Download - 2167 Drives and Motivation

7/31/2019 2167 Drives and Motivation

1/90


2/90

In the grasslands,somewhere on the African continent,

success can be defined in terms of life and death,

Survival is a strong motivator.

Heres a short story


3/90

When the light comes in the Eastern sky and you sense that thesun will soon steal the comfort and security of the night, thegazelle starts to stir. He knows that if, during this day, hedoes not run faster than the fastest cheetah, he may becaught and then he will be killed.

Not far away, the cheetah stretches out this powerful musclesand thinks of the day ahead, He knows that if he does notrun faster than the slowest gazelle, he will surely starve.

The moral of this story


4/90

It doesnt matter whether you are a gazelle or a

cheetah when the sun is up

you had better be running.

*
http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/releases/Video%20clips%20etc/must%20keep%20running.wmvhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/releases/Video%20clips%20etc/must%20keep%20running.wmv


5/90

Outline

Skip over Needs Theories of Motivation

Drives

Learned Needs Process Theories of Motivation

Responses to the Reward System

Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement

Goal Setting

Workplace justice


6/90

Theories of Motivation

1. What is motivation

2. How do needs motivate people?

3. Are there other ways to motivate people?

4. Do equity and fairness matter?

5. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

6. What are the ethics behind motivation theories?


7/90

MARS Model of Behaviour

Personality

Emotions

Perceptions

Values

Attitudes

Stress

Behaviour

and

Results

Motivation

Ability

Role

perception

Situational

factors


8/90

Its all about the people

"The success of your organization doesn't depend onyour understanding of economics, or organizationaldevelopment, or marketing. It depends, quite simply,on your understanding of human psychology: howeach individual employee connects with yourcompany and how each individual employee connectswith your customers."

Curt Coffman and Gabriela Gonzalez-Molina, Ph.D. inFollow This Path: How the World's GreatestOrganizations Drive Growth by Unleashing Human

Potential, Warner Books, 2002.


9/90

What Is Motivation?

Motivation

The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort

a person shows in reaching a goal:

Intensity: How hard a person tries

Direction: Where effort is channelled

Persistence: How long effort is maintained

skip


10/90

Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, will attempt toavoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened

with punishment if they are to perform. Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, are creative, seekresponsibility, and can exercise self-direction and self-control.


11/90

Motivators

Intrinsic Motivators

A persons internal desire to do something, due

to such things as interest, challenge, and personalsatisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivators

Motivation that comes from outside the person

and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and

other tangible rewards.


12/90

Needs Theories of Motivation

Basic idea

Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied,

will result in motivation

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory

ERG Theory

McClellands Theory of Needs


13/90

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other

bodily needs

Safety

Includes security and protection from physical

and emotional harm

SocialIncludes affection, belongingness, acceptance,

and friendship


14/90

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Esteem

Includes internal esteem factors such as self-

respect, autonomy, and achievement; andexternal esteem factors such as status,recognition, and attention

Self-actualization

The drive to become what one is capable ofbecoming; includes growth, achieving onespotential, and self-fulfillment


15/90

Exhibit 4-1

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-

actualization


16/90

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygiene factorsthe sources of dissatisfaction

Extrinsic factors (context of work)

Company policy and administration

Unhappy relationship with employees supervisor

Poor interpersonal relations with ones peers

Poor working conditions


17/90

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Motivatorsthe sources of satisfaction

Intrinsic factors (content of work) Achievement Recognition

Challenging, varied, or interesting work

Responsibility

Advancement


18/90

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

Source: Reprinted by permission

ofHarvard Business Review. An

exhibit from Frederick

Herzberg, One More Time:

How Do You Motivate

Employees?Harvard Business

Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003),

p. 90. Copyright 1987 by the

President and Fellows of

Harvard College; all rights

reserved.


19/90

Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and

Dissatisfaction

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

Traditional view

No Satisfaction Satisfaction

Herzberg's view

DissatisfactionNo Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Motivators


20/90

Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its

methodology.

The reliability of Herzbergs methodology isquestioned.

Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation.

No overall measure of satisfaction was used. The theory is inconsistent with previous research.


21/90

Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence

Concerned with providing basic material

existence requirements.

Relatedness

Desire for maintaining important interpersonalrelationships.

Growth

Intrinsic desire for personal development.


22/90

McClellands Theory of Needs

Need for achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, to strive to succeed

Need for power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would

not have behaved otherwise

Need for affiliation

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships


23/90

Relationship of Various Needs Theories

HygieneFactors

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological

Motivators

Relatedness

Existence

Growth

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland


24/90

Summary: Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfiedbefore one progresses to higher-order needs.

Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be

dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction, however.Motivators lead to satisfaction.

Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the sametime. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire tosatisfy a lower-level need increases.

McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Theirmotivation and how well they perform in a work situation arerelated to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation,or power.


25/90

Summary: Impact of Theory

Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Mostmanagers are familiar with it.

Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for

planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings.Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.

Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells usthat achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personalresponsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.

McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make

good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how theydo personally.


26/90

Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory

Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. Inparticular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature ofneeds. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.

Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a linkbetween satisfaction and productivity that was not measured ordemonstrated.

Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.

McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent

with our knowledge of individual differences among people.Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.


27/90

Four Drives Theory


28/90

4 Drives Theory

Reflect contemporary thinking

Out of Harvard Business School

Professors Lawrence and Nohria

There are 4 innate and independent drives that

we all have.

Both holistic and humanistic.


29/90

Four-Drive Theory.

Drive to Bond

Drive to Curiosity

/ Learn

Need to form relationships andsocial commitments

Basis of social identity

Need to satisfy curiosity and

resolve conflicting information

Basis of self-actualization

Drive to Defend Need to protect ourselves

A reactive (not proactive) drive

Basis of fight or flight

Drive to Acquire Need to take/keep objects and

experiences

Basis of hierarchy and status

Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices, by Paul R. Lawrence and Nitin Nohria (Jossey Bass, 2001


30/90

Features of Four Drives

Innate and hardwired -- everyone has them

Independent of each other (no hierarchy of

drives)

Complete set -- no drives are excluded from

the model.

Never satisfied.


31/90

How Four Drives Affect Needs

1. Four drives determine which emotions are

automatically tagged to incoming information

2. Drives generate independent and often

competing emotions that demand our

attention

3. Social skill set determines how to translatedrives into needs and effort.


32/90

Four Drive Theory of Motivation

Mental skill set uses social norms, personalvalues, and experience to translate competing

drives into needs and effort


33/90

Learned Needs Theory

Some needs can be learned.

Need for achievement

Desire for challenging and somewhat risky goals,

feedback, recognition Need for affiliation

Desire to seek approval, conform, and avoid

conflict

Try to project a favourable self-image

Need for power

Desire to control ones environment

Personalized versus socialized power


34/90

Implications of Needs/Drives Theories

Four drive theory

provide a balanced opportunity for employees to fulfill

drives

employees continually seek fulfillment of drives

avoid having conditions support one drive over others

Maslow

allow employees to self-actualize power of positive experiences

Offer employees a choice of rewards


35/90

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Look at the actual process of motivation

Share information from your readings about

the expectancy theory.


36/90

Expectancy Theory (Vroom et al. 1964)

The theory that individuals act depending on whether

their effort will lead to good performance, whether

good performance will be followed by a givenoutcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to

them.


37/90

E-to-PExpectancy

P-to-OExpectancy

Outcomes& Valences

Outcome 1+ or -

Effort Performance

Outcome 3+ or -

Outcome 2+ or -

Expectancy Theory of Motivation


38/90

Choosing to act

When deciding among behavioural options,

individuals select the option with the greatest

motivation forces (MF). The motivational force for a behaviour, action, or task

is a function of three distinct perceptions: Expectancy,

Instrumentality, and Valance. The motivational force

is the product of the three perceptions:

MF = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence


39/90

VIE .

Expectancy probability: based on the perceivedeffort-performance relationship. It is the expectancythat one's effort will lead to the desired performanceand is based on past experience, self-confidence, and

the perceived difficulty of the performance goal. Instrumentality probability: based on the

perceived performance-reward relationship. Theinstrumentality is the belief that if one does meet

performance expectations, he or she will receive a

greater reward. Valence: refers to the value the individual

personally places on the rewards. This is a functionof his or her needs, goals, and values.


40/90

Increasing E-to-P Expectancy

Train employees

Select people with required competencies

Provide role clarification / agree goals

Provide sufficient resources

Provide coaching and feedback


41/90

Increasing P-to-O Expectancy

Measure performance accurately

Describe outcomes of good and poor

performance

Explain how rewards are linked to past

performance


42/90

Increasing Outcome Valences

Ensure that rewards are valued

Individualize rewards

Minimize countervalent outcomes


43/90

Discussion of Expectancy Theory

If it is in the organizations interest to put

people first and allow them to fulfill all four

drives; then why dont managers simply do

that? Use expectancy theory to explain the

managers behaviour.


44/90

Expectancy Theory Discussion

Identify three activities you really enjoy and

three activities you really dislike.

Using the expectancy model, analyze each of

your answers to assess why some activities

stimulate your effort while others dont.


45/90

Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals lead

to higher performance.

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how

much effort will need to be expended. Specific goals increase performance.

Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do

easy goals.

Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output

than does the generalized goal of do your best.

The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.


46/90

Goal Difficulty and Performance

High

Ta

skPerforma

nce

Low Moderate Challenging Impossible

Area ofOptimal

GoalDifficulty

Goal Difficulty


47/90

Lockes Model of Goal Setting

Regulating effort

Increasing persistence

Encouraging the developmentof strategies and action plans

Taskperformance

Directing attention

Goals

motivateby . . .

Regulating effort

Increasing persistence

Encouraging the developmentof strategies and action plans

Taskperformance

Directing attention

Goals

motivateby . . .

Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task

Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A.

Locke.


48/90

Management by Objectives

A program that encompasses:

Specific goals

Participative decision-making

Explicit time period

Performance feedback


49/90

Goals Should Be SMART

For goals to be effective, they should be

SMART:

Specific

Measurable

Attainable

Results Oriented

Time bound


50/90

Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Effective

Feedback

Specific

Relevant

Timely

Credible

Sufficientlyfrequent


51/90

Multisource (360-degree) Feedback

Evaluated

EmployeeCo-worker

Customer

Subordinate

Project

leader

Supervisor

Co-worker

Subordinate

Subordinate


52/90

Preferred Feedback Sources

Depends on the situation

Nonsocial sources (gauges, printouts)

Better for goal progress

Considered more accurate, less damaging

Social sources (supervisor, co-workers)

Better for good news feedback

Improves self-image and esteem


53/90

Elements of Equity Theory

Outcome/input ratio

inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill)

outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay)

Comparison other

person/people against whom we compare our ratio

not easily identifiable

Equity evaluation

compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other


54/90

Equity Sensitivity

Benevolents

Tolerant of being underrewarded

Equity Sensitives

Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other

Entitleds

Prefer receiving proportionately more than others


55/90

Emotions

Attitudes

Behaviours

DistributionPrinciples

Distributive

Justice

Perceptions

Procedural

JusticePerceptions

StructuralRules

SocialRules

Organizational Justice Components

ManagementInterface

InteractionalJustice

Perceptions


56/90

Procedural Justice Structural Rules

Voice

Bias-Free

Knowledgeable

Consistent

Listens to all

Appealable


57/90

Responses to the Reward System

Equity Theory

Fair Process and Treatment

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Increasing Intrinsic Motivation


58/90


59/90

Equity Theory

Main points:

Individuals compare their job inputs and

outcomes with those of others and then respond

so as to eliminate any inequities.Equity theory recognizes that individuals are

concerned not only with the absolute amount of

rewards for their efforts, but also with the

relationship of this amount to what othersreceive.


60/90

Equity Comparisons

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside


61/90

Correcting Inequity Feelings

Reduce out inputs Less organizational citizenship

Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase

Increase others inputs Ask coworker to work harder

Reduce others outputs Ask boss to stop giving other

preferred treatment

Change our perceptions Start thinking that others perksarent really so valuable

Change comparison other Compare self to someone closer to

your situation

Leave the field Quit job

Actions to correct inequity Example


62/90

Equity Theory Propositions

When paid by time worked, over-rewarded

employees will produce more than will

equitably paid employees.

When paid by number of units produced, over-

rewarded employees will produce fewer, but

higher-quality, units than will equitably paidemployees.


63/90

Equity Theory Propositions

When paid by time worked, under-rewarded

employees will produce less or poorer-quality

output.

When paid by number of units produced,

under-rewarded employees will produce a

large number of low-quality units incomparison with equitably paid employees.


64/90


Historically, equity theory focused on

Distributive justice However, equity should also consider

Procedural justice


65/90


Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amountand allocation of

rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of theprocess used to determine the

distribution of rewards.

Interactional Justice

The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a

manager.


66/90

Discussion

Expectancy theory argues that for people to be

motivated, they have to value the rewards that

they will receive for their effort. This suggeststhe need for recognizing individual differences.

Does this view contradict the principles of equity

theory? Discuss.


67/90

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work

effort that was previously rewarded

intrinsically will tend to decrease the overalllevel of a persons motivation.


68/90

Motivators

Intrinsic

A persons internal desire to do something, due

to such things as interest, challenge, and personalsatisfaction.

Extrinsic

Motivation that comes from outside the person,such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.


69/90

Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation

1.Sense of choice

2.Sense of competence

3.Sense of meaningfulness

4.Sense of progress

Managers can act in ways that will build theseintrinsic rewards for their employees.


70/90

Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards

Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. FromIntrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and

Commitment. Copyright K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved.

www.bkconnection.com.

Delegated authority

Trust in workers

Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes

A clear purpose

Information

A noncynical climate

Clearly identified passions

An exciting vision

Relevant task purposes

Whole tasks

Knowledge

Positive feedback

Skill recognition

Challenge

High, non-comparative standards

A collaborative climate

Milestones

Celebrations

Access to customers

Measurement of improvement

Leading for Choice Leading for Competence

Leading for Meaningfulness Leading for Progress

Delegated authority

Trust in workers

Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes

A clear purpose

Information

A noncynical climate

Clearly identified passions

An exciting vision

Relevant task purposes

Whole tasks

Knowledge

Positive feedback

Skill recognition

Challenge

High, non-comparative standards

A collaborative climate

Milestones

Celebrations

Access to customers

Measurement of improvement

Leading for Choice Leading for Competence

Leading for Meaningfulness Leading for Progress
http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/


71/90

Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement

Skinner suggested that people learn how to

behave to get something they want or to avoid

something they dont want.

This idea is known as operant conditioning.

Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or

lack of reinforcement brought about by theconsequences of the behaviour.


72/90

Methods of Shaping Behaviour

Positive reinforcement Following a response with something pleasant.

Negative reinforcement Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of

something unpleasant. Punishment

Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt toeliminate an undesirable behaviour.

Extinction Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining abehaviour.


73/90

Schedules of Reinforcement

The two major types of reinforcement schedulesare continuous and intermittent.

Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desiredbehaviour each and every time it isdemonstrated.

Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval

The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number ofspecific types of behaviour.

The individual is reinforced on the first appropriatebehaviour after a particular time has elapsed.


74/90

Fixed and Variable Reinforcements

A reinforcement can also be classified as

fixed or variable.

Fixed-interval schedule

Variable-interval schedule

Fixed-ratio schedule

Variable-ratio schedule


75/90

Types of Reinforcement

Reinforcement Type Example

Positive reinforcement A manager praises an employee for a job well done.

Negative reinforcement An instructor asks a question and a student looks through the notes to avoid beingcalled on. She has learned that looking through her notes prevents the instructorfrom calling on her.

Punishment A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for showingup drunk.

Extinction An instructor ignores students who raise their hands to ask questions. Hand-raisingbecomes extinct.


76/90

Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Schedule Effect on Behaviour Example

Continuous Reward given after each

desired behaviour

Fast learning of new behaviour Compliments

but rapid extinction

Fixed-interval Reward given at fixed Average and irregular performance Weekly paycheques

time intervals with rapid extinction

Variable-interval Reward given at variable Moderately high and stable Pop quizzes

time intervals performance with slow extinction

Fixed-ratio Reward given at fixed amounts High and stable performance attained Piece-rate pay

of output quickly but also with rapid extinction

Variable-ratio Reward given at variable Very high performance with Commissioned sales

amounts of output slow extinction


77/90

Putting It All Together

What we know about motivating employees in organizations:

Recognize individual differences.

Employees have different needs.

Dont treat them all alike.

Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each

employee.

Use goals and feedback.

Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. Link rewards to performance.

Check the system for equity.


78/90

Summary and Implications

1. What is Motivation?

Motivation is the process that accounts for an

individuals intensity, direction, and persistenceof effort toward reaching the goal.

2. How do needs motivate people?

All needs theories of motivation propose asimilar idea: individuals have needs that, when

unsatisfied, will result in motivation.


79/90


3. Are there other ways to motivate people?

Process theories focus on the broader picture of how

someone can set about motivating another individual.

Process theories include expectancy theory and goalsetting theory (and its application, management by

objectives).

4. Do equity and fairness matter?

Individuals look for fairness in the reward system.Rewards should be perceived by employees is related to

the inputs they bring to the job.


80/90


5. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

B. F. Skinner suggested that behaviour is influenced bywhether or not it is reinforced. Managers might consider,

then, how their actions towards employees reinforce (or donot reinforce) employee behaviour.

6. What are the ethics behind motivation theories?

There is a debate among theorists about whether motivationtheories are used for the employees benefit or to just

improve productivity.


81/90

HR Implications

Performance Evaluation


82/90


83/90

What Gets Evaluated?

Individual Task Outcomes

Behaviours

Traits


84/90

Who Should Evaluate?

Immediate Manager

Peers

Self-Evaluation

Immediate Subordinates

Comprehensive Approach: 360-Degree

Evaluations


85/90

Methods of Performance Evaluation

Written Essays A narrative describing an employees strengths, weaknesses,

past performance, potential, and suggestions for improvement

Critical Incidents Evaluating those behaviours that are key in making the

difference between executing a job effectively and executing itineffectively

Graphic Rating Scales An evaluation method where the evaluator rates performance

factors on an incremental scale


86/90

Methods of Performance Evaluation

Behaviourally Anchored Ratings Scales (BARS)

An evaluation where actual job-related behaviours are rated along

a continuum

Multiperson Comparisons

Group: employees placed into particular classifications, such as

quartiles

Individual: rank-order employees from best to worst

Paired: compare each employee with every other employee, andthen assign summary ranking


87/90

Potential Problems

Single Criterion Errors

Recency Errors

Leniency/strictness Errors

Halo Errors

Similarity Errors

Low Differentiation Errors Forcing Information to Match Nonperformance

Criteria


88/90

Improvements

Use Multiple Criteria

Emphasize Behaviours Rather Than Traits

Document Performance Behaviours in a Diary

Use Multiple Evaluators

Evaluate Selectively

Train Evaluators Provide Employees With Due Process


89/90

Why Organizations Fail at Performance Appraisal

Time consuming

Difficult to establish, communicate expectations

Don't do it often enough (usually annually)

Fail to consider the dynamic aspects of the job

Hard to define levels of performance

No rewards for being skilled at performance appraisal


90/90

Assignment

Read Chapter 5, Motivation in Action

Download - 2167 Drives and Motivation

Top Related