907. The settings in which Hamlet encountered the ghost were reminiscent of a European castle. Kayôsei recalled the costumes and scenery when Hamlet meets the ghost in the performance, as follows:

The props were appointed by Dr. Tsubouchi. Close to the stage right, there stood the rock foundation of the gate. The backdrop depicted a wave washing on the shore to create the atmosphere of the North Sea; however, the props came with a simple design with a white color. Consequently, it was a pity that the silver armor of the ghost was not conspicuous. In general, standing on the rectangular Japanese stage where the depth was less than the width, neither Prince Hamlet nor the ghost could give a sense of resolution in their speeches. Shunsho’s Prince

Fig. 5. The Ghost in Tsubouchi Shôyô’s Hamlet. 1911. Photograph. Waseda U Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Tokyo.

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Hamlet used enthusiastic tone to deliver famous speeches and avoided the Kabuki style of speaking. His delivery came directly from the heart. It was obvious to see the outcome of his endeavor and practices. My sincere congratulations went to him. (Kayô 87)

According to this review, the settings and props were prepared in western fashion. Actors also endeavored to speak in ways that seemed appropriate to convey the translated texts. However, the conspicuous veil on the ghost was ill-suited to the costumes made in the western style, although Tsubouchi’s insistence that the ghost be covered by the veil and dressed in white signify his uncompromising commitment to these emblems of Japanese ghosts.

Traditional Japanese theatre emphasizes music, dance and singing in performance over speeches while shingeki emphasizes literary values and realism. Tsubouchi’s Hamlet, as the first shigeki production of Shakespeare, explores the transition from codified to natural acting. Tsubouchi noted that while it is difficult for a Japanese actor to play a Caucasian; he was confident that Dohi [who played Hamlet] can master intonation and make use of different actions, facial expressions, and voices to give kaleidoscopic variations in his performance (29). Tsubouchi’s intention was to reproduce a very close copy of western theatre. In other words, actors who portray westerners have to be recognizably Caucasians. Their facial expressions, gestures, and movements must evoke Westen-ness. Ryuta Minami proposes that actors developed “styled realistic” acting, helping the audience to accept the “Western-ness” created in Shingeki performance (78). Negotiations between the Japanese and western theatrical traditions can be seen in Tsubouchi’s Shigeki Hamlet. It must be also noted that the ways a ghost moves and speaks in Shingeki performance must be different from those seen in Kabuki theatre. In this case, the image of the ghost is reformed, westernized, and recreated on the Japanese stage.

When Hamlet first sees the ghost, he appeals to the Christian God’s angels and messengers for protection (I.4.43). However, in Tsubouchi’s translation, the Christian prayer becomes a call for Buddha, angels and all deities. Tsubouchi’s first edition of Hamlet begins with Act I Scene 4, in which Hamlet meets Horatio and Marcellus on the castle tower. Rôrôsei remembered the scene as follows:

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Horatio sees the ghost come from the left side. He points it and says, “ah, Prince, that ... look over there!” Hamlet looks to his left with surprise. He puts the coat on his shoulder, advances two or three steps to his left and retreats two or three steps. He bows and bends his knee slightly, holding a sword in his left hand and lifting the open palm of his right hand up in the air. Within a breath, he says “Blessed by Namo Tenshi Shoten Zenshin.” (18-19)

Namo is supposed to be an abridged version of Namo Buddhaya, signifying homage to the awakened ones. Tenshi is the Japanese word for angel, and Shoten Zenshin means all deities. The gods that Hamlet summons transcend all religions, including Buddhism and Christianity. Rôrôsei’s descriptions focus on the ways Hamlet moves when he sees the ghost because, after all, Hamlet is the protagonist in this play. From his observations, Hamlet intends to genuflect as in Catholic worship, although his prayers are not necessarily specific to Christianity. The ghost remains still when Hamlet speaks to it, but then, it beckons him, slowly leaving to the left (Rôrôsei 19). Horatio then grabs Hamlet’s left hand and stops him from following the ghost. Hamlet jerks his hand back, intending to get rid of Horatio. At this point, the ghost disappears from the stage and Hamlet runs to the left (Rôrôsei 20). It is not clear by what means the ghost disappeared from the stage in this production, yet, while the light is off, the backdrop changes and the scenery shifts from a castle gate to the cliffs along the sea.

When the curtain rises, the audience sees the ghost on stage left, while behind this, the sea hits the cliffs. Hamlet comes from stage right, asking the ghost where it wants to take him. The ghost then demands revenge. Kayôsei remembered,

The moment Dohi Shunsho’s Prince Hamlet saw the ghost was impressive. Utsubofune’s ghost of the late King moved to the other side of stage in the dim light while speaking the famous long speech of the burning hell well, but his tone lacked a tragically heroic sense. The speech was well-spoken, but the tone had a lack of grief, and it sounded a bit comical. (87)

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Kayôsei’s descriptions confirm there was no ghostly light, but the weak lighting complements the ghost’s narration of its misery. Jan H. Blits observes that even though the ghost comes from purgatory, he “never once asks for prayers or anything else to alleviate the terrible pains” (96), but only commands his son to seek revenge. The foul crimes the ghost has committed seem to be anger and manly pride. However, it is arguable whether or not a vengeful ghost would be condemned in Japanese culture. For instance, most vengeful ghosts in Japan are female because they are powerless when they are alive. Like Oiwa, they are given power after death so they can return to the physical world to seek vengeance. In view of this tradition, there seems to be a tendency to draw sympathy for the vengeful ghost in Tsubouchi’s Hamlet.

In the original play, the ghost of King Hamlet states that the poisonous liquid ran through his body and his skin broke out in a scaly rash (I.5.66-78), but the Japanese ghost suffered from a more dramatic disfigurement. Rôrôsei’s review notes that in Tsubouchi’s production, the ghost says of this fatal poison:

The ghost continues, “Both eyes become ugly and filthy.” Hamlet cannot bear seeing it. He retreats to the right side…. The ghost says, “Adieu, Hamlet.” Hamlet raises his head, looking towards the ghost. The ghost states again, “Adieu, adieu!” Hamlet leans forward, watching the ghost to leave. Suddenly, he gets up to chase after it. (21)

It is worth noting that the Japanese ghost’s face has to be disfigured by the poison in order to create the ferocious features associated with ghosts in Kabuki theatre, as seen with Oiwa, which is often done to arouse pity. Following this tradition, the ghost of King Hamlet is dramatized to have a hideous look. More importantly, the ghost’s disfigurement is veiled. If the ugliness represents the Japanese ghost’s despair and misery, the ghost of King Hamlet unveils these characteristics, both literally and symbolically, to only his son. The cultural significance of the ghost in Tsubouchi’s Hamlet lies in grafting the characteristics of the Japanese onryō into a western, Christian ghost.

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VI. ConclusionStarting in the Meiji period, Japanese society began the rapid adoption of

many aspects of western cultures, and as part of this trend, the play Hamlet was borrowed, reproduced, and transformed to suit the new context. This paper examined the scenes depicting the ghost of King Hamlet in three representative adaptations, written to be performed in Kabuki, Seigeki and Shingeki theatres. Despite the rapid spread of Christianity in the Meiji period, all three works had difficulty in incorporating key aspects of this western religion. For instance, in the Kabuki Hamlet, Kanagaki eliminated any reference to Christianity, and thus the scene in which Hamlet calls on angels for help was cut. By comparison, Kawakami’s Seigeki adaptation and Tsubouchi’s Shingeki production were more faithful to the original material because they did not remove the Christian subtext. Tsubouchi’s production even incorporated Buddhist prayers when Hamlet was calling for help, so that audiences could identify with the character.

In Japanese culture, a ghost stays in human form on this planet if it is not able to attain Buddhahood (johbutsu). However, what would happen if the ghost was a Christian? It was thus difficult to translate the Christian ghost, King Hamlet, into something equivalent in Japanese culture, and different attempts made in all three Meiji examples of Hamlet examined in this paper. If the image of a ghost reflects the illusion of a supernatural entity in Japan, the representations of King Hamlet’s ghost in the Meiji period demonstrate an ongoing negotiation with alien cultures, including their religious beliefs. Kanagaki transformed the Christian ghost into the fox demon of Japanese legend. In Kawakami’s Seigeki adaptation, the ghost came with hitodama, the floating flame which was believed to accompany ghosts in Japanese folk stories. Furthermore, the ghost in Tsubouchi’s Shingeki production was veiled, and thus its face was invisible to the audience. Moreover, the white, floor-length veil was very similar to the white robes traditionally worn by Japanese ghosts. However, strictly speaking, with the exception of this veil, the ghost’s costume resembled the warrior ghost’s armor worn by Basil Potter in the nineteenth century. The different representations of the warrior ghost in the Meiji period not

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simply illuminated the ways in which King Hamlet was localized to more closely resemble a Japanese ghost, but also demonstrated the degree to which cultural assimilation occurred.

Since ghosts lack a universal image, a certain degree of appropriation is necessary to translate the ghosts from one culture to another. Kanagaki’s text is more like a piece of rewriting, which appropriated the original material and made changes for its own ideological purposes (Zabus 3). As the Meiji period progressed, so the image of Japanese ghosts was westernized. Japanese ghosts are quite distinctive in many ways, as traditionally they had no feet and were dressed in a white kimono, with loose hanging hair, and accompanied by hitodama. In Kawakami’s adaptation, the ghost was like a modern version of the wretched, vengeful onryō because the King Hamlet was dressed in a western military uniform. The blending of western elements with the distinctive qualities of Japanese ghosts also appeared in Tsubouchi’s Shingeki production. The work’s veiled King Hamlet was neither a western warrior ghost nor its typical Japanese counterpart. Both Kawakami and Tsubouchi developed a new illusion, based on a mixture of elements from Japanese and western ghosts.

This hybridity demonstrates that the tendency of people to recycle “the memory of previous encounters to understand and interpret encounters with new and somewhat different but apparently similar phenomena” (Carlson 6). It is thus not surprising that Japanese audiences looked for some familiar characteristics in the ghost of King Hamlet. Indeed, such a memory is also like the ghost haunting the stage, and so the traditional forms of the ghost in Japan are revived, reproduced, and reborn again and again on the stage. In Kanagaki’s text, the image of the fox demon was borrowed from the Kabuki theatre to represent the ghost of King Hamlet; however, it was not able to carry out its revenge, as it would do in a Kabuki play. A similar borrowing from the Kabuki theatre is also seen in Kawakami’s adaptation, in which the set designer used theatrical effect to create a floating flame to accompany the ghost. Hitodama thus became a key element in Kawakami’s adaptation due to its association with Japanese ghosts. Later, the

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ghost in Tsubouchi’s production was covered in a white veil to resemble a Japanese ghost, although underneath it was wearing western armor. All these ghosts thus represented something similar to but different from traditional Japanese ghosts.

As Marvin Carlson observed, King Hamlet’s ghost was once portrayed “as an ethereal, almost insubstantial shape, as a solid body, as a disembodied voice, as a group of several complimentary figures” (99) in different productions of the play. If the ghost came across as something unforgettable or unremarkable, the audience’s memories of the previous production would pass on to and interact with the current one. Tsubouchi’s production, therefore, presented a ghost that met both the Japanese and western expectations, with the armored warrior ghost’s head covered with a floor-length white veil. Once the illusion of the ghost was created, it would remain in the audience’s memories. Horatio’s call, “Illusion, stay!” is thus like an invitation to the ghost to continue haunting the stage, and is an essential clue to understanding the cultural translation and hybridity in these three Meiji examples.

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