Douglas H. Collier

chapter

7Instructional Strategies for Adapted Physical Education

Philosophical Approaches to Adapted Physical Education and Sport

Humanistic philosophy

Important figures• Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)• Carl Rogers (1902–1987)

Applied behavior analysis

Important figure• B.F Skinner (1904–1990)

Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization

Adapted, by permission, from C. Sherrill, 2004, Adapted physical activity, recreation and sport: Crossdisciplinary and lifespan, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw-Hill), 95..

Interaction Between Performer, Environment, and Task

Adapted from K.M. Newell, 1986, Constraints on the development of coordina-tion. In Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control, edited by M.B. Wade and H.T. Whiting (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Niihof), 341-360. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Motor Skill Tenets1. Growth and maturation influence the ability to learn

a movement skill.

2. Mechanical and physiological principles of movement dictate the best way to perform a given skill.

3. Reinforcement and repetition are needed when learning a new skill.

(continued)

Motor Skill Tenets (continued)4. Emotion affects the process of learning motor

skills.  5. Success at a given task leads to improved learning.  6. Learning takes place more quickly when practice

sessions are separated by adequate rest periods. 7. Motor skills that are overlearned are retained

longer.

Curricular Modifications Leading to Meaningful Integration

• The “same” curriculum

• Multilevel curriculum 

• Modified curriculum

• Different curriculum

Curricular Approaches

Top-Down 

An emphasis on the teaching of specific, functional, age-appropriate leisure skills

(continued)

Curricular Approaches (continued)

Bottom-Up 

A developmentally focused curriculum with an emphasis on abilities expected at a

particular chronological age

Categories of Activity Modifications

• Equipment

• Rules

• Environment

• Instruction

Effective Teachers Adapt Their Instruction To . . .

• The nature of the content being taught

• Their personal skills and preferences

• The characteristics of the learners

• The teaching context

Teaching Styles

Reproductive styles

• Command

• Practice/task

• Reciprocal

• Self-check

• Inclusion/invitation(continued)

Teaching Styles (continued)

Productive styles 

• Guided discovery

• Convergent discovery

• Divergent discovery

(after Mosston and Ashworth, 1994)

Teaching Formats• One-to-one instruction

• Small-group instruction

• Large-group instruction

• Mixed-group instruction

• Peer teaching or tutoring (continued)

Teaching Formats (continued)

• Self-paced independent work

• Cooperative learning

• Reverse mainstreaming

• Teaching stations

Components of an Instructional Episode

• Instruction

• Optional prompt

• Student’s response

• Consequences

• Intertrial interval

The Response Prompting Continuum

Physical prompts

Complete physical manipulationManipulative prompting

Minimal guidance

Visual prompts

Complete skill demonstrationPartial skill demonstration

Gestural prompting(continued)

The Response Prompting Continuum (continued)

Verbal prompts

Skill cueAction command

Action cue

No prompts 

Initiation with environmental goalImitative initiation

Initiation in free play

(after Watkinson and Wall, 1982)

Guidelines for Effective Prompting • Use prompts that are meaningful to the student.

• Consider the learner’s characteristics.

• Be careful not to underprompt.

• Be careful not to overprompt.

• Focus the learner’s attention on the task.

(continued)

Guidelines for Effective Prompting (continued)

• Make sure that the prompt is effective.

• Pretest and assess carefully, as students might need less assistance than you assume.

• Fade physical proximity.

• Couple the appropriate verbal prompt with other prompts used.

• Fade verbal prompts.

Developmental Task Analysis

• Developmental task analysis outlines all of the task and environmental factors that influence the performance of students in the general movement categories (e.g., throw, strike, jump).

• Under each of these factors, modifications are given, from the simplest to the most difficult.

A General Task Analysis (Throwing)Factors Size of

object being thrown

Distance object must be thrown

Weight of object being thrown

Accuracy required

Speed target is moving at

Accelera-tion or deceler-ation of the target

Direction in which target is moving at

Small Short Moderately light

None Stationary No move-ment

No move-ment

Simple Left to right

to Medium Medium Moderately heavy

Little Slow Steady speed

Right to left

Moderate Moderate Deceler-ating

Toward thrower

Complex Large Large Light or heavy

Much Fast Acceler-ating

Away from thrower

Adapted, by permission, from J. Herkowitz, 1978, Development task analysis: The design of movement experiences and evaluation of motor development status. In Motor development: Issue and applications, edited by M. Ridenour (Highstown, NJ: Princeton Book Company), 141.

A Specific Task Analysis (Striking)

Factors Size of ball Length of striking implement

Predictability of trajectory

Simple S1–12 inches L1–hand P1–rolled along ground

To S2–9 inches L2–table tennis paddle

P2–bounced along ground

S3–4 inches L3–18-inch dowel rod

P3–ball tossed in air

Complex S4–tennis ball L4–plastic bat

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models

Project ACTIVE  

• Incorporates a test-assess-prescribe-evaluate planning process

• Includes normative as well as criterion-referenced tests in the areas of motor ability, nutrition, physical fitness, and posture

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

The Data-Based Gymnasium

• A prescriptive instructional model that provides information on effectively managing the learning environment of individuals with severe disabilities

• Unique in its specific delineation of applied behavior analysis techniques as a means of accomplishing meaningful learning objectives

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

MOVE 

• A top-down activity-based curriculum developed to assist students with profound disabilities to learn the basic motor skills needed for everyday activities in the home and community

 • Provides a sequence of age-appropriate motor

activities valuable to the individual’s quest for independent movement in the home and community

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

Moving to Inclusion

• Consists of nine books, available in English and French, that address a variety of disability groups.

 • Each book provides ideas for individualizing and

modifying activities.

• These resources are particularly valuable when planning to include students with disabilities in regular physical education classes.

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

Special Olympics

A series of sport-specific instructional manuals, each including long-term goals, short-term objectives, skill assessment, task analysis, teaching suggestions, progression charts, and related information

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

I CAN• Individualized instruction, create social leisure

competence, associate all learning, narrow the gap between theory and practice

• A comprehensive physical education and leisure skills program appropriate for children with unique needs

• Developmental in nature, I CAN provides a continuum of skills from preprimary motor and play skills to sport, leisure, and recreation skills

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

I CAN Primary Skills K – 3

A performance-based instructional model with feedback methods to improve and modify instruction based on student performance

(continued)

Prescriptive Planning and Instructional Models (continued)

SMART START

Provides teachers and caregivers a developmentally appropriate movement curriculum for preschool-aged children of all abilities