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Proceedings of the Redesigning Pedagogy: Culture, Knowledge and Understanding

Conference, Singapore, May 2007

TAIJIQUAN: CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES AND KINETIC

MOVEMENTS IN PIANO PEDAGOGY

Loo Fung Ying

University of Sheffield, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT

Vigorous debate over issues of traditional and modern methods of piano playing has occurred

among researchers, pedagogues and performers during the past 100 years. In addition, due to

the intensely competitive environment within which upper-level professional pianism occurs,

there has been an increase in the attention educators have paid to injuries among pianists.

Many researchers have argued over issues of performance-related movement, whether from

psychological or anatomical perspectives. Nevertheless, there is an overall paucity of

research that combines both approaches, embracing both internal and external sources of

strength and movement in piano playing. In a spirit of cross-disciplinary study, I address this

lacuna by suggesting the application of elements from taijiquan, as a concept for efficient use

of strength input and injury prevention. I will discuss the principles of: stances, total body

involvement for fingers, and body coordination in piano playing, along with the theory of yin

and yang. Ethnomusicologists and music educators regularly analyse present practice to

devise new means of improved application, and this research is no different, aiming to

discover what Chinese classical theories offer to pianist and other instrumentalists. This

present study reflects on my own five-year participation in taijiquan by focusing on two

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elements in the Chen style of taijiquan – the horse stance and total body involvement – and

assesses their application within the field of piano pedagogy.

INTRODUCTION

Taijiquan is an internally-focused form of martial art renowned for its efficient use of

physical movement for self-defence, providing health benefits and, most importantly, the

avoidance of sports-related injury. ‘Taiji is everywhere’, was how Master Su responded to

the question as to how taijiquan relates to everyday life (Su Wei-Yu, personal interview,

March 16, 2006). To him, anyone who is engaged in an activity that involves the whole body

working as a chain in movement production, is affected by the principle of taijiquan. This

originates from the notion of yi dong wuyou bu dong, (when one entity moves, everything

else moves with it) written by Wang Zongyue in the taijiquan treatise Shisan shi xing gong

jie, where the entity in question is the waist, which generates total body involvement.

The same principle can be applied to piano playing in the course of motion delivered from the

working of the whole body for effective physical motion and injury prevention. The rise of

competitiveness in piano playing due to the increased number of pianists emerging on the

international scene can be perceived as leading to increased amounts of injury, responsibility

for which is too often passed fruitlessly between representatives of the medical profession,

virtuoso pianists and piano teachers (Alford and Szanto, 1996). The subject of vigorous

training on finger exercises was questioned for its effectiveness and cited as the reason for

injury (Wristen, 1999). In a change from a traditional finger-oriented approach, certain

authorities have stressed the importance of understanding weight distribution and relaxation

technique in the teaching of piano playing (Weyman, 1918; Farnol, 1941; Gieseking, and

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Leimer 1972; Bomberger, 1991; Horowitz, 1999). Pianist Boris Berman explains the

involvement of all joints during piano playing as follows:

…even while using the small joints only, the pianist must develop the feeling of

silent support given by bigger joints to the smaller ones, the sensation of the

continuity of the muscular flow. Joints not involved in the playing must never be

tensed; rather, they are to be kept in a state of active relaxation, always ready to join

in (Berman, 2002, p.28).

However, the achievement of relaxation in performance alongside the involvement of the

body ‘in action’ has become a highly debated issue between piano pedagogues and virtuosi.

Even Berman (2002), who asserts that it is impossible for physical work to be done without

physical effort, asserts the principle of ‘active relaxation’ as an essential approach to piano

playing. Contradictions in relation to the role of relaxation in piano playing may therefore be

due to the use of unclear or overly-complicated definitions. In the teaching of taijiquan,

however, relaxation is clearly defined using theories and philosophies from the yin and yang

and is always seen as being related to the movement and stance of the whole body.

Relaxation is the foundation for the principle of total body involvement and is important in

eliminating stagnation in any part of the body during motion (Zhang, 1995; Zhang, 1999;

Xiong, 2004; Shao, 2005; You, 2006).

In piano performance, the de-emphasis of traditional approaches to the training of fingers by

placing core importance on either relaxation or the psychological response can result in the

absence of clarity in the sound produced, due to a lack of finger independence and strength

(Fielden, 1927; Kentner, 1991). Therefore, the technique of relaxation – the solution for

tension and the over-use of fingers – is debated in piano pedagogy (Grindea, 2000; Berman,

2002).

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The search for an effective balance between the two generates questions such as: how much

input should there be from finger work and how much from other approaches, such as body

involvement and relaxation? Achieving a successful balance between the two requires

correct understanding of the function of relaxation, the role of the fingers and the

involvement of the whole body; a concept which mirrors taijiquan’s principle of stances with

regard to the delivery of movement. The training of the feet in mastering stances is similar to

that of the training of the fingers in traditional piano playing, while the approach of total body

involvement in taijiquan movement relates closely to the use of relaxation and arm weight

techniques among pianists. Therefore, due to the fact that taijiquan has a comprehensive

theory behind each body movement, it appears to be an ideal model for the physicality of

piano performance. Notably, taijiquan is also the martial art known for its avoidance of

injury, a matter which makes it suitable for practitioners of all ages including the elderly. An

effective approach to piano learning and performance also needs to take into account the wide

range of people who come to play this instrument.

TAIJIQUAN IN PIANO PERFORMANCE

By employing the principle of taijiquan to the laws of body-movement in piano pedagogy,

the findings may shed new light on the issues outlined. This paper will examine the

principles of stances, the taijiquan theories of xia shi shang xü and yi dong wuyou bu dong

and with these, the importance of the principles behind the coordination of fingers and other

body parts. First of all, the stances of taijiquan involve placing the legs in a bent position, to

lower the centre of gravity and so gain stability (see figure 1). The rules and characteristics

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of stances like this closely resemble those that govern the curved finger position in piano

playing, as seen in table 1.1

Figure 1 An example of stance in taijiquan

Table 1 Relating stances to the curved fingers position

Stances Curved Fingers position Function

1. Knees are flexed The wrist is lowered through the

curving of the fingers in this

position and in this way fingers

of different length are adjusted

horizontally on the keyboard.

The centre of gravity is

lowered to gain stability

and bending avoids

stagnation

2. One leg is substantial and Each finger varies in its degree of Mobility increased

1 Table 1 lists three important elements for discussion related to finger position in piano playing which emerge

from the stance illustrated in figure 1.

90̊

Acetabulum (hip joint)

Patellofemoral

(knee joint)

Femur

(thigh

bone)

Substantial leg: majority of

body weight distribution on

this leg

Insubstantial leg: minor

body weight distribution on

this leg

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the other is insubstantial strength allowing texture and

phrasing

through the changes of

yin and yang and

avoidance of stagnation

3. Patellofemoral (knee) joint

should never extend pass the

foot (see figure 2)

The distal interphalangeal joint

should not extend pass the

fingertip (overly curved position,

see figure 2).

Avoidance of straining

the muscles

Figure 2 Example of wrong stance

From the rules and characteristic of the stance, the study found three important elements in

the discussion of piano playing: stability, moderation, and the changing yin and yang in

acquiring balance.

Stability is acquired through taijiquan training to increase strength by flexing the feet to

maintain the position in the stance, in order to lower the centre of gravity of the body. The

feet are always flexed (for the substantial leg) or slightly bent (for the insubstantial leg).

According to Master Wong’s constant reminder2, this avoids straining the muscles of the feet

found in a static position which is stagnant and decreases the level of mobility.

2 Personal participation in Master Wong Sowhong’s taijiquan class during fieldwork (2005)

Over protruding knee that extends pass the foot

The distal interphalangeal joints that extend pass the fingertips

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Stability acquired from the stance is important to set a solid base for the upper body. On this

subject, the notion of xia shi shang xü and its theory through the philosophy of yin and yang

is applied (Zhong, 2004). A direct translation of the xia shi shang xü concept – where xia shi

means ‘a solid base’ and shang xü addresses ‘the above in emptiness’ – may be ambiguous

not only in English but also in the Chinese original text. A misapprehension of the notion

might lead to an assumption of a condition where the upper body is freed of energy and

movement is generated by using great force from the lower body (ibid.). This is similar to

how relaxation is misconstrued in piano playing; when movement is produced such as by the

swinging of arms in complete looseness, without control over fingers (Fielden, 1927). By xia

shi, Zhong defined stability in the stance as where flexibility can then be achieved, while

mobility is developed through relaxation as a foundation for the upper body in the case of

shang xü. Understanding the correct meaning of shang xü avoids the misleading perception

of ‘complete looseness’ or ‘emptiness’. To view piano playing according to the notion of

xiashishangxü, it becomes clear that acquiring a firm base for the fingers is crucial as a

foundation to execute both the weight method and relaxation technique. It is through the

acquiring of strong resistant fingers that a solid base for the arms and shoulders is made

possible, through which the latter can achieve flexibility (as in shang xü), while employing

rotational or relaxation techniques. This is an important point in the perception of fingers as

a base to counter the heavier weight of our arms and shoulder.

Subsequently, when one incorporates the techniques of rotation, weight or relaxation, one

must frequently be reminded that such techniques are only applicable when the stage of xia

shi is acquired. From the pianist’s standpoint, this means the acquiring of firm fingers; the

techniques of rotation and relaxation are not a replacement for the use of fingers, which is a

common misconception. Achieving xia shi allows the upper part of the body to be able to

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move freely when it is in xü (emptiness), and enables the relaxation technique. Only in this

way can rotation, weight and relaxation techniques be employed whilst preserving clarity of

sound and finger independence in piano playing.

The second point shown in table 1outlines the philosophy of moderation originates from

Laozi’s Tao and the changing of yin and yang in acquiring balance in the practice of stance.

This is acquired through the principle of differentiating the substantial and insubstantial leg

and involves the interacting changes of yin and yang where one foot is ‘solid’ and the other is

‘empty’ (Jou, 1980). It is important to state that the theory of yin and yang in the law of yin

zhong you yang yang zhong you yin3, solidity and emptiness do not occur as a complete

entity; it is represented by the smaller circle appearing in each opposite entity in the taijitu

(see figure 3).

Figure 3 Taijitu

Picture adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin_and_yang

When this theory is applied to the stances, Jou (1980) describes the substantial leg, which

carries the majority of the body weight, as being 70 percent solid (yang) and 30 percent

3 In yin there is yang; in yang there is yin.

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empty (yin); while the insubstantial leg holding less bodyweight is referred to as 30 percent

solid and 70 percent empty (see figure 4 below).4

Figure 4 Yin and Yang in a stance

Picture adapted from Jou, 1980, p.179

In this way, the muscles and joints of both feet will not be strained to while carrying the full

weight of the body. In other words, this theory of moderation avoids the extremes of the

opposing condition – in complete yang or complete yin – that causes stagnancy. To further

elaborate, stagnancy happens when one foot is carrying the whole bodyweight and mobility is

affected with the over-load of weight acting upon it. Furthermore, this develops tension and

strain in muscles, which is the cause of injury. On the other hand, being in complete yin

refers to the foot that carries empty weight, and this opposite condition results in a weak and

4 The ratio of 7:3 is an estimation of weight distribution and taught as a guide for easier understanding of the

difference between the substantial and insubstantial in a stance. Strength and weight distribution on the feet

however varies during motion, see Sim and Gaffney (2002, p.67).

70% 30% YANG YIN

30% 70% YANG YIN

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passive condition which also decreases mobility. Both are not ideal conditions. Therefore,

the practice of moderation through the theory of yin and yang can be a guide to improve

mobility and to avoid stagnancy and injury. Efficient mobility is attained from the smooth

changing of bodyweight distribution from a substantial foot to an insubstantial foot while

stagnancy is avoided. Also, through the changing yin and yang from the substantial to the

insubstantial, the exhaustion of overbearing weight on one foot can be avoided; this helps to

achieve a balanced output of strength.

Another point on the subject of moderation is a faulty stance that occurs when the knee joint

extends pass the tip of the foot and this same mistake occurs when the fingers are excessively

curved. This is a condition similar to the same principle as discussed previously in avoiding

extreme condition and therefore stagnancy. As Frantzis (2006, p.39) puts it, ‘moderation

mitigates against internal resistance, which is inherently a survival mechanism against

excess’.

From the above discussion, the issues of overuse or lack of emphasis on fingers can be

analysed through the diagram of taijitu within the theory of yin and yang. Figure 5 shows the

imbalance between the traditional ‘fingers-only’ method and the modern weight and

relaxation method; it reinforces the notion of balance and the ideal condition of both

approaches:

Figure 5 Taijitu: Analysis of Modern and Traditional Method

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Figure 5a shows the extreme condition of each approach. Figure 5b shows the over-emphasis

of each approach with little attention paid to the opposite entity. Over-emphasizing finger

work as seen in the traditional method, which lacks the involvement of other body parts, has

proven to result in injury and fatigue (Whiteside, 1961; Wristen, 1999). Some modern

approaches place too much emphasis on relaxation and weight by dismissing the importance

of finger training, and as such is an incomplete approach; consequently, it is at the expense of

Non-fingers

approach

Fingers approach

Fingers approach

Modern method

Traditional method

Yang Yin

Non-emphasis on

fingers

Fingers only method

(a)

(b)

Non-fingers

approach

(c)

Balance condition of incorporating the fingers and body

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acquiring good finger technique (Kentner, 1991). A good combination of both as seen in

figure 5c, is the ideal combination, showing how to: i) avoid pursuing the extreme condition

and ii) constantly change between the yin and yang and vice versa in achieving balance.

Through both methods, stagnation is avoided. Here, as in the previous discussion of

taijiquan stances, stagnation – the extreme pursuit of one entity – is again viewed as the

decrease of mobility, and thereby contributes to the possibility of injury. Through analysing

the theory of yin and yang in the substantial and insubstantial, a principle of balance between

the output of fingers and body, and the coordination of both can be derived.

The following discussion continues with the notion of shang xü – the involvement of the

other body parts in action during piano playing, apart from the fingers. It is a most complex

subject to explain, as it involves the unseen inner body in motion. Like many other ‘internal’

martial arts, the teaching of taijiquan stresses the waist as the core controller of all

movements where it moves the arms and not vice versa (Xiong, 1995; Kan and Lam, 1999;

Sandlund and Norlander, 2000; Gaffney, 2004; Yuan, 2005). In order to achieve this, the

acquiring of xia shi or a solid base is important as to gain flexibility of the upper body,

especially the waist. Moreover, the teachings of taijiquan stress the importance of acquiring

a stable root through the feet (Sim and Gaffney, 2002). As a result, this study proposes the

fingers and the hip region as the two roots in piano playing.

As previously discussed, this study considers the fingers as the base (xia), and are therefore

considered the first root of stability; the arms and shoulders are the upper part (shang), as

viewed through the concept of xia shi shang xü. At this juncture, it is important to discuss the

second root of a pianist’s physical structure, which is the hip region. It is clear that this

marks the difference between piano playing and taijiquan, as the pianist acts in a seated

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position while the latter is performed in a standing position; therefore, the hip region of a

pianist becomes the main area for supporting the upper torso in gaining stability (see figure

6).

Figure 6 The roots of body structure in taijiquan and piano playing

In other words, in order to achieve shang xü, both roots – the fingers and the hip region –

must be stable and supportive (differentiating the substantial and insubstantial), so that the

upper body can be flexible. In addition, Master Wong advises that the hip joint must be freed

of all tension as this allows the waist to generate movement. Therefore, the pianist should sit

firmly on the chair and the hip region should never be in a passive state. This means that the

pianist should never intend to sit on the main surface area of the stool in a complete relaxed

condition as this will result in manifesting the weight of the body upon the chair instead of

transferring it to the keyboard (Eisenberg, 1929). Such as in the substantial and insubstantial

parts of the stance, changes of yin and yang can then occur in the hip region so that the pianist

can be ever ready to move or distribute strength to each side of the keyboard. This may be

the very reason that caused Davidson (2002) to speculate that the hip region seems to be the

Root

(feet)

Taijiquan Piano Playing

Root

(Fingers)

Root

(hip region)

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generator of movement, from her observations of an active pianist. Ideally, the body should

shift its weight from substantial to insubstantial on the left and right side in holding the upper

torso when the pianist exerts energy varying from the opposing sides of the keyboard.

Therefore, this study purports that the hip region is the root, while the main generator of

movement is the waist.

The movements that are generated from the turning and rotation of the waist follows the

principle of yi dong wuyou bu dong, and thus the hands do not move individually apart from

the body during action. In order to achieve this, the acquiring of shang xü (with relaxation as

the fundamental requirement of xü or emptiness) is important in order to gain flexibility of

the upper body aiming to generate movement from the waist. Relaxation in taijiquan is

perceived as a stage to rid the body of stiffness and tension in preparing for movement

(Zhang, 1995; Xiong, 2004). Therefore, one can claim that relaxation serves as a preparatory

but fundamental stage for movement, and this fact can lessen the controversial issues in piano

playing: that the term ‘relaxation’ should not be perceived as a playing condition, but as a

technique before and after a movement is carried out. Therefore, the more relaxed (xü or

emptiness) one can become to eliminate stagnation and tension in the body, the more strength

(shi or solidity) one can produce through a kind of spring force (Zhang, 1995; Zhang, 1999).

This is again an interplay of the yin and yang in the opposition of emptiness and solidity:

when there is emptiness, solidity can be developed. To further elaborate, agility is achieved

through the interchange of solidity and emptiness. Here, emptiness is perceived as relaxation

that develops flexibility; it should come first in order to avoid stiffness so that the body can

then develop strength or move rapidly through flexibility (Zhong, 2004).

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Through relaxation, movements can be generated from the stomach region which is the

dantian in taijiquan. The pianist Zhao5 (2004) mentions that when many famous pianists

stress that stomach is the origin of movement, it may be that the dantian6 is being referred to,

but the word stomach is used instead of the unknown Chinese term. The use of the stomach

or waist as the generator of movement is seldom discussed in detail while wealth of

information on the same subject can be found in the teaching of taijiquan. Using the waist,

or more precisely the rotation of dantian from the stomach to deliver movement to the limbs,

can only be done when all joints of the body are free of tension. Therefore, relaxation is

crucial to unlock stiff joints, and serves as a primary requirement before the next stage is

possible: using the waist as the core controller of movement.

At the stage when one is able to use the stomach region as the generator – where movement is

achieved by involving the whole body working as a chain – then one is able to perform

taijiquan. Jou (1980, p.149) reveals that the great taijiquan master Chen Manching told his

pupils that ‘if you move your hands arbitrarily, not following the body, well, you are just

doing exercise, not really practicing taijiquan.’ Zhao (2004) observes that the technique of

relaxation and the perception of playing the piano ‘from the stomach’ shows to some extent

that piano playing is a sort of performing qigong or taijiquan. Furthermore, the act of

performing taijiquan occurs only when the pianist is able to play with the coordination of

firm fingers (solid base) and total body involvement.

The above discussion reveals that it is worth incorporating these principles of taijiquan in

dissecting the issues of body-coordination in piano playing. Playing the piano by just moving

5 Zhao Xiaosheng also developed a compositional technique through the Taiji method.

6 Dantian here refers to the lower dantian situated three inches under the navel

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the fingers without integral coordination from the body is prone to injury. While over-

emphasizing the technique of relaxation without a solid training of the fingers (such as that of

a stance) results in the absence of both clarity in sound and stamina in fingers, this in turn has

a negative impact on the endurance required for virtuosic repertoire. Therefore, the notion of

xia shi shang xü can be applied as a theory for pianist in preparing for a solid root in the

congruent coordination of total body involvement.

Moreover, the principles of substantial and insubstantial changes of yin and yang can work as

a guide to the pianist’s frame of mind: balancing and varying the input of each anatomical

feature in avoiding the extreme condition, over the straining of muscles and stagnancy.

Balance is therefore the overriding factor which derives from both the constancy and changes

of yin and yang (Bennett, 1978). For instance, the theory of substantial and insubstantial can

be applied as a guide to studying the degree of weight and strength distribution, such as:

i) amongst the fingers of one hand

ii) between both hands

iii) between fingers and weight of arms or

iv) between fingers and the body weighing upon it

By practicing these philosophies of moderation and the changes of yin and yang, one can

perceive if stagnation or overuse occurs in any part of the body that results in stiffness,

tension or exhaustion.

CONCLUSION

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In conclusion, the theory of taijiquan is found ideal in seeking balance and increasing the

level of mobility, working in tandem with the natural structure of our body. Author of The

Artist at the Piano, George Woodhouse wrote that:

Pianoforte playing, not being a natural art, necessarily requires a certain amount of

scientific application, and some principles must be ingrained in the minds and fingers

of students before they are free to devote their attention to musical studies

(Woodhouse, 1925, p.49).

Stories of how powerful taijiquan movement can be are never mystical, but scientific. The

principles of balancing body coordination with the theory of substantial and insubstantial is

ideal for efficient physical movement; also to avoid stagnation, which is a primary reason for

injury and limiting of mobility. Therefore, it may be justified to say that the theory of

taijiquan, which originates from the philosophy of nature – yin and yang, is worth

assimilating as a model principle for pianists aiming to move naturally within a balanced state

of anatomical structure: moving in harmony from wuji (nothingness) to taiji (the mother of

yin and yang).

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