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F01 Sceince and Tech 01 xxxx prelims.indd 1 7/6/2019 8:24:55 AM


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Science and

Technology

Sheelwant Singh


Photo Credits

All Chapter Openers: Toria. Shutterstock


ISBN 978-93-528-6461-4

Copyright © 2019 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128. No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’sprior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisherreserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

eISBN: Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector-16,Noida 201 301,Uttar Pradesh, India.

website: in.pearson.com, Email: [email protected]

Registered Office: The HIVE, 3rd Floor, Metro Zone, No.44, Pillayar Koil Street, Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Anna Nagar, Chennai 600 040, Tamil Nadu, India.Phone: 044-66540100

I dedicate this book to Mr. Pradeep Kumar Singh

Who always inspire me to do hard work with dedication and honesty


Contents

Preface xviiAbout the Author xviiiScience and Technology Study Strategy xixExamination Analysis xxiiScience and Technology: Trend Analysis xxiiiRecent Developments in Science and Technology xxv

Section A

Unit IIntroduction to Science and Technology

1. Introduction and Developmentof Science and Technology in India 1.5Introduction 1.5

Development of Science in Ancient India 1.5Aryabhatta 1.6Astronomy 1.6Mathematics 1.6Medicine 1.7Metallurgy 1.7Geography 1.8

Scientifi c and Technological Developmentsin Medieval India 1.8Biology 1.8Mathematics 1.8Chemistry 1.9Astronomy 1.9

Science And Technology Development Post Independence 1.9Atomic Research 1.10Department of Science and Technology 1.10Science and Engineering Research

Board (SERB) 1.10Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired

Research (INSPIRE) 1.11

Infrastructure Development Programmes 1.11Strengthening Institutional Capacity

for Research 1.11

Technology Development, Deploymentand Missions 1.12Natural Resources Data Management

Programme 1.13National Spatial Data Infrastructure

Programme 1.13State S&T Programme 1.13Science Communication and Popularization 1.13

Important Autonomous Bodies, Boards and Undertakings 1.14Technology Development Board 1.14National Accreditation Board for Testing

and Calibrating Laboratories 1.14National Atlas and Thematic Mapping

Organization (NATMO) 1.14

Autonomous Scientifi c Institutions 1.14Department of Scientifi c and Industrial

Research (DSIR) 1.15Autonomous Institutions 1.15Autonomous Scientifi c Institutions—

Programmes 1.15

Organizations 1.16National Research Development Corporation

(NRDC) 1.16Central Electronics Limited 1.16Consultancy Development Centre 1.16Council of Scientifi c and Industrial

Research (CSIR) 1.16

Achievements in the Field of Science and Technology 1.17Indigenous Resources and Traditional

Knowledge 1.19Technologies for Mitigation and

Management of Natural Hazards 1.19Generation and Management of Intellectual

Property 1.19Public Awareness of Science and Technology 1.20International Science and Technology

Cooperation 1.20

Chapter at a Glance 1.21


Contentsviii

Chapter End Exercise 1.22Previous Years’ Questions 1.22Practice Exercise 1.23

Answer Keys 1.26

Hints and Explanations 1.26

2. Science and Technology Policies in India 1.27Introduction 1.27

Scientific Services 1.28

Research and Development Programmes 1.29Science and Engineering Research

Council (SERC) 1.29Nanomaterials Science and Technology

Initiative (NSTI) 1.29

Science and Technology Policy (2003) 1.29Policy Objectives 1.29Government Policies and Plans 1.29Information Technology and Defence 1.30

S&T through Planning Period 1.31Science, Technology and Innovation

Policy, 2013 1.31Key Features of the STI Policy, 2013 1.31Salient Features of STI Policy, 2013 1.31Aspirations of the Policy 1.32Mechanisms 1.32

An Approach to the 11th Five Year Plan 1.35

An Approach to the 12th Five-Year Plan (2012–17) 1.38

Notable Achievements in S&T 1.40Earth Sciences 1.40Atmospheric Sciences 1.41Polar Sciences 1.42Ocean Research 1.42Coastal Marine Ecology 1.43

Mission Programmes 1.43Climate Change Programme 1.43Himalayan Glaciology Programme 1.44National Mission in Bamboo Application 1.44Mission on Nanoscience and Technology 1.44Mission for Geospatial Applications 1.44

Science and Technology in 21st Century 1.44Units Under the Ministry of Earth Sciences 1.45Atmospheric Sciences 1.45

Polar Science and Cryosphere 1.46Ocean Sciences and Services 1.46Ocean Survey and Resources 1.47Ocean Technology 1.47Marine Micro-Algae Biotechnology 1.48International Cooperation 1.51



Answer Keys 1.57


Unit II Progression of Science and Technology

1. Space Technology 1.61Introduction 1.61

Space Science 1.61Two Ways of Exploration 1.61

Space Research in India 1.62

Organization Setup Under ISRO 1.63Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) 1.64ISRI Satellite Centre (ISAC) 1.64Sriharikota High Altitude Range

Centre (SHAR) 1.64ISRS Telemetry, Tracking and Command

Network 1.64INSAT Master Control Facility 1.64National Remote-Sensing Agency 1.64National Mesosphere-Troposphere

Radar Facility 1.64Second Launch Pad at Sriharikota 1.65Antariksh Corporation Limited 1.65

Indian Space Vision for the Next Decade 1.66

Satellite Systems 1.71Different Types of Orbits 1.71

Indian Satellite System/INSAT 1.73Control and Stability in Orbit 1.74

India’s Earlier Satellites 1.75Aryabhata 1.75Bhaskara-I & II 1.75APPLE (Ariane Passenger Payload

Experiment) 1.75


Contents ix

Rohini 1.75Stretched Rohini Series Satellites

(SROSS-C and SROSS-C2) 1.75

Remote-Sensing Satellites 1.75Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbits 1.76Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit 1.76Multispectral Imaging 1.76Charge-Coupled Devices or CCDs 1.77Remote-Sensing Applications 1.77

Signal Systems 1.79

Direct-to-Home Service 1.80Working of DTH Network 1.81Advantages and Limitations of DTH Network 1.81

Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) 1.82VSAT Technology 1.83

Future Applications 1.84

Satellite Launch Vehicles 1.84Rocket Technology 1.85SLV-3 1.85ASLV 1.86PSLV 1.86New Solid-Propellant Strap on Motor 1.88Geostationary Launch Vehicle (GSLV) 1.88

History of Indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP) 1.89Cryogenic Engine Technology 1.89Applications of Cryogenic Technology 1.89

New Technology in Launch Vehicle Programme 1.90Programme Materials Production 1.90Newer Rocket Launch Methods 1.91Air-Breathing Rocket 1.91Ione Engine 1.91Options to Bring Down the Cost 1.91A Reusable Launch Vehicle 1.91

Space capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE) 1.92Reuseable Launch Vehicle Tested

Successfully 1.92

Sounding Rockets 1.92Location of Launch Pads 1.93Terls 1.93

Hyperplane Project Space Satal Avatar 1.94

Global Positioning System 1.94Galileo (European Satellite Navigation

System) 1.94

Need for Galileo 1.95Gagan 1.95Glonass 1.95Telemedicine 1.96Village Resource Centres (VRCs) 1.96

Space Technology in World 1.97World Space Research Programme 1.97The Russian Space Technology

Programme 1.97The European Space Technology

Programme 1.98China’s Space Technology Programme 1.98

India’s Space Technology Programme 1.99Hubble Space Telescope 1.99SpaceX’s Dragon 1.99Hyperplane 1.99Hyperplane: Project Avatar 1.99RLV-TD 1.99Space Recovery Experiment 1.100Chandrayaan-II 1.100Satellite Navigation 1.100Progress of Space Technology 1.104



Answer Keys 1.121


2. Indian Nuclear Programme and Technology 1.127Introduction 1.127

Nuclear Power in India 1.127Atomic Energy Regulatory Board 1.128Department of Atomic Energy 1.128Need for Nuclear Energy 1.129

Nuclear Processes 1.129Nuclear Fission 1.129Nuclear Fusion 1.130Radioactivity 1.131Chain Reaction 1.131Nuclear Reactor 1.131

Nuclear Reactor/Atomic Reactor 1.135Parts of Nuclear Reactors 1.135Nuclear Chain Reactions 1.135


Contentsx

Mechanism of Nuclear Power Generation 1.136

Development of Nuclear Energy in India 1.136India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power

Programme 1.136Atomic Energy Centres in India 1.140Research Reactors in India 1.141Types of Nuclear Power Reactors 1.142

Department of Atomic Energy 1.143Nuclear Power Corporation of India

Limited (NPCIL) 1.143Functions of Nuclear Power Corporation

of India Limited (NPCIL) 1.143

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) 1.145Radiation Technologies and Applications 1.146Radioisotope Production and Processing 1.146Application of Radioisotopes 1.146

Nuclear Medicine and Healthcare 1.148New Radiation Sterilization of Medical

Products 1.149Industrial Applications of Radioisotopes 1.149Beam Technologies 1.149

Development of Higher Technology 1.149Accelerator 1.149Pulse Electron Accelerator 1.149Radio-Telescopy 1.150Agricultural Nuclear Technology 1.150Radioactivity 1.150Radioisotopes 1.150Applications of Radioisotopes 1.150Important Terminology 1.150Tokamak 1.151Radiometric Dating/Radioactive Dating 1.151Radiocarbon Dating 1.151Uranium-lead Radiometric Dating 1.152Potassium–argon Dating 1.152Rubidium–strontium Dating 1.152

International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) 1.152Aims of ITER’s Mission 1.153

Nuclear Waste Management 1.153Stages in Nuclear Waste Management 1.153Nuclear Tests of India 1.154

Regulation and Safety Authority 1.154International Atomic Energy Agency 1.154

The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board 1.154Nuclear Supplier Group 1.155The Nuclear Power Corporation of India

Limited (NPCIL) 1.155Non-proliferation Treaty 1.155Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority

Bill, 2011 1.155Nuclear Command Authority 1.155Political Council 1.155India’s Points of Objections on CTBT 1.156

Significance of Indian Nuclear Explosions 1.156Thermo-Nuclear Bomb 1.156Neutron Bomb 1.157Nuclear Fallout 1.157Nuclear Winter 1.157

Nuclear Accidents 1.157Windscale Fire 1.157Three Mile Island 1.157The Goiânia Accident 1.158The Chernobyl Accident 1.158

The India-based Neutrino Observatory 1.158

Dark Matter 1.159

The String Theory and Axions 1.159Accelerator Driven System 1.160

Laser-Induced Plasma Spectroscopy 1.160Yellow Cake/or Urania 1.161



Answer Keys 1.165


3. Biotechnology and Genetics 1.169Introduction 1.169

Importance of Biotechnology 1.170Branches of Biotechnology 1.171

Biotechnology Research and Development in India 1.172Department of Biotechnology (DBT) 1.172Human Resource Development 1.172Contribution of India in various Branches

of Biotechnology 1.173Basic Research in Modern Biology 1.174


Contents xi

Biotech Product and Process Development 1.175Miscellaneous Issues 1.176

How does Modern Biotechnology Work? 1.177DNA Vaccine 1.179

Human Applications 1.180Industrial Biotechnology 1.180Environmental Biotechnology 1.181Fighting Infectious Diseases 1.182Antibiotics 1.182Reproductive Technologies 1.182

Cloning 1.184Recombinant DNA Technology or

DNA Cloning 1.184Reproductive Cloning 1.184Therapeutic Cloning 1.185How can Cloning Technologies be Used? 1.185Can Organs be Cloned for Use

in Transplants? 1.186Risks of Cloning 1.186Cloning Animals 1.186Human Cloning 1.188

Stem Cells 1.189Types of Stem Cells 1.189Potential Uses of Stem Cells 1.190Stem Cells and Cloning 1.192

Genetically Modified Organism 1.193Genetically Modified (GM) Food: Benefits

and Controversies 1.193

Human Genome 1.195The Human Genome Project 1.195

DNA Fingerprinting 1.196Practical Applications of DNA

Fingerprinting 1.196Problems with DNA Fingerprinting 1.196

Gene Therapy 1.197Working of Gene Therapy 1.198What is the Current Status of Gene Therapy

Research? 1.199

Plant Tissue Culture 1.199

Bioinformatics 1.200Need for Bioinformatics 1.200Bioinformatics Methods 1.201Application of Bioinformatics 1.201

Bioremediation 1.201Bioremidiation Methods 1.201

Bioprospecting 1.202Bio-Piracy 1.202Bio-pesticides 1.202

Bio-Fertilizers 1.203Steps by Government of India 1.204



Answer Keys 1.212


4. Information and Communication Technology 1.217Introduction 1.217

Information Technology Industry in India 1.217National Informatics Centre (NIC) 1.217Biotechnology Information System

Network (BTISNET) 1.217NICNET (NIC Network) 1.218Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) 1.218National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) 1.218Information and Library Network

(INFLIBNET) 1.218

Internet 1.218Internet in India 1.219Internet Protocol 1.219Internet Telephony or VoIP 1.220Wireless (Mobile) Internet 1.220Remote Area Business Message

Network (RABMN) 1.220Education and Research Network (ERNET) 1.220Cloud Computing 1.220Service Models of Cloud Computing 1.220

Important Services of Internet 1.221E-mail (Electronic mail) 1.221P-Commerce 1.221Video Conferencing or Video

Teleconference 1.221Social Networking Sites 1.221Cyber Crimes 1.221Computer Virus 1.222


Contentsxii

Important Malwares 1.222Security Management 1.222Computer Worm 1.223

Medium of Communication 1.2233G Technology 1.2233G Standards 1.2234G Technology 1.224Bluetooth and Wireless Technology 1.225Wi-Fi 1.225Li-Fi 1.227IMAX 1.228GPRS 1.228IPTV 1.229

Computer 1.231History 1.231Characteristics of Computer 1.231Limitations of a Computer 1.231Top 10 Supercomputers of the World 1.233Internal Structure of a Computer 1.234Dual Core Technology 1.236

Software 1.236System Software 1.236Utility Software 1.238Application Software 1.238General-purpose Software 1.238

Computer Networks 1.238Local Area Network (LAN) 1.238Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 1.238Wide Area Network (WAN) 1.238Personal Area Network (PAN) 1.239Wireless Personal Area Network 1.239Body Area Network 1.239Virtual Private Network (VPN) 1.239Ethernet Networking 1.239E-mail 1.239Voice Telephony (VoIP) 1.239

Computer Simulation 1.240Applications of Computer Simulation 1.240Nanocomputing—The Next Wave 1.240

Convergence of Technologies 1.242Prospects of Convergence of Technologies 1.242

Global Innovation and Technology Alliance (GITA) 1.242Significance of GITA 1.243

Focus Areas for Global Technological Alliance 1.243

EYCIN 1.243Working of EYCIN 1.243

Optical Discs 1.244

Google Earth 1.244

Identity Theft 1.244

Phishing 1.245

Optical Computing 1.245Importance of Optical Computing 1.245

Why are Optical Computers Faster? 1.246

Blogging/Blog 1.246Types of Blogs 1.246

Virtual Reality 1.246How is Virtual Reality Environment

Created? 1.246

GSM (Global System for Mobile) 1.247How is GSM Better than First Generation

Wireless System? 1.247

What are the Advantages of GSM? 1.247

EDGE/EGPRS 1.247What are Advantages of EDGE? 1.247

Expert Systems 1.248

Interactive Television (ITV) 1.248Different Forms/Configurations of ITV 1.248

Smart Card 1.249

Instrument Landing System 1.249What are the Limitations of ILS? 1.249

Virtual Water 1.250What is Virtual Water Trade and its

Significance? 1.250

Natural Disaster Information System 1.250How will NDIS Warn People About

an Impending Disaster? 1.250


Chapter End Exercise 1.253Previous Years’ Questions 1.253

Practice Exercise 1.256

Answer Keys 1.260



Contents xiii

5. Defence Research and Technology 1.263Introduction 1.263

Government’s Role in Defence Research and Technology 1.263India’s Manoeuvres in Defence Research 1.263Functions of Ministry of Defence 1.264

Organizational Set up and Functions 1.265

Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) 1.265Introduction 1.265Vision 1.266Mission 1.266Infrastructure 1.266

Missile Programme of India 1.267Integrated Guided Missile Development

Programme of India (IGMDP) 1.267Indian Ballistic Missile Defence

Program (IBMDP) 1.274Advanced Air Defence (AAD)/Ashwin

Ballistic Missile Interceptor 1.274Strategically Important Missiles Outside

the IGMDP 1.274

Battle Tanks in India 1.278Arjun 1.278T-90S Tank 1.279The T-90 M Bhishma 1.279

Air Crafts 1.280LCA: Third Prototype Makes Maiden Flight 1.281Saras: India’s First Indigenous Civilian

Aircraft 1.281Lakshya 1.282Nishant 1.283

Indian Navy Ships 1.284INS Mumbai 1.284INS Delhi 1.284INS Airavat 1.284INS Viraat 1.284INS Susana 1.284INS Vikramaditya 1.285INS Vikrant 1.285INS Kolkata 1.285INS Sumitra 1.285INS Kamorta 1.285INS Astradharini 1.285

RLD-TD 1.285Varunastra (Torpedo) 1.285INS Karna 1.286

Indian Submarines 1.287Arihant 1.287K-152 Nerpa 1.287Scorpene Class 1.287Sindhughosh Class 1.287INS Kalvari (S50) 1.287

IRNSS Series 1.292

Radar Systems 1.292Rajendra Radar 1.294Indian Doppler Radar (INDRA) 1.294Swordfish Radar 1.294WLR 1.294Aparna 1.294Rohini 1.294

Stealth Technology 1.294India’s Status in Stealth Technology 1.296Agreements for Defence and Security

Equipments 1.299



Answer Keys 1.305


6. Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources 1.307Introduction 1.307

Background on Power Development in India 1.307Energy Sector in India 1.308

Ultra-Mega Power Projects 1.308

Non-Conventional Energy 1.308Indian Scenario for Renewable Energy 1.310

Natural Resources and Associated Problems 1.310The Unequal Consumption of Natural

Resource 1.310Planing Land Use 1.311The Need for Sustainable Lifestyles 1.311

Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Sources 1.312


Contentsxiv

Solar Energy 1.312International Solar Alliance 1.314

Wind Energy 1.314

Hydel Energy 1.315

Tidal Energy 1.316

Ocean Thermal Energy 1.316

Geothermal Energy 1.317

Biomass Energy 1.317Biogas 1.319

Biofuels 1.320

Hydrogen as a Fuel 1.321Limitations of Non-Renewable Energy

Sources 1.322Coal 1.322Petroleum 1.323Natural Gas 1.323

Cumulative Achievements of Renewable Energy Programmes in India 1.324Biomass Power/Cogeneration 1.324Biomass Gasifiers and other Biomass

Energy Programmes 1.325

Rural Energy Programmes 1.326

Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP) 1.326Urjagram 1.327Chemical Sources of Energy Programme 1.327Geothermal Energy Related Programmes 1.328

Energy from Urban and Industrial Wastes 1.329

National Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban and Industrial Wastes 1.330

Magneto Hydrodynamics 1.332

Fuel Cell 1.332Different Types of Fuel Cells 1.332

Miscellaneous 1.339

CFL 1.339Working of CFL 1.339

Coal Bed Methane 1.339The Process of Adsorption 1.340The Process of Desorption 1.340


Chapter End Exercise 1.342

Previous Years’ Questions 1.342Practice Exercise 1.343

Answer Keys 1.346


7. Nutrition and Health 1.349Introduction 1.349

Macro-Nutrients 1.349Carbohydrates 1.350Proteins 1.351Fats 1.351

Micro-Nutrients 1.352

Nutritive Value of Food 1.353Nutritive Value of Indian Foods 1.354Nutritive Value of Processed Foods 1.354

Fermentation Technology in Food Science 1.355Fermentation Process 1.355Benefits of Probiotic Foods 1.358

National Health Policy 1.358National Health Policy, 2017 1.358Quality Control in Food, Drug and

Medical Devices 1.360Department of AYUSH 1.361Department of Health Research 1.361Department of AIDS Control 1.362International Cooperation 1.363

Health Problems in India 1.363

Water-related Diseases 1.365

Reproductive and Child Health Project 1.366First Phase 1.366Second Phase 1.366

Latest Developments 1.367National Rural Healthcare Mission 1.367

Various Diseases 1.369Dots 1.369Polio 1.369Charge Syndrome (Coloboma,

Heart Defect, Atresia Choanae) 1.369Measles 1.369Avian Influenza (H5N1) (Bird Flu) 1.369Swine Flue (H1N1) 1.370Scrub Typhus 1.370


Contents xv

Zika Virus 1.370New Ebola Vaccine 1.370Malaria 1.370AIDS 1.371Poliomyelitis 1.375Avian Flu 1.378New Bird Flu Vaccine Developed 1.379

Diabetes 1.379Types of Diabetes 1.379Why is Diabetes Considered So Dangerous? 1.379

Improving Women’s Health in India 1.380An Overview of Women’s Health 1.380Occupational and Social Influences

on Health 1.381

The Rotterdam Convention 1.381



Answer Keys 1.390


Unit III Recent Research and Development

in Science and Technology

1. Modern Science and Technology 1.395Robotics 1.395

Types of Robots 1.395Components of Industrial Robots 1.396

A Robot System 1.397Industry Applications 1.398Advantages of Using Robots in Industries 1.399Application of Robots at Home Environment 1.400Application of Robots in Non-manufacturing

Areas 1.401Medical Applications 1.402Microrobotics 1.403Robotic Walking Frame 1.403

Supercomputer: World and India 1.406Super Computer in India 1.406India Joins Teraflop Club 1.409Latest Developments 1.409

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) 1.409Formation of Laser 1.410Applications of LASER 1.410

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) 1.410

Optical Fibre 1.411Step-Index Fibre 1.411Graded-Index Fibre 1.412Pulse Spreading 1.413Advantages and Disadvantages of

Optical Fibres 1.413Fibre Optic Sensors 1.414Fibre Amplifiers 1.414

Super Conductivity 1.415Principle of Superconductivity 1.415Applications 1.415

Large Hadron Collider (LHC) 1.416Objectives of LHC 1.416Design of LHC 1.416Detectors 1.416

CERN 1.417Objectives of CERN 1.418CERN’s Mission 1.418Particle Accelerators 1.419Scientific Achievements 1.419CERN’s Structure 1.420Members 1.420

Fast Neutron Reactor 1.420India’s Position on Fast Neutron Reactor 1.421

Artificial Intelligence (AI) 1.421Artificial Intelligence Includes 1.421Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence 1.422Artificial Intelligence and World 1.422

Augmented Reality (AR) 1.422Touchscreen Technology 1.422iPad 1.423Adam 1.423

Digital Signature 1.424Working Principals of Digital Signature 1.424Significance 1.424

Cloud Computing 1.425Categories of Cloud Computing 1.425Types of Clouds 1.428


Contentsxvi

Cloud Seeding 1.428Application of Cloud Seeding 1.428Challenges of Cloud Seeding 1.428

Nanotechnology 1.429Background 1.429Applications of Nanotechnology 1.430Potential Benefits 1.430Implications 1.431

Long Term Evolution (LTE) 1.431

Mobile Number Portability (MNP) 1.432

Light Emitting Diode (LED) 1.434Concerns about LED’s 1.434Applications of LED 1.435

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 1.435Working of LCD 1.435Applications 1.436

Compact Fluorescent Light (CFL) 1.436Advantages of CFL than Filament Bulbs 1.437

Digital Money 1.437Bitcoin 1.437Virtual Currency 1.437

Hyperloop Technology 1.438Importance of Hyperloop 1.438

Fuel-Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Technology 1.439

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) 1.439Types of IPR 1.439National IPR Policy, 2016 1.441Limitations 1.442Conclusion and way forward 1.442

Trademark Rules 1.442Significance 1.443

Data Exclusivity 1.443Challenges for Data Exclusivity 1.443

Generic Medicines 1.443Current regulation regarding Generic

Drugs in India 1.444

Challenges for Generic Drugs in India 1.444Preventive Measures for Common Usage

of Generic Drugs 1.444

Bioprospecting and Biopiracy 1.445Advantages and Challenges of Bioprospecting

and Biopiracy 1.445Steps Taken to Prevent Biopiracy 1.446



Answer Keys 1.457


Section B

Sample Questions with Answers 2.3

Section C

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-I 3.3

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-II 3.11

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-III 3.16

Practice Paper for Mains Examination 3.23

Section D

Appendices 4.3


Science and Technology is an extremely important section as per the recent examination pattern of Civil Service and other Public Service Examinations. The book has been developed in line with past examination trends and it lays emphasis on conceptual understanding of past discoveries to recent developments with its’ socio-political impact. The content is written lucidly and structured logically to facilitate easy understanding of the core concepts and its applications.

This title provides complete coverage of the UPSC syllabus, which includes recent developments on Space Technology; Protection and Defense Technology; Information Technology and Communication System; Non-Conventional and Nuclear Energy Resources; Biotechnology; Health and Nutrition; Immunization System; Environment and Ecology, etc. All gov-ernment policies, schemes and its impact-analysis (both national and inter-national) are highlighted along with the relevant text. This book is highly useful for both in-depth study as well as for last minute revision.

Signifi cant Feature: • Previous years’ (both Prelims and Main) trend analysis and study strategy are provided for effective preparation • Comprehensive coverage with enhanced pedagogy Additional information and connections are provided in Text-boxes Tables, fl ow-charts, diagrams, photographs are included for better understanding Solved previous years’ questions from Prelims and Mains examinations are provided at the end of every chapter • Model questions for Prelims and Mains examinations are provided for further practice • Chapter on ‘Environment and Ecology’ is provided on online link: https://www.pearsoned.co.in/SheelwantSingh/

Special Coverage on: • Key developments in the 21st century and their impact • ISRO’s launch programs and policies • Latest updates on government policies and schemes • Proposed Space Plan (2019–20)

AcknowledgementI give my cordial regards to all my well wishers, family and friends who have supported me a lot to accomplishing this book. Special mention to Mr. Shridhant Joshi, Director of Kautilya Academy from Indore; Mr. Amit Singh, Director CFA, Agra; Mr. Anil Tiwari, Director Forth Pillar Institute, Raipur; and Mr. Shridhant Joshi Director Kautilya Academy, Indore.

To make the content enrich and more effective, I am very thankful to Ms. Sarika, Director of Vidya Research Foundation Trust; Dr Jalal Ahmad Khan, Dr Kriti Rastogi, Mr. V. S. P Roy, Mr. B. K. Singh, and Dr Dhananjay Srivastava. They all have highly contributed to improve the content of this book

I would also give my gratitude to Dr Santosh Upadhyaya (Selected PCS, UP); Shri Harihar Bholanath Mishra; Mr. Rajneesh Raj, Director of Shihanta IAS Institute; Prof. P. K. Singh, Chief Proctor of National PG College; and Dr Ritu Jain Lecturer of National PG College. I am also very thankful to the Prof. Rakesh Mishra from Lucknow University and to all my students, especially, Himanshu Kumar, Pawan Yadav and Dipti.

For all the typesetting and technical support I am very thankful to Mr. Vikas Srivastava and Mr. Chandrashekhar Bhatt Ji.Lastly, I am thankful to the entire Pearson team for dedication to their work and publishing this book for UPSC aspirants.My all best wishes are with all those students who are preparing for UPSC examination.

Sheelwant [email protected]

Preface


Dr. Sheelwant Singh, Founder Director of Brainz IAS Institute for Civil and Judicial Services, is one of the popular author for several competitive books. He is also actively involved as co-editor of Pratiyogita Drishti—a monthly magazine publishing from Jaipur, Rajasthan.

He accomplished his Ph.D in Environmental Science from NEERI, Nagpur, Maharashtra. In his past experiences, Dr Singh has taught in various IAS institution of private and government sector in New Delhi, Pune, Agra, Patna, Allahabad, Jharkhand, Indore and Lucknow. He was a Programme Coordinator and Advisor in Adarsh Poorve Pariksha Kendra, Bhagidari Bhawan running by Ministry of Social Welfare, Uttar Pradesh and Rafi kul Mulk Mulayam Singh Yadav Study Centre by Ministry of Minorities, Uttar Pradesh.

Dr Singh has won First Prize in India and Second Prize in Asia Continent on the occasion of ‘International Environment Conference’ organized by UNESCO under UNDP and UNEP in the year 2001. For creative writing skill and innovative ideas, he had received Gold Medal from Honorable Vice President of India – Mr. K. Krisnakant in the same year. In the year 2002, he got a Silver Medal from Loichro Mathsura and monetary honorarium from Mr. Anil Kakodkar, Director of BARC, Trombay, Mumbai.

Dr Singh is a receiver of First Prize and Best Speaker Award from CDAC, Pune, Maharashtra. He also bagged the award of Sixth Satpal Mittal National Environmental Award from Honorable Vice President of India Shri Bhairon Singh Shekhawat in 2005.

About the Author


In Civil Services Preliminary Examination, ‘Science and Technology’ section is included under General Studies Paper I. After analyzing the previous years’ questions, it shows that on an average ten questions are appeared in the paper from this section which can be further divided into the following categories:

• 5 percent of questions are usually based on facts

• 15 percent of questions are usually based on the concept

• 30 percent of questions are usually questions based on concept application

• 50 percent of questions are usually questions based on facts from intensive study and analysis

The questions are usually focused on recent developments of Science and Technology, and to answer those questions student should have the curiosity to know more on day to day updates along with fundamental knowledge in this fi eld. So as per the examination pattern, we can highlight the major sections of Science and Technology under following heads:

1. Space Technology (India and the World)

2. Protection and Defense Technology

3. Information Technology and Communication System

4. Non Conventional and Nuclear Energy Resources

5. Health and Nutrition; Immunization System

6. Environment and Ecology

7. Biotechnology

8. Recent Developments in Science and Technology

additional Topics

1. India’s Space Research Centers and their Importance

2. India’s Major Protection-Defense and Research Units

3. Numerical Terminology and Major Institutions of Information Communication

4. Major Terminology and Institute related to Electronics and Computer

5. India’s all Nuclear Reactors and their Locations

6. Major Electricity Generation Centers in India (Thermal, Hydro, Biomass, Atomic and Unconventional)

7. Major Organizations related to Biotechnology

8. Major Disease and its Causes, Prevention, and Impact

9. Various types of Pollution and its Causes, Prevention

10. Major Organizations associated with Biochemistry

11. Major Organizations associated with Agricultural Science

12. New Seeds and Species in various Crops

Science and Technology Study Strategy


Science and Technology Study Strategyxx

TypeS of QueSTionS appeared in The examinaTion (Sample QueSTionS)

Science and Technology

Space TechnologyFact-based questions will be as follows: 1. In the context of the Earth, the beginning of space is

generally considered:

(a) After a distance of 800 km above the earth’s sur-face

(b) 1000 km above the earth’s surface

(c) 36000 km above the earth’s surface

(d) None of Above Ans: (b)

Explanation: The beginning of space is considered after the Earth’s atmosphere, which comes after a height of 1000 km

Concept-based questions will be as follows: 2. Space is:

(a) Where due to high gravitational force things moves around each other

(b) Where the amounts of gases are zero, due to which the frictional force does not work and the gravitational force is also zero.

(c) Space is a kind of black hole.

(d) Where many types of magnetic and ultraviolet X rays exist.

Ans: (b)

Explanation: The answer of this question would be option “B” because it explains the acute condition of space. Therefore, such questions can be solved only when the theory and concepts of student are clear.

Application-based questions will be as follows: 3. Consider the following statements

1. Geostationary satellites are placed in earth’s orbit at a distance of 10 thousand kms.

2. The reason for being the best type of FM trans-mission of music is the atmospheric or artificial noise which is usually in the form of frequency change, will not be much harmful for it.

Choose the right option

(a) Only 1 is right

(b) only 2 is right

(c) both 1 and 2 are right

(d) neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Information-based questions will be as follows 4. In the context of Indian satellites and their launchers,

consider the following statements:

1. All satellites belongs to INSAT series were launched from abroad

2. PSLV was used to launch satellites of IRS series.

3. India used the first self manufactured cold-water based engines to give power to the third phase of GSLV

4. There is an earning load for transmitting data broadcast and Internet services on GSAT launched in the year 2001.


(a) 1,2,3,4 are right (b) 2,3,4 are right

(c) 1,2,4, are right (d) 1 and 3 are right

Ans: (d)optical fibreFact-based questions will be as follows: 1. Optical fiber is made-up of:

(a) Glass (b) Aluminium

(c) Silica (d) Copper

Ans: (c)

Explanation: Optical fiber is made of silica which is obtained from sand. In India it usually digs from Ban-galore, while in America there are valleys of Silicon in the city of California. That’s why it is known as Silicon Valley. Factual knowledge is required in these types of questions which can be empowered by prac-tice repeatedly.

Concept-based questions will be as follows: 2. Optical fiber works on:

(a) Reflection of light

(b) Refraction of light

(c) Scattering of light

(d) Whole internal refraction

Ans: (d)


Science and Technology Study Strategy xxi

Explanation: Optical fiber works on whole internal refraction of light. Therefore, such type of questions can be solved only when the concept of the student is also clear along with its theory.

Application of concept based questions will be as follows 3. Optical fiber is used in

1. Information broadcasting and electronics.

2. Medical and health services.


(a) Only 1 is right

(b) Only 2 is right

(c) Both 1 and 2 are right

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Ans: (c)

Explanation: Optical fiber is widely used in Infor-mation, Communication and Electronics as well as in medicine and health. To solve these types of ques-tions, special attention must be paid on its new appli-cations.

Information-based questions will be as follows. 4. Make true statements about optical fiber.

1. Reliance Industries is India’s largest company in the manufacturing of optical fiber.

2. Madhya Pradesh is the first Indian state to use optical fiber.

3. The first line of optical fiber was laid in Pune between Shivaji Nagar and cantonment.

4. Optical fiber is 0.005mm thin cylindrical tubules.


(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2,3 and 4

(c) 1,2,4 (d) All of above

Explanation: Reliance Industries is the leading company of the country and Madhya Pradesh is the first Indian state to use optical fiber and its factory is located in Bhopal and the first line of optical fiber was laid in Pune and the Optical fiber is 0.005 mm thin cylindrical tubules. To solve this type of ques-tion, all types of information should be assessed from beginning to end.


Classifi�cation�of�Questions�asked�in�Science�and�Technology

S. No. Content

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Useful study source for the examination based on of the subject questions of past years

1Space Technology

1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 3 1 1 1 3 2 2

Satellite Launch Vehicle, Orbit, Major Satellites, Industrial Programs and Applications of Different Countries

2Defence Technology

1 1 2 0 1 0 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 2

Types of Missiles, Defence Rights, Defense Achievements, Defence Programs, Maneuvers, Defense Organization

3

Information Broadcasting, Computer and Electronics Technology

2 2 2 1 1 3 1 3 0 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1

Means of Information Broadcasting, Key Concepts and Technologies

4 Biotechnology 1 2 0 1 0 2 2 1 1 2 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 1Biotechnology Applications and Latest Concepts

5

Energy and Nuclear Energy Technology

1 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 1 2

Source of Energy, Types, Situation of Sources, Energy Budget, Energy Crisis, Nuclear Energy Organizations and Programme

6Latest Science and Technology

2 3 2 3 0 2 2 1 4 3 3 2 1 3 2 2 3 5

Application of Laser, Nano, Superconductivity, Plasma, Robotics, Radar, CFL, LED, Semiconductor, Weather Forecasting, etc.

Total Questions Asked 8 11 8 9 5 10 11 10 9 11 8 8 8 10 11 10 10 13

The questions related to satellites, their orbits, launch vehicles, present and future space programs of national and international level, missiles and their development and future plans, latest innovations of science and technology, space, defense, biotechnology, infor-mation broadcasting, nuclear research, centers of agricultural research and their locations, innovation and research of modern science and technology are asked. Questions asked on science and technology is a series of questions based on traditional knowledge, present knowledge and future plans. The nature of the questions to be asked is of India and the global level. Average Questions: 12

Examination Analysis


Content Nature of Questions Asked in Examination Study Strategy

1

Space Technology

• Historical background (Comparative studies in India and world)

• Space programs INSAT, G-SAT, IRS• Space exploration / Mission lunar probe /

Mission Mars / Other space shuttles• Application of IRS/INSAT• Satellite launch vehicle/satellite orbits• Space Station/Research centers• Recent trends-contemporary perspective of India and

the world

Point wise study along with systematic teaching system

2

Security and Defence Technology

• Public sector defense programs, their works and their progress

• Latest defense technology• India’s achievements in the defense sector

(missile, tank, training)

Teaching with tabular studies

3

Nuclear Technology

• Current, innovative and proposed nuclear power plants and programs

• National and International Nuclear Energy Centers and Organizations

• Historical Background and various application of uses of Nuclear Energy

• Recent Trends

Strategy of Comparative Tabular Study

4

Energy Technology

• Latest Energy Resources and its Characteristics• Energy Perspective in India• Energy Landscape in India• Condition of Energy Production Reactor-Thermal,

Gas, Coal • Latest Projects/Missions

Comparative Tabular study

5

Information Broadcasting, electronic and computer

• Medium of Latest and Conventional medium of communication and its characteristics

• Communication Technology and its characteristics• Types of language, memory capacity, speed and

development of computer• Recent updates

Comparative Tabular study

Science and Technology: Trend Analysis

(Continued )


Science and Technology: Trend analysisxxiv

Content Nature of Questions Asked in Examination Study Strategy

6

Biotechnology, Health and Medical Area

• Biotechnology: Conventional and Latest Methods• Biotechnology: Achievement and Programmes• Application of Biotechnology• Latest developments Comparative Tabular study

7

Modern Technology and Innovation, Research and

Development of 21st Centaury

• Laser-Maser, Radar-Lidar, Robotics, Nano, Super Conductor, Photonics

• Lidar, Remote Setting, Optic Fiber, Wi-fi, Wi-Max, Li-Fi, LED

• LED, DTH, IPTO, VSAT Transponder, Megapixel, Super Computer

• Plasma, Tele Medicine, 3G and 4G, Weather Forecasting etc.

• Latest Technology and its Application in recent years

Full Name and Explorer/Innovator,Meaning of Research and Development,Definition and Application: Comparative Tabular Study

�Important�Topics�for�Mains�Examination�and�Interview

(i) ITER Project and India

(ii) LHC Project and India

(iii) GM Food and India

(iv) Surrogacy Act

(v) NSG and India

(vi) India’s Policy on Nuclear Energy, Defence, Heath and Information and global reference of these policies

(vii) Impacts of Science and Technology on Development of India

(viii) India’s Achievements in the field of Space

(ix) Defence Area and Make In India

(x) Energy Crisis and Solutions

(xi) Information Techniques and its’ Impacts In India

(xii) Norms and Technology of Pharmacological Manufacturing in India

(xiii) Social and Economical Aspects of Drone Technique


Content Updates from India and the World

1. Space Technology • Recently Launched Satellites (i) INSAT and G-SAT series satellite (ii) IRS series satellites

• Proposed Satellites Mission Programme (2018–2020) (i) CHANDRAYAN – 2 (ii) ADITYA PARIYOJNA (iii) MANGAL Mission -2 and NIMO Mission

• Special Space Programme of India (i) Regional National Satellite Navigation (NAVIK) (ii) Satellite Navigation System (GAGAN) (iii) PSLV, GSLV (Recent Projections)

• Global Events (i) X 57 Plane (ii) Telescope (Geographical, Radio, Lighted) (iii) ATIZ Telescope (India) (iv) JUNO Mission (v) New Horizons and Wayezor Mission (vi) Successful fl ight testing of ISROs Scramjet engine technology (vii) 30 meter telescope (viii) Successful Testing of Domestic Indian Space Shuttle RLV (ix) Antrix - Devas confl ict – 11-55

• Proposed Space Plan (2019–20)

2. Security and Defence • Recently Tested Various Weapons (i) Cruise missiles – Brahmos, Nirbhay, Shaurya (ii) Ballistic missiles – Prithvi series, Agni series, Akash, Dhanush, K series

missile, Sagrika, K-4, Barak-8, Pinaka Mrak-2 (iii) Anti tank missile – Helena, Naag, Koinet-E, Amogh-I (iv) Tanks – Lahat, Arjun, Karan, T-19S, Bhishm (v) Automatic Domestic Canon - Dhanush, Bhima (vi) Drone – Lakshya, Nishant, Panchi, Kaborn, Netra, Rustom-I, Rustom-II (vii) Fighter Planes – Tejas, Sukhoi, Mirage-2000, MiG-30

• Joint Military Exercise ‘Yudh Abhyas 2017–18’: Surya Kiran, Malabar, X-Avia Indera, Inder, Garun, Simbeks, Shakti

• Technologies Introduced in Armed Forces (i) Bomb (Vacuum Bomb, Nuclear bomb, Hydrogen Bomb, Neutron Bomb,

Glided Bomb, Laser Bomb, Petrol Bomb) (ii) Pallet Gun and Incas, Grenade

Recent Developments in Science and Technology

(Continued )


recent developments in Science and Technologyxxvi


(iii) C17 Glob master (iv) V-Raptor Plane (v) Missile Defence System (vi) P.I. Plane (vii) Solar Power Grown Akila (viii) Submarine Kalwari and INS Kadmant (ix) India became 35th member of MTCR

• Recent Additions in Defence Forces (i) Admiral Gorshcove, Atomic Submarine Nerpa, Sukhoi-30, T-90 Tank (ii) Mirage 2000, Scorpion Submarine (iii) Radar (Falcon), Pranali (Awaks), Barak Missile Pranali (iv) IL-76, Plane of Uzbekistan, Russian Engine (v) Advanced Zed Trainer Plane (vi) C-130 J Super Hurculikc Plane/C-17 Glob Master Plane (vii) Howitzer Canon

• Progressive Status of India in New Defence Technology (i) CMDS (ii) WLER (iii) GPS and RGS (iv) Ashwani (v) Marich (vi) Interceptic (vii) Stelth Technique (viii) Cryogenic Technique

• Retired From Service (i) INS Virat (ii) INS Godawari

3. Energy and Nuclear Power • Nuclear Power (i) Neutrino Project (ii) Solar Impulse-2 and Solar Drone (iii) Electricity without cable (iv) Starting of 2nd Unit of Kundankulam (v) Testing of Hydrogen Bomb (vi) Nuclear Power Act-2017 (vii) Sterile Insect Technique• Recent Developments (i) New History of Nuclear Power (ii) NSG Vs. India (iii) Nuclear Treaty 2008–2018 ( iv) Hydrone Vision – 2030

• Proposed Nuclear Reactor (i) Koodankulam (ii) Haripura (iii) Jaitapur (iv) Chhayamirdi (v) Kowada (vi) Gorakhpur (vii) Fatehabad


recent developments in Science and Technology xxvii


4. Nutrition and Health • Mission Rainbow• Rota Bank• Ibola• Swine Flu• Fluorosis• Kyasanur Disease• Rotavirus• Zika Virus• Dengue Vaccia• Potassium Bromate• Arsenic Pollution• Ayush Mission

5. Bio-Technology • Tesco Becton• Bio Fertilizer• GM Corps• Bio Fuel and 2G• Elastography• Tescovectin• New Virus of HIV• Sterile insect technique (For Insects to damage corps) • Crisper Technique• Bio Plastic• Sebaknarth, Bio-ink• Three Parent Technique

6. Information Broadcasting • Idukki• Li-Fi• Social Networking Site• Digital India• Latest Information Broadcasting Technology• Information Broadcasting Policy and Programme• India’s Status In Super Computer- Vikram 100, Param Kanchan Jangha, Param

Yuva-2• Super Computer- Sunvey Taihulight • 2nd in Internet Use• Project Loon• Digi-locker

7. Modern Science and Technology

• Laser-Maser, Radar-Lidar, Robotics, Nano, Super Conductor, Photonics • Lidar, Remote Setting, Optic Fiber, Wi-Fi, Wi-Max, Li-Fi, LED• LED, DTH, IPTO, VSAT Transponder, Megapixel, Super Computer• Plasma, Tele Medicine, 3G and 4G Weather Forecasting

8. Miscellaneous • Four New Components in Periodic Table• Opiate Fentanyl• Quantum Spin Liquid• Wanta Black S-6 • Agriculture and Drone• Nano Optical Transistor• Synthetic Nano Robot• Silica Air Gel


Section A

S&T_Section A_Part1_Ch1.indd 1 7/6/2019 8:27:10 AM

Unit IIntroduction to Science and Technology

Chapter 1: Introduction and Development of Science and Technology in India

Chapter 2: Science and Technology Policies in India


IntroductIon

Science and Technology deals with how our social, political and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and then how these results are displayed in society, politics, and culture in broader perspective.

Similar to people in any other part of the world, India has a rich legacy of scientific research and innovation. A desire to know the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and observation, has always generated scientific temper. This has led to the assumption that truth resides in the real world with all its diversity and complexity. It has been the responsibility of scientists to unravel the mystery behind a truth and utilize the available resources for the progress of humanity.

development of ScIence In AncIent IndIA

Mathematics has been known by the general name Ganita which includes arithmetics, geom-etry, algebra, astronomy and astrology. Arithmetic was referenced by several names, such as Pattin ganita (calculations on board) and Anka ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry was known as Rekha ganita (line works) and algebra as Bija ganita (seed analysis), and astron-omy and astrology are included in the term Jyoti shastra. The dependence on nature could be overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in close proximity. Let us find out about the developments in diverse field of science in ancient India.

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

❍ Understand the development of science in ancient, medieval, modern and post-independent India.

❍ Know the infrastructure development programmes.

❍ Discuss the technology development, deployment and missions.

❍ List the achievements of India in the field of science and technology.

Learning Objectives

1Chapter

Introduction and Development of Science and Technology in India


Section A: unit I – Introduction to Science and technology1.6

Aryabhatta

Aryabhatta was a 5th century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the fi eld of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhatiya, which was a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work. In the fi rst section, he describes the method of denoting big decimals in the modern-day mathematics, such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and algebra. The remaining two sections are on astronomy. Aryabhatta showed that zero was not only a numeral but also a symbol and a concept. The discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to fi nd out the exact distance between the Earth and Moon. It also opened up a new dimension of neg-ative numerals. In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well-advanced and it was called Khagol shastra. Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied. In fact, the science of astronomy was highly advanced, and our ancestors were proud of it. The aim behind the development of astronomical sci-ence was the need to have accurate calendars. A better understanding of the climate and rainfall patterns for timely cultivation and choice of crops was effi ciently necessary. Fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, the calculation of time and costing of horoscopes for use in astrology was invented. Knowledge of astronomy, particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of great importance in trade because of the requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts during the night. Disregarding the popular view that our planet Earth is achala (immovable), Aryabhatta stated in his theory that earth is round and rotates on its own axis. He explained that the appearance of the Sun moving from east to west is false by giving examples.

Astronomy

Astronomy made great progress in ancient India. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. Jyotisha Vedanga has provided the systematic categories in astronomy, but later its development was handled by Aryabhatta (499 ce). His Aryabhatiya is a concise text containing 121 verses with separate sections on astronomical defi nitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, descriptions of the movement of Sun and Moon, and the calculation of eclipses. He proposed a reasonable theory for eclipse stating that the earth is a sphere rotating on its axis and when the shadow of earth falls on the moon, it causes lunar eclipse. He also stated that when the shadow of moon feel on earth, it causes solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Pancha Siddhantika which gives the summary of fi ve schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta gave a scientifi c outlook to the Vedic Astronomy which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientifi c explorations.

mathematics

The town planning of Harappa is an evidence that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By the third-century ce, mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics are supposed to have originated from the Shulba Sutras.

Info

Baudhayana was the fi rst ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of ‘pi’ was fi rst calculated by him. As you know, pi is an integral in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is known as the Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayana’s Shulba Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.


Chapter 1 – Introduction and Development of Science and Technology in India 1.7

In the 2nd century bce, Apastamba introduced practical geometry that involved acute angles, obtuse angles and right angles. The notations and the numerals were carried to the west by Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the 2nd century bce. Brahmagupta’s Brahmagupta Siddhanta is the book that mentioned zero as a number. Hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who invented zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry.

The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work by Brahmagupta. Varahmihira’s Brihat Samhita of the 6th century ce is a pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the Moon rotated around the Earth and the Earth rotated around the Sun found much recognition, and the later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together originated interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.

medicine

Diseases, cure and medicines were dicussed for the first time in Atharvaveda. Diseases such as fever, cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies recommended were to replete with magical charms and spells. From 600 bce, the fore-coming period of rational sci-ences began. Takshashila and Varanasi emerged as the centres of medicine and learning. The two important books in the field are Charaka Samhita by Charaka and Sushruta Samhita by Sushruta. The importance of their work can be understood from the knowledge that is reached as far as China and Central Asia through translations in various languages. The plants and herbs can be used for medicinal purposes and it have been mentioned in Charaka Samhita. The inception of surgery arose as a separate stream around 4th century ce. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy. He mentioned 121 surgical instruments. Along with this, he has also men-tioned the methods of operations, bone setting, cataracts and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (such as the repair of nose, ears and lips). Sushruta has mentioned 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers and leaves were used in surgeries. Stress was placed on diet (Example: salt-free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medi-cine in the later centuries. However, surgery suffered in the early medieval times, since the act of dissecting with a razor became the work of a barber.

metallurgy

The glazed potteries and bronze and copper material found in Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting grains and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing. By the first-century ce, mass produc-tion of metals, such as iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys, such as brass and bronze were manufactured. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were utilized for making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta depictions reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have sur-vived till date. A 2-metre-high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur).


Section A: Unit I – Introduction to Science and Technology1.8

Geography

The constant interaction between man and nature forced the ancient people to study geogra-phy. Even though when people were aware of their own physical geography like that of China and other western countries, they were unaware of their position on Earth and the distances between countries. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation were not a familiar foray for Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat, has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade was flourished in those days by sea. In the early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was accumulated. They were finally complied as parts of Puranas. In many cases, a separate sthala purana was also complied.

Scientific and technological developmentS in medieval IndIA

During the medieval period (11th to 18th century), science and technology in India developed along two lines—one concentrated with the already charted course of earlier traditions, and the other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European influence. The maktabs and madrasas came into existence that followed a set curriculum. These institu-tions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizul-lah, both being specialists in Rational Science (Magulat) headed the madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for technical and vocational training to all young men. The karkhanas trained and produced arti-sans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent karkhanas. Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important sub-jects, like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary education. Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to science in other countries.

Biology

Hamsadeva composed Mrga-pasi-sastra in the 13th century which gives a general, though not always scientific, account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. The Mughal emperor Akbar showed spe-cial interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of breeding and hybridization. He described about 36 breeds of animals. His court artists, specially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate por-trait of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their floral portrait described some 57 plants.

mathematics

The great 7th century mathematician Brahmagupta, has given a description of negative num-bers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas knew the utility of mathematics for practical trade. In the early medieval period, the two outstanding


chapter 1 – Introduction and development of Science and technology in India 1.9

deals in mathematics were Ganitasara by Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division, numbers, cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhi Vilasini, a commentary on Lilavati containing a number of illustrations. In 1587, Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faidi. Bijaganita was trans-lated by Attaullah Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign. Nilkanta Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introduced a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered the intro-duction of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system. Baha-uddin Amili, Nasiruddin Tusi, Iraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this fi eld. Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of Maragha observatory was recognized as an authority.

chemistry

Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhojpatra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of the country. The use of paper began during the medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarbad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore were well-known centres of paper production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a special type of paper that had a gold surface. The paper-making technique was more or less the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. The Mughals knew the methods of producing gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian crafts-men learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were aware of the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns. The principal types of fi reworks included those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fi re, blazed with various colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i-Baburi gives an account of the casting of cannons. The melted metals was made to run into the mould until full then cooled down. Besides explosives, other items were also produced. Ain-i-Akbari tells about the Regulations of the Perfume Offi ce of Akbar. The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nur Jahan.

Astronomy

In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. Firoz Shah Tughlaq established observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim Hus-sain Gilani and Syed Muhammad Kazmi set up an observatory in Daulatabad. Both lunar and solar calendars were in use during that period. Mahendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument called Yantraja. Parameshwara and Mahabhas-kariya were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan presented a commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II set fi ve astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.

ScIence And technoloGy development poSt-Independence

A new chapter began in the history of science and technology in India after independence. Jawaharlal Nehru was a great believer in science and technology. He considered these effec-tive tools to bring rapid socioeconomic changes in India. Therefore, his government promoted research in the fi eld of science and technology. The Parliament adopted Nehru’s Science Policy

Info

The extent of scientifi c research increased with British invasion in India. The Indian scientists made lots of pioneering discoveries in during the fi rst-half of twentieth century that include the discovery of life in plants, Raman Eff ect, the Bose-Einstein Statistics, the Boson particles, etc.



Resolution in 1958. The below mentioned organizations have played very important role in the promotion of science and technology in India.

1. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) functioned under H. J. Bhabha.

2. The Council of Scientifi c and Industrial Research (CSIR) worked under S. S. Bhatnagar.

3. The Defence Science Organization (DSO) was headed by D. S. Kothari. Nehru laid the foundation for the National Physical Laboratory at Delhi in 1947.

Atomic research

The Atomic Energy Commission was established in August 1948. It became the full-fl edged Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1954 under Homi Jehangir Bhabha. He was the founder of the atomic energy programme in India. The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre was set up at Mumbai in 1967. India used atomic energy for the peaceful purpose of power generation. The fi rst nuclear power station at Tarapur started generating power on October 1969. Two such centres were constructed at Kota in Rajasthan and Kalpakkam near Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The fourth one was set up at Narora in Uttar Pradesh. Besides the availability of hydroelectric power, these centres generate power which is very essential for industrial development. India carried out peaceful nuclear explosions at Pokhran in Rajasthan on 18 May 1974 and 11 May 1998.

department of Science and technology

Department of Science and Technology (DST) was established in May 1971, with the objectives of promoting new areas of science and technology and to play the role of a nodal department for organizing, coordinating and promoting S&T activities in the country.

Science and engineering Research Board (SeRB)

The department identifi es and promotes front-line and priority areas with support from the Science and Engineering Research Council.

The Science and Engineering Research Board was set up in 2010 to enhance the level of basic research and also impart the necessary autonomy, fl exibility and speed in shaping the basic research programmes and delivery of funds to researchers.

SERB is a statutory body established through an Act of Parliament by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India.

The board also gives special attention to scientists below the age of 35 years who want to undertake independent research in emerging and frontier areas of science and engineering.

The board also offers the JC Bose National Fellowship to scientists and engineers for out-standing performance and contribution, and the Ramanujan Fellowship for brilliant scientists and engineers from across the world to take up scientifi c research positions in India and espe-cially to those who want to return to India from abroad.

The board also provides fi nancial assistance for presenting research paper in international scientifi c events, such as conferences, seminars, symposiums and workshops held abroad. SERB extends partial fi nancial support, on selective basis, for organizing scientifi c events.

In order to promote industrial research in the country, the Prime Minister’s Fellowship Scheme for Doctoral Research has been launched jointly by the Science & Engineering Research

techtalk

Science and technology InfrastructureNotable research laboratories under institutional struc-ture at various levels include

◗ Council of Scien-tifi c and Industrial Research.

◗ Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

◗ Indian Council of Medical Research.

◗ Various departmen-tal laboratories in diverse fi elds.

◗ 1200 in-house R&D units of industrial undertakings.

◗ Indian universities and deemed universi-ties such as IITs.



Board (SERB) and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) under Public- Private-Partnership (PPP) mode. The maximum fellowship amount under the scheme will be ` 6 lakh per annum per candidate.

innovation in Science pursuit for inspired Research (inSpiRe)

Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE), a fl agship program of the department was developed and implemented nationally by the Department of Science & Tech-nology. It aims to attract, attach, retain and nourish talented youth for strengthening the R&D base. INSPIRE has three schemes as follows:

1. Scheme for Early Attraction of Talents for Science (SEATS),

2. Scholarship For Higher Education (SHE) and

3. Assured Opportunity for Research Careers (AORC) with fi ve components including the INSPIRE Award, INSPIRE Internship, INSPIRE Scholarship, INSPIRE Fellowship and INSPIRE Faculty Award.

In other schemes, the fellowships named after J. C. Bose, Ramanujan and Raman are being awarded to different categories of researchers.

The other programmes aimed at HRD are as follows:

• BOYCAST fellowships

• SERC student fellowships

• Young scientist fellowships

• Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana was initiated in 1999 to encourage secondary school students to stick on to a career in science. The Women Scientists Scheme was launched in 2002 to encourage woman scientists to continue their service in scientifi c profession.

It was approved by the Government of India in the 11th Plan and is being continued in the 12th Plan.

InfrAStructure development proGrAmmeS

• Intensifi cation of research in high-priority areas has helped in strengthening the infra-structure and research capabilities in the keys areas of science and engineering.

• Fund for the improvement of S&T infrastructure in universities and higher educational institutions was initiated during the 9th Five-Year Plan.

• Promotion of university research and scientifi c excellence programme has been initiated to provide substantive research grant to the universities.

Strengthening Institutional capacity for research

The initiatives of strengthening institutional capacity for research includes the following.

• Fund for Infrastructure Strengthening of S&T (FIST).

• Support for more than 1800 departments and institutions in the last 3 years.

• Promotion of University Research and Scientifi c Excellence (PURSE).

• Support for 44 universities over 10 years.

• Support for special packages for backward regions.

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The following awards and scholarships are awarded under the scheme:

◗ Eight lakh awards for the age group 10–15 years; 1.5 lakh awards for the age group 16–17 years; 28,000 scholarships for undergraduate studies in science for youth in the age group 17–22 years; 2150 research fellowships for doctoral research and 270 faculty awards for post-doctoral researchers under the age of 32.

◗ Partnership with 29 school boards has been designed for attracting and enrolment of youth for studying science courses.

◗ e-Management sys-tems and practices are being introduced for implementa-tion of INSPIRE to ensure transparency, effi ciency, speed and accuracy with wide reach and scale.



• 58 colleges and 12 universities in NE region.

• 34 colleges and 7 universities in J&K.

• 36 colleges and 8 universities in Bihar.

• Support for the National Centre for Natural Resources in Ravi Shankar Shukla University in Raipur.

• Support for the intensification of research in high-priority areas in five institutions in five high-priority areas in 2012 to 2013.

technoloGy development, deployment And mISSIonS

The Department of Science and Technology has been focused on the development of con-vergent technology solutions in addition to technology demonstrations by focusing on the following areas:

• Water, solar energy, affordable healthcare, potash-based fertilizer, home-land security, and bamboo-based construction material.

• Deployment of innovative solutions for addressing water challenges benefiting nearly 1.56 million people in 30 villages.

• One 256 kW decentralized solar power generation system for off-grid application has been established in a village in Maharashtra. The plant is based on hybrid technology and it utilizes solar power during day and biomass power during night.

• A scheme on Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Research Programme (DPRP) aimed at the development of new drugs and cleaner technologies for known drugs.

• A major outcome of DPRP is the commercial launch of anti-malarial drug developed through indigenous research.

• DST has supported the establishment of a test-bed for potash-based fertilizer and a multipurpose pilot plant at the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI).

Under the National Mission on Bamboo Application, the following have been accomplished:

• 276 bamboo structures in Chhattisgarh for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.

• 54 structures in Maharashtra for SSA.

• 130 prefabricated structures have been provided to paramilitary forces. • 10 structures have been provided to Sikkim government for the rehabilitation of

earthquake victims. • 4 structures have been provided to J&K police.

Nano mission has put India among the top five nations in R&D output.The Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council under the DST is set up

to assess the state-of-art technology and help set directions and priorities for future technolog-ical developments in the key socio-economic sectors across India.

The activities carried out by TIFAC can be grouped into the following categories:

• Studies and information services, innovation support programmes and mission mode programmes.



• Patent facilitating centre plays an integral role at all stages of intellectual property development in the country.

• TIFAC is implementing Umbrella Scheme on Technology Vision 2020 Projects in mission mode.

• Mission REACH (relevance and excellence in achieving new heights in educational institutions) seeks to address industry-oriented problems of technical manpower.

• TIFAC supports core advisory group on automotive R&D. • The National Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) Compliance Monitoring Authority has

been set up to help Indian industries obtain GLP-Compliance status for their R&D facilities.

• India is a provisional member of OCED for the purpose of GLP.

The department coordinates the following two national missions under the aegis of National Action Plan on Climate Change:

1. National Mission on Sustaining Himalayan Eco-system

2. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

natural resources data management programme

This programme is being implemented to upgrade the existing data management methodolo-gies at the district level to facilitate decision making process with regard to local area manage-ment and development.

The Geo-referenced Area Management software packages are being developed to assist the information processing needs of the district and sub-district level planning.

The programme also envisages to develop and demonstrate the use of GIS technology through specific decision support systems for the identified sectors.

national Spatial data Infrastructure programme

This programme has been initiated in 2000 to provide collated geo-spatial data to the user community, a government-approved creation of NSDI in 2006. It is intended to be used at local, community, city, regional and national levels for sustainable development.

State S&t programme

A scheme entitled as Assistance for Development of State Councils on S&T has been operating since 1980.

The objective is to assist States and UT’s in setting up S&T Councils which would in turn help in the formulation, planning, coordination and promotion of S&T activities within their areas.

Science communication and popularization

The National Council for Science and Technology Communication has been engaged in S&T communication/popularization and inculcation of scientific temper among the people.

The National Children’s Science Congress is an important activity involving children in the age group of 10 to 17 years from all over the country.

A programme for promoting voluntary blood donation programme has been developed. A bibliography of popular science books in different Indian languages have been compiled.Science Express, an on-a-train exhibition, was flagged off in 2007.



impoRtant aUtonomoUS BodieS, BoaRdS and UndeRtaKingS

technology development Board

The Technology Development Board was constituted in 1996. It provides fi nancial assistance to industrial concerns and other agencies for attempting development and commercial appli-cation of indigenous technology or adapting imported technology for wider domestic applica-tions in the following areas:

• Health and medicine

• Engineering and electronics

• Chemicals and lubricants

• Agriculture and biotechnology

• Information technology

• Road/air transport

• Energy and waste utilization

• Telecommunication

Some of the technologies successfully produced and marketed include:

• Genetically engineered Hepatitis B vaccine

• Bio-fertilizer from maize waste

• Gluten with the brand name Suryamin

• DL-2-Amino-1-butanol

• Cefi xime recombinant hepatitis B vaccine

• CAL reagent for detection of bacterial endotoxin

• Nicotinamide

• Undecenoic acid from castor oil

national Accreditation Board for testing and calibrating laboratories

The board provides formal recognition for technical competence of testing, calibration and medical laboratories. It has been granted signatory membership of Asia Pacifi c Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation and International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation under their mutual recognition arrangements.

national atlas and thematic mapping organization (natmo)

National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization takes care of some specialized thematic maps required to meet the needs of the specifi c users.

It also concentrates its attention in a number of areas to integrate resource maps with other relevant socio-economic data and represent them in spatial form.

AutonomouS ScIentIfIc InStItutIonS

The Department of Science and Technology provides grants in aid to 19 autonomous scientifi c research institutions.

It extends fi nancial and administrative support to fi ve academies/professional bodies engaged in promotion of S&T in the country.

Info

Survey of India is the oldest scientifi c organization set up in 1767. As per the National Principle Mapping Agency, it bears the responsibility to ensure that the countries domain is explored and mapped suitably to provide base maps for expeditious and integrated development, and that all resources contribute their full measure to the progress, prosperity and security of India.

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Vigyan Prasar was established in 1989 to take up large-scale science popularization programmes.

S&t resource InformationA directory of R&D institutions in India is being brought out regularly.

The Directory of Extramural Research Projects is also being compiled regularly.



department of Scientific and industrial Research (dSiR)

The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has established a mandate for indigenous technology promotion, development and utilization.

Its primary endeavour is to encourage industries to increase their share in the country’s R&D expenditure. This department is destined to nurture the innovative spirit of individuals and to support industrial units to develop and demonstrate the state-of-the-art technologies which are globally competitive by elevating its commercial potential.

Autonomous Institutions

• National Centre for Cell Science, Pune.

• National Brain Research Centre, Manesar.

• Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad.

• National Institute of Plant Genome Research, New Delhi.

• Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneshwar.

• Institute of Bio-resources and Sustainable Development, Imphal.

• Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Biotechnology Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

• RGCB-Hindustan Life Care Limited Joint Technology Development Incubator for Diagnostics, Kerala.

• Institute of Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru.

• Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad.

• National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani.

• Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Gurugram.

• National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali.

autonomous Scientific institutions—programmes

1. technology promotion, development and utilization programme (tpdU)

• The scheme has seven components covering various areas of technology promotion.

• The main objective is to promote and nurture research and development in industry.

• It also focuses on improving industrial competitiveness, improving efficiency, e-governance initiatives and strategic plans.

2. Industrial r&d promotion programmeDSIR is the nodal agency in granting recognition for in-house R&D centres in industry and non-commercial research organizations.

3. technology development and demonstration programme (tddp) • This programme aims at catalysing and supporting activities relating to technology

absorption, adaptation and demonstration including capital goods development, industry and R&D organizations.

• TDDP projects have encouraged the participation of public and private sectors in technology development efforts.



4. technopreneur promotion programme (tepp) • It aims to tap the vast innovative potential of the citizens of India.

• Activities under the TePP include providing fi nancial support to individual innovators.

• The TePP network has been strengthened with establishment of 28 TePP outreach centres.

5. Information technology and e-Governance programmeA comprehensive programme to accelerate e-Governance through information technology for improving effi ciency, transparency and accountability.

orGAnIZAtIonS

national Research development corporation (nRdc)

It is a Central Public Sector Enterprises established in 1953 to promote, develop and commercialize technologies emanating from various National R&D institutes. Among other services, it also provides knowledge for technology licensing, renders technical and fi nancial assistance for prototype development and helps in patent fi ling. It ensures that entrepreneurs receive the very best technology and other services to build successful enterprises.

central electronics limited

A CPSE established in 1974 with an objective to commercially exploit the indigenous technol-ogies developed by National Laboratories and R&D Institutions in the country.

The operations of CPSE is grouped into three major sectors, such as solar photovoltaics, strategic electronics, railway safety and signalling electronics.

consultancy development centre

It is an autonomous institute under the department established in 1986, with the objective of promoting and developing consultancy profession.

Activities Include: Creation of trained human resource for consultancy industry, capacity building of consultants and clients, maintaining database of consultants and experts across disciplines, carrying out development of consulting profession, certifi cation of specialized consultants/facilitators.

council of Scientifi c and industrial Research (cSiR)

• An autonomous, non-profi t public-funded R&D organization under the DSIR established in 1942, with the objective to provide scientifi c and industrial R&D that maximizes the economic, environmental and societal benefi ts for the people of India.

• Has a network of 37 national laboratories and 39 outreach centres attached to them.

• Envisions creating a few translational research centres named Innovation Complexes, with an aim to expand innovation capacity horizontally and vertically.

Key Research field Biological Sciences • Risorine, an indigenously developed drug formulation for the treatment of tuberculosis,

was developed by CSIR in public–private partnership mode.

Info

Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSES) are those companies in which the direct holding of Central government or other CPSEs is 51% or more.



• Recombinant streptokinase, a clot buster from E. coli developed by CSIR has been launched for the Indian market.

• Bacosides-enriched standardized extract of bacopa, a unique single plant-based natural memory enhancer was developed by CSIR.

• Indibacter, a new bacterial genus, has been isolated from a water sample at CSIR.

Chemical Sciences • Developed an improved process of propane deasphalting technology for producing

high-viscosity lube-based stock.

• Designed and developed a microprocessor-based rotary viscosity transmitter which helps control parameters to obtain better sugar quality and to reduce sugar losses in molasses.

• A solid fuel cell using hydrogen as fuel to power has been developed.

• A secure landfill technology has been developed.

• Waste treatment processes such as waste gypsum to manufacture building materials. In this process, the waste plastics is converted to value added hydrocarbons and vegetable oil is converted to green diesel through hydrotreating.

Engineering Sciences • Development of carbon fibre technology.

• Development of technology on high-wall mining.

• Development of Wankel engine-powered unmanned air vehicle called NISHANT.

Developed: Solid film lubricant coating is to be used for BRAHMOS, a special variety of non-photonic crystal fibre made of pure silica, head up display for LCA, Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor portable analog seismic recorder, a mobile teleclock, probabilistic seismic map of India.

Physical SciencesAt present, paying considerable attention to exploration of gas hydrates and hydrocarbons to help meet the energy demands of the country.

• Developed indigenous piezoelectric accelerometers.

• Provides space weather information/alerts through regional warning centres.

• Carried out studies on post-seismic deformation in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• Developed some medical instruments for various applications.

Information Sciences • Protection of traditional knowledge base of the country through Traditional Knowledge

Base Protection Programme.

• Traditional knowledge digital library has been created with information in five interna-tional languages.

• Developed web tools in bioinformatics.

AchIevementS In the fIeld of ScIence And technoloGy

Sufficient infrastructure exists in the India’s S&T organizations to efficiently interact with the end users. In fact, a large number of projects are carried out on a collaboration/sponsorship basis. In additional to R&D activities, these organizations also support extramural research



and provide extension services, such as consultancy and training for the benefit of industry and other end users.

Among the S&T organizations, the departments associated with other central government ministries are the Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO) under the ministry of defence, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the ministry of agriculture, and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) under the Ministry of Health & Family Wel-fare have large R&D infrastructure.

There are about 200 national laboratories and an equal number of R&D units in the indus-trial sector. The number of people employed in the R&D establishments is estimated to be around 3,00,000.

In addition to R&D establishments, the other major body pursuing S&T activities in India is the country’s vast university system. Comprising of 162 universities, 32 institutions deemed to be universities, and 10 institutes of national importance. It is a major source of S&T man-power development, producing around 2,00,000 S&T personnel every year. The total stock of the S&T manpower in the country at the end of 1990 is estimated to be around 4.0 million.

The Central government is the chief patron of scientific and industrial research. The com-mitment of the Indian government to promote socio-economic growth of the country through the use of S&T has shown remarkable success in a short span of four decades.

Today, India is ranked among a few developing countries which have achieved self-sufficiency in food production. The country has endeavoured to fulfil the basic needs of healthcare and housing for a large section of its people.

In the field of basic research, the country has done notably well and has established major research groups with world-class capabilities in various frontline areas of science and technology. Some examples include the areas of molecular biophysics, molecular biology, neurobiology, liquid crystals, biomedical devices, superconductivity, condensed matter physics, astronomy and astrophysics, powder processing and advanced materials, organic chemistry, solid state and surface chemistry, numerical weather prediction, parallel processing and atmospheric sciences.

India occupies a unique position in the world, having formulated its own nuclear programme and cultivated self-reliance in areas of reactor technology and its entire associated fuel cycle. The country designs, constructs and operates nuclear reactors, fabricates the required fuel, reprocesses it and treats the waste generated in the entire fuel cycle in a comprehensive manner by a totally indigenous effort.

Similarly, in the high-tech area of space research, India can now design, build and operate state-of-the art communication and remote-sensing satellites as well as launch 1000 kg class remote-sensing satellites into polar sun synchronous orbit. Many of the technologies developed for the nuclear and space research programmes are now finding their way into the market and is being used in other sectors. Indian industry is striving to keep pace with these developments.

Yet another achievement which speaks to the high level of S&T capability of India is the development of supercomputers where only a few advanced countries have this capability today.

A large number of technologies have been developed and commercialized for various chemicals, including petrochemicals and agrochemicals, industrial catalysts, drugs and phar-maceuticals, biomedical devices, food processing, leather processing and products, engineer-ing materials and equipment, electronic equipment and construction materials to cite a few. Many of these technologies have also been marketed abroad, an indication of their global competitiveness.

Special description may be made of the technologies developed for industrial catalysts, such as encilites, for producing important petrochemicals like p-xylene, ethylbenzene and olefins, and for drugs such as AZT (anti-AIDS), Etoposide (anti-cancer) and Centchroman (non-steroidal oral contraceptive).

cSIr-800 An ambitious and socially relevant programme aimed at the improvement of life quality of 800 million Indians and provides oppor-tunity to small scale industries.

Designed and developed Terafil water filters, a pota-ble instant water fil-ter, which serves as a disaster manage-ment tool, as well as supplementary and complementary food.

Developed green technology for the production of stevioside.

Undertook culti-vation and process-ing of aromatic and medicinal plants.

connect



Micropropagation of several trees and crops by the plant tissue culture technique, development of ELISA and PCA techniques, and DNA probes for detecting enteric pathogens in drinking water, development of toxinogenic oral vaccine for cholera, and conversion of molasses to ethanol using a special yeast strain are few illustrations of achievements made in the field of biotechnology.

The major programmes being pursued in the field of marine sciences include exploration and exploitation of living and non-living marine resources, study of air–sea interaction, coastal zone management, and scientific expeditions to Antarctica. India has established its reputation for carrying out oceanographic surveys in which the major assignment completed was the comprehensive survey of the Caribbean waters under the CORE project. India’s success in exploration and survey of deep-sea polymetallic nodules has earned the distinction of being registered as a pioneer investor under the UN convention on the Law of the Sea. An area of 1,50,000 km2 has been allotted in the central Indian ocean to India for the survey, exploration, and ultimate retention of 75,000 km2 of high abundance area.

indigenous Resources and traditional Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge, based on our long and rich tradition, needed to be further developed and harnessed for the purpose of wealth and employment generation. Innovative systems to document, protect, evaluate and to learn from India’s rich heritage of traditional knowledge of the natural resources of land, water and biodiversity has been strengthened and enlarged. Development of technologies that add value to India’s indigenous resources and which pro-vide holistic and optimal solutions suited to Indian social-cultural-economic ethos will be developed.

A concerted plan to intensify research on traditional systems of medicine, so as to con-tribute to fundamental advances in health care and leading to commercialization of effective products has been undertaken. Appropriate norms of validation and standardization are being enforced. A purposeful programme to enhance the Indian share of the global herbal product marked has been initiated.

technologies for mitigation and management of natural hazards

Science and technology has an important role in any general strategy to address the problems of mitigation and management of the impacts of natural hazards. A concerted action plan to enhance predictive capabilities and preparedness for meeting emergencies arising from floods, cyclones, earthquakes, drought, landslides and avalanches has been drawn up. Measures are being undertaken to promote research on natural phenomena that lead to disasters and human activities that aggravate them. This will be with a view to developing practical technologi-cal solutions for pre-disaster preparedness, and mitigation and management of post-disaster situations.

Generation and management of Intellectual property

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) have to be viewed not as a self-contained and distinct domain, but rather as an effective policy instrument that would be relevant to wide ranging socio-economic, technological and political concepts. In today’s generation, the fullest protec-tion of competitive intellectual property from Indian R&D programmes have been encouraged and promoted.



The process of globalization is leading to situations where the collective knowledge of soci-eties normally used for common good is converted to proprietary knowledge for commercial profit of a few. It is essential to take action to protect indigenous knowledge systems, primarily through national policies supplemented by supportive international action. For this purpose, the IPR systems which specially protect scientific discoveries and technological innovations arising out of such traditional knowledge are to be designed and effectively implemented.

Indian legislation with regard to patents, copyrights and other forms of intellectual property can ensure that maximum incentives are provided for individual inventors and to scientific and technological community to undertake large scale and rapid commercialization, both at home and in overseas communities.

The development of skills and competence to manage IPR and leveraging its influence shall be given a major thrust. This is an area calling for significant technological insights and legal expertise and it will be handled differently from the present and with high priority.

public awareness of Science and technology

There is a growing need to enhance public awareness about the importance of science and technology in everyday life and the directions in which science and technology is leading us. People must be able to consider the implications of emerging science and technology options in areas which impinge directly upon their lives, including the ethical and moral, legal, social and economic aspects. In recent years, the numerous advances in biotechnology and infor-mation technology have dramatically increased the public interest in technology with a wide variety of options. Scientific work and policies arising from these have to be highly transparent and widely understood.

Support for wide dissemination of scientific knowledge by establishing science museums, planetaria, botanical gardens and other similar centres is being set up. Maximum efforts are made to convey the accomplishments in scientific and technological advances and to instil scientific interest in the population at large. Special support has been provided for programmes that seek to popularize and promote science and technology in all parts of the country. Pro-grammes are also developed to promote learning and dissemination of science through various national languages, to enable effective science communication at all levels.

A closer interaction of those involved to the natural science and technology, social science, humanities, and other scholarly pursuits can be facilitated to bring about mutual reinforce-ment, added value and impact.

International Science and technology cooperation

Scientific research and technology development can benefit greatly by international coopera-tion and collaboration. Common goals can be effectively addressed by pooling both material and intellectual resources. International collaborative programmes, especially those contribut-ing directly to our scientific development and security objectives can be encouraged between academic institutions and national laboratories in India and their counterparts in all parts of the world, including participation in mega science projects as equal partners. Special emphasis needed to be placed on collaborations with other developing countries and particularly neigh-bouring countries, with whom India shares many common problems. International collabora-tion in science and technology would be fully used to further national interests as an important component of foreign policy initiatives.

It can be realized that the aim of development of Science and Technology is to build a new and resurgent India that continues to maintain its strong democratic and spiritual traditions,



which remains secure not only militarily but also socially and economically. It is of impor-tance to draw on the many unique civilizational qualities that defi ne the inner strength of India; this has been intrinsically based on an integrated and holistic view of nature and of life. The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013 has been implemented so as to maintain harmony from a global perspective among humans. It will ensure science and technology truly uplifts the Indian people and indeed all of humanity.

chApter At A GlAnce

• ‘Baudhayana’ explained the value of ‘Pi’ and it was considered the forerunner of other theories related to ‘Pi’. He also explained the principle of ‘Pythagoras Theorem’ in his Sulbha Sutra book which was writ-ten several years before the age of ‘Pythagoras’.

• Aryabhatta was a pioneer in the fi eld of Mathematics, his work titled Aryabhatiya was a summary on Math-ematics.

• Brahmagupta Siddhanta is the very fi rst book written by Brahmagupta which mentioned zero as a number.

• The Charak Samhita by Charak and Sushruta Sam-hita by Sushruta focused in the fi eld of medicine.

• In medieval India, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their fl oral portraiture described 57 plants and in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, he recorded his observations and experiments of breed-ing and hybridization.

• Homi Jehangir Bhabha was the founder of the Atomic Energy Programme in India in 1954. The fi rst nuclear power station established at Tarapur started generat-ing power in October 1969.

• The Council of Scientifi c and Industrial Research (CSIR) is an autonomous non-profi t publicly funded research and development organization under the DSIR established in 1942. It has a network of 37 national laboratories and 39 outreach centres.



chApter end eXercISe

prevIouS yeArS’ QueStIonS

prelims Questions

1. The terms ‘Prisoner’s Dilemma’ is associated with which one of the following? (2008)

(a) A technique in glass manufacture

(b) A term used in shipping industry

(c) A situation under the Game Theory

(d) Name of a supercomputer

2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given. (2007)

List-I List-II (A) John C. Mather 1. Co-founder of Microsoft

(B) Michael Griffi n 2. Space walker

(C) Paul G. Allen 3. Administrator of NASA

(D) Piers Sellers 4. Nobel Prize Winner, 2006 in physics

Codes: A B C D (a) 4 1 3 2 (b) 2 3 1 4 (c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 2 1 3 4

3. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?

(2006) Inventor Invention 1. Christopher Cockerell Hovercraft

2. David Bushnell Submarine

3. J. C. Perrier Steamship

Select the correct answer by using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only

main Questions

1. Write a brief note on vegetable gold (About 30 words). (2009)

2. Describe the importance of ‘Laser’ in war and peace (About 150 words). (2004)

3. What do the following terms stand for? (About 25 words). (1999)

(i) NISSAT (ii) GMRT

4. What do the following terms stand for? (About 150 words). (1998)

(i) ICMR (ii) TRAI

5. What are fullerenes? Why are they important? (About 150 words).

6. What does the following acronym stand for? (About 20 words). (1997)

(i) TIFR (ii) GRDO (iii) NEERI

7. What does the following acronym stand for? (About 25 words).

(i) CGCRI (1996)

8. Why does a lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon? (About 25 words). (1996)

9. Where is the following institute located? (Give the name of the city and state) (About 25 words).

(i) Central Drug Research Institute. (1996)


(i) IREDA (1995)


(i) INSDOC (1994)


1.23Chapter 1 – Introduction and Development of Science and Technology in India

12. What is RDX made of and why has it been in the news lately? (About 150 words). (1993)

13. What do the following acronym stand for? (About 20 words). (1993)

(i) HVDC (ii) GMRT

14. What is a leap second? (About 20 words). (1992) 15. What does the following acronym stand for? (About

20 words). (1992) (i) PUFA

16. What is ‘Maitri’? (About 20 words). (1992)

17. What is MRI? What is it used for? (About 20 words). (1992) 18. What is the basis of monsoon forecasts now prepared

by the Indian Meteorological Department, which have been reasonably correct for the last three suc-cessive years? (About 150 words). (1991)

prActIce eXercISe

1. In the context of the New Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, which of the following statements are correct?

A. It was formally released at the 100th session of Indian Science Congress at Banaras.

B. It called for a science-led innovation ecosystem.

C. It aims at increasing private investment in R&D by creating suitable policy ambience.

D. It believes in establishing linkages between dis-covery process of science and developmental pri-orities of the country in manufacturing.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) Only B and C (b) Only A, B and C

(c) Only B, C and D (d) A, B, C and D

2. In the context of the new modes of R&D funding, which of the following statements are correct?

A. National Science and Engineering Board (SERB) has been in charge of sanctions since 2005–06.

B. Fast Track Scheme is used for giving research grants to industries.

C. PM’s Doctoral Research Fellowship is in collab-oration between GoI and CII.

D. SERB has started two special projects, one of them being in the area of food processing.


(a) Only A, B and C (b) Only B, C and D

(c) Only C and D (d) A, B, C and D

3. In the process of development of convergent tech-nology solutions, which of the following areas are in focus?

A. Water

B. Solar energy

C. Affordable health

D. Homeland security E. Bamboo based construction


(a) A, B, C, D and E

(b) Only A, B, C and E

(c) Only B, C, D and E

(d) Only A, B, C and D

4. Consider the following statements.

A. Technology Information, Forecasting and Assess-ment Council under the DST is set up to assess the state-of-art technology and help set directions and priorities for future technological develop-ments in India in key socio-economic sectors.

B. Mission REACH (Relevance and Excellence in Achieving new heights in educational institu-tions) seeks to address industry-oriented prob-lems of technical manpower.

C. National Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) Com-pliance Monitoring Authority has been set up to help Indian industries obtain GLP-Compliance status for their R&D facilities

D. TIFAC supports core advisory group on automo-tive R&D.

Identify the correct statements from above and choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

(a) All of the above (b) Only A, B and C (c) Only C and D (d) Only A and B

5. Consider the following functions of National Research Development Corporation.

A. It is established in 1953. B. Its objective is to promote, develop and com-

mercialize technologies emanating from various R&D units in India.



C. It helps in patent filing.

D. It helps in technology licensing.

Identify the correct functions and choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

(a) All of the above (b) Only A, B and C

(c) Only A, B and D (d) Only B and D

6. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

Technology Source/Process/Use (a) Risorine Treatment of tuberculosis

(b) Recombinant Clot buster from E. coli streptokinase

(c) Bacosides-enriched Natural memory enhancer Bacopa

(d) Indibacter Bacterial genus isolated from tea leaves

7. Which of the following innovations are made under the CSIR-800 programme?

A. Terafil water filter.

B. Potable instant water filter which serves as a disaster management tool.

C. Supplementary and complementary food.

D. Green technology for the production of stevioside.


(a) Only A, B and C (b) Only B, C and D

(c) Only B, C and D (d) A, B, C and D

8. The following innovations are made under which project?

A. Anti-psoriatic formulation

B. Anti-TB molecule

C. Development and demonstration of 4 Fuel Cell Prototypes.

D. Hand-held micro PCR platform technology for diagnostic applications.

Select the correct answer using the codes:

(a) New Millennium Technology Leadership Initiative

(b) CSIR-800

(c) Sustainable Technology Initiative

(d) A joint effort of (b) and (c)

9. Which of the following statements is/are true in the context of India Nuclear Power Programme?

A. Stage I is in the commercial domain.

B. Stage II is in the technology demonstration stage.

C. Stage III is in the technology development stage.

D. Fast breeder reactor is closely associated with Stage III.


(a) All of the above (b) Only B, C and D

(c) Only A, B and C (d) Only A and D


Plant Location

Nuclear Reactor Technology

(a) Kumharia Indigenous PHWR

(b) Mithi Virdi European Pressurized Reactor

(c) Rawatbhata 220W PHWR

(d) Koodankulam Pressurized Water Reactor

11. In the context of nuclear fuel cycle in India, which of the following statements are correct?

A. BARC undertakes fuel fabrication for research reactor.

B. Nuclear fuel complex undertakes fuel fabrication for power reactors.

C. R&D on uranium ore processing is done at Tarapur.

D. Advanced fuel fabrication facility is set up at Trombay.


(a) All of the above (b) Only A, B and D

(c) Only A, B and C (d) Only A and B

12. In the context of Kumharia, which of the following statements are correct?

A. Vitrification is a process used to immobilize nuclear waste.

B. India is one of the five countries to have Joule Heated Ceramic Melter.

C. Vitrified waste is stored for 60 years before it is disposed in deep geological formations.

D. At Kalpakkam, there is a facility to immobilize nuclear waste in a cement matrix.


(a) All of the above (b) Only A, B and D (c) Only A, C and D (d) Only A and D


1.25Chapter 1 – Introduction and Development of Science and Technology in India


Reactor Fuel (a) Apsara Uranium–Aluminium alloy

(b) Zerlina Natural Uranium

(c) Kamini Enriched Thorium

(d) Fast Breeder Test Uranium–Plutonium Reactor Carbide

14. In the context of Indian Space Programme, which of the following statements are correct?

A. Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services.

B. India Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system is for natural resource monitoring and management.

C. Chandrayan-I was launched by a PSLV. D. PSLV’s are used only for launching communica-

tion satellites. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) All of the above (b) Only A, B and C (c) Only C and D (d) Only A and B


Space Laboratory Location (a) Physical research Hyderabad

Laboratories

(b) Space Physics Thiruvananthapuram

Laboratory

(c) National Atmospheric Gadanki

Research Laboratory

(d) ISRP Satellite Centre Bengaluru

16. In the context of RNAi technology, which of the following are its correct uses?

A. Management of diseases of important crop plants.

B. Conferring attributes to the plant to combat biotic and abiotic stresses.

C. Management of various diseases, pests, shelf life extension of fruits and vegetables.

D. Used in smart food packaging material with anti-bacterial properties.


(a) All of the above (b) Only A and B

(c) Only A, B and D (d) Only A, B and C

17. In relation to the centres of excellence in biotechnol-ogy, which of the following centre(s) is/are not part of the bio-cluster of NCR region?

A. National Centre for Biological Sciences

B. Translational Health Science and Technology Institute

C. National Institute for Plant Genome Research

D. Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine


(a) None of the above (b) Only A

(c) Only B (d) Only A and D

18. Partnership to Advance Clean Energy (PACE) is a flagship initiative on clean energy between India and which country?

(a) United States (b) France

(c) Canada (d) UAE

19. Which of the following is the correct sequence of countries in the order of increasing GHGs emission?

(a) Russia, US, India, China

(b) India, Russia, China, US

(c) Russia, India, China, US

(d) Russia, India, US, China

20. Recently, Thane Creek has been declared as a wild-life sanctuary as per the provisions of Section 18 of the Wildlife (Protection Act) of 1972 dedicated to conservation of which of the following?

(a) Siberian Crane

(b) Great Indian Bustard

(c) White-bellied Heron

(d) Flamingo

21. Gamma Radiations are used for which of the following?

(a) Sterilization of food stuff

(b) Purification of minerals

(c) Cancer therapy

(d) All of the above

22. Biodiversity is characterized by which of the following?

(a) Genes

(b) Number of species

(c) Community of species

(d) Both (a) and (b)



hIntS And eXplAnAtIonS

prelims Questions

1. The Prisoner’s Dilemma constitutes a problem in game theory. It was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher working at RAND in 1950. Albert W. Tucker formalized the game with prison sentence payoffs and gave it the name ‘Prisoner’s Dilemma’.

2. John Cromwell Mather: American astrophysicist and cosmologist. He was awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with George F. Smoot for their discovery of the black body and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.

• Michael Douglas Griffin: He has been the admin-istrator of NASA since 13 April 2005. As the chief of America’s space agency, Griffin oversees such areas as the future of human spaceflight, the fate of the hubble telescope and NASA’s role in under-standing climate change.

• Paul Gardner Allen: An American entrepreneur who formed Microsoft with Bill Gates. As of 2007, Forbes ranks him the fifth richest American, worth an estimated 18.0 billion. Allen also owns two professional sports teams called The Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League and the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association.

• Piers John Sellers, Ph.D: A British-American astronaut and veteran of two space shuttle missions.

3. • The hovercraft was invented by Christopher Cockerell in 1956.

• The first American submarine is as old as theUnited States itself. David Bushnell (1742–1824), a Yale graduate, designed and built a submarine torpedo boat in 1776.

• In 1775, Steamship—‘Jacques Perrier invents asteamship.’

23. The Tamil Nadu State government has banned keto-profen, a non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) to save

(a) Vulture (b) Cattle (c) Hawk (d) Great Indian Owlet 24. Consider the following statements: 1. There is no neutron in hydrogen atom. 2. Proton is basically an ionized hydrogen atom. Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) None of the above statements

25. Gene therapy is used in which of the following?

(a) Designing babies

(b) Treatment of cancer

(c) Treatment of genetic disorders

(d) Both (b) and (c)

26. CRISPRs, recently in news, refers to which of the following?

(a) Genome editing tool

(b) Organization under FAO to develop hybrid rice varieties

(c) 3-D printing machine

(d) Genetic algorithm

anSWeR KeYS

prelims Questions

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a)

practice exercise

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (d) 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (d) 26. (a)


IntroductIon

India has a long and distinguished tradition in Science and Technology (S&T) since ancient times. At the time of independence, scientific and technological infrastructure was neither strong nor organized. The biggest challenge before the government was socio-economic development. However, without the help of S&T, it was not possible. After independence, as in many other areas of national importance such as economy, policy, etc., Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru established the basic framework of S&T in India. He was the chief architect of Indian scientific development. Jawaharlal Nehru aimed to convert India’s economy into a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly.

Nehru understood that India had not been at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution and needed to do it quickly. Hence, he made an effort to promote higher education and S&T in India. The role of S&T was realized, and the scientific developments were believed as the only means to overcome the multifaceted problems of the country. According to Nehru, ‘It is science alone that can solve the problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and tradition, of vast resources running to waste, of a rich country inhabited by starving people… Who indeed could afford to ignore science today? At every turn we have to seek its aid … the future belongs to science and those who make friends with science.’ There-fore, S&T was included as an integral and crucial part of plans and priorities. Nehru’s Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between agri-culture and industry, and divided resources between the state and the federal governments. The result of the efforts between 1947 and1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by 45 million acres (1,80,000 km), food production rise by 34 million metric tons, installed power-generating capacity increase by 79 million kW, and an overall increase of 94% in industrial production. The enormous population rise, however, would counterbalance the gains made by Nehru.


❍ Understand the scientific services and research and development programmes of India.

❍ Discuss the progress of science and technology in India.

❍ Discuss the role of science and technology in 21st century.

❍ Know the Science and Technology Policy of India.

Learning Objectives

2Chapter

Science and Technology Policies in India



After the period of independence, one of the most important steps taken was the formula-tion and adoption of True Scientific Policy of 1958. The aim of the science policy was to foster, promote and sustain the cultivation of the sciences and scientific research in the country, to encourage individual initiatives for dissemination of scientific knowledge. It aimed to recog-nize the work of research scientists and to ensure the creative talent of men and women to find full scope in scientific activities.

As India progressed further, a need was felt for the development of indigenous technology and the proper utilization of imported technology. The technology policy statement of 1983 was an outcome of this need. In mid-1987, a new autonomous body called the Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) was constituted for strengthening national capabilities in technology forecasting and assessment.

ScIentIfIc ServIceS

The Department of Science and Technology is serving and servicing the social contract of S&T. It provides a wide range of scientific services through its various arms, such as the Survey of India (SOI), the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO), and the Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), Vigyan Prasar (VP), the National Science and Technology Management Information System (NSTMIS), the National Accreditation Board for Laboratories (NABL) and National Good Laboratory prac-tice Compliance Monitoring Authority (NGCMA).

The Survey of India (SOI) is the National Mapping Organization with the responsibili-ties to create, maintain and disseminate the topographical data for entire country for various applications. NATMO is another knowledge-based service organization of DST in the field of preparation of thematic maps. It educates people about the changing scenario of the political, social, economical and cultural set up of the country. It also helps the planners to use the maps as development tools for resource mobilization at grassroots level. Training in GPS and remote-sensing applications has been taken up by NATMO in different parts of the country as a capacity-building exercise at the colleges and universities level.

TIFAC, an autonomous institution of DST, supports innovative programmes, such as R&D support to Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME), Technology Refinement & Marketing Programme (TREMAP), Collaborative Automotive R&D and National missions (Example: Geospatial Applications and Bamboo Applications). TIFAC also supports a Patent Facilitating Centre, thus creating awareness about Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), assisting scientists and technologists in protecting their inventive work and spreading the IPR culture in the country. Vigyan Prasar (VP) continues to play a major role in S&T communication throughout the country and produces science communication materials disseminated through print and digital media, including monthly science magazines, such as Dream 2047 and VIPNET News. NSTMIS continued its efforts of generating and making available information on human resources as well as financial news devoted to scientific and technological (S&T) activities in the country.

NAEL and NGCMA are linkages of laboratories and test facilities in the country with reg-ulatory authorities. On one hand, NABL implements and maintains an accreditation system for laboratories in accordance with relevant national and international standards, while the NGCMA is responsible for compliance monitoring of GLP-certified test facilities in the coun-try in accordance with the OECD principles and guidelines to ensure that safety data (on chemicals) produced by test facilities are internationally accepted. During the year, it has been possible to gain full membership for the country and sign a mutual recognition treaty for GLP since March 2011.


Chapter 2 – Science and Technology Policies in India 1.29

reSearch and development programmeS

Science and engineering research council (Serc)

SERC includes an advisory body consisting of eminent scientists and technologists drawn from academic institutions. It assists the department not only in peer reviewing the proposals, but also identifies newer and inter-disciplinary areas of R&D. The council also monitors prog-ress of individual projects sponsored in various disciplines.

nanomaterials Science and technology Initiative (nStI)

The Government of India launched a mission on nanoscience and technology (Nano Mission) in May 2007. It focuses research on fundamental aspects of nanoscience, development of prod-ucts and processes for national development, especially in areas of national relevance, such as safe drinking water, materials development, sensors development and drug delivery.

Assessing the importance of the emerging, highly interdisciplinary field of nanoscience and technology, a national programme titled ‘Nanomaterials Science and Technology Initiative (External website that opens in a new window) (NSTI)’ has been started. The programme focuses at overall research and development in nanoscience and technology with vigour so India can become a significant player in the area and contribute to the development of new technologies.

ScIence and technology polIcy (2003)

policy objectives

• To mount a direct and sustained effort on the alleviation of poverty, enhancing livelihood security, removal of hunger and malnutrition, reduction of drudgery and regional imbalances in both rural and urban areas, and generation of employment.

• To vigorously foster scientific research in universities and other academic, scientific and engineering institutions and attract the brightest young people to careers in S&T.

• To promote the empowerment of women in all S&T activities and ensure their full and equal participation.

government policies and plans

• To encourage research and innovation in areas of relevance for the economy and society, particularly by promoting close and productive interaction between private and public institutions in S&T.

• To establish Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), which maximizes the incentives for the generation and protection of intellectual property by all types of inventors.

• To promote information technology and to ensure, in an era in which information is key to the development of S&T, that all efforts are made to have high-speed access to infor-mation, both in quality and quantity, at affordable costs.

• To encourage research and application for forecasting, prevention and mitigation of natural hazards, particularly floods, cyclones, earthquakes, droughts and landslides.

• To promote international S&T cooperation towards achieving the goals of national development and security and to make it a key element of our international relations.



Information technology and defence

• India’s position globally in the field of scientific research and development, as measured by the number of research papers published has improved from 13th position in 1996 to 12th position in 2001, 10th position in 2005 and further to 9th position in 2010 as per the Scopus International database.

• In 2010, India was ranked at 6th in terms of publications in Nanoscience and Nanotech-nology. In case of research in Chemistry, India ranks atop at 5th position globally with respect to scientific publications.

• The government has taken a number of steps to accelerate the development and pro-motion of R&D. These measures include successive increases in plan allocations for scientific departments, setting up of new institutions for science education and research, creation of centres of excellence and facilities in emerging and frontline areas in aca-demic and national institutes, induction of new and attractive fellowships, strengthening infrastructure for R&D and encouraging public–private R&D partnerships.

• Launching of initiatives, such as Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE), Nano Mission, Mega Facilities, Open Source Drug Discovery, Network Projects, Climate Change Studies and National Biotechnology Development Strategy, in the 11th-Year Plan period demonstrated the commitment of the government to encour-age and promote research in a better scientific environment.

• Significant enhancement of S&T support system has been recorded in the last three years. This includes the reaching of the INSPIRE programme in every part of the country, and the creation of a new structure for basic research by establishing a Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) in the country as an autonomous body through an act of parliament.

• S&T departments have made detailed plans with a substantial increase of investment in the 12th Five-Year Plan period. This includes the initiation of Grand Challenge Programmes, such as launching PAN-India missions to address national priorities in various developmental sectors particularly in the areas of health, water, energy and food. This plan also encourages the set-up of Peta-scale supercomputing facilities for various applications in prime domains, such as climate modelling, weather prediction, aerospace engineering, computational biology, atomic energy simulations earthquake simulations, and national security.

• Increasing R&D expenditure to 2% of GDP with sizable contribution from the corporate sector by attracting investments and engagement of the corporate sector into R&D is another significant action plan.

• India has partnered with other leading countries in mega projects, such as India–Japan beamline at the Photon Factory, KEK, Japan; Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR), Germany; Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland; Elettra Synchrotron Facility at Trieste, Italy; and the India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO), among others.

• The Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research Bill, 2011 was passed by both houses of the Parliament during the winter session and received assent of the President of India on 6th February 2012. The academy will focus on research and training in areas not ordi-narily provided by the existing universities in the country. The curricula, pedagogy and evaluation will be innovative and directed towards creating the highest quality personnel in trans-disciplinary areas.

progress of S&t in India

India has a strong independent base in Research and Development (R&D) in S&T. India has been able to set up a broad ranging network of modern technology, from software engineering to health biotechnology, and the performance of our country in recent years is impressive and promising.

Significant achievements have been made in the areas of nuclear and space science, as well as in electronics.

connect



S&t through plannIng perIod

The planning process adopted by India is a two-way process involving broad policy guidelines from the planning commission and ensuring interaction with scientist at national, laboratory and university levels. The process involves the following steps:

1. The government declares its policy guidelines and thrust areas which are communicated to research agencies and institutions.

2. The heads of agencies and directors are advised to prepare plans.

3. Experts are asked to prepare plans of different specialized panels of different fields.

4. The plans are coordinated at the laboratory level and discussed by the scientific advisory panels of respective laboratories.

5. The plans submitted at the laboratory level are coordinated at agency level, and subject to scrutiny of experts, while agency level plans are scrutinized at planning commission level then it is finalized.

Science, technology and Innovation policy, 2013

The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh unveiled the Science, Technology and Inno-vation Policy (STI) 2013 by presenting its first copy to the former President of India Shri. Pranab Mukherjee at the inaugural session conducted as a centenary achievement of the Indian Science Congress at Kolkata.

Key features of the StI policy, 2013

• Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society.

• Enhancing skills for applications of science among the young from all social sectors.

• Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and bright minds.

• Establishing world-class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in selected key areas of science.

• Positioning India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020 (by increasing the share of global scientific publications from 3.5% to over 7% and quadrupling the number of papers in the top 1% of journals from current levels).

• Linking contributions of science research and innovation system with the inclusive economic growth agenda and combining priorities of excellence and relevance.

• Creating an environment for enhanced private sector participation in R&D.

• Enabling conversion of R&D output with societal and commercial applications by replicating hitherto successful models, as well as establishing of new public–private partnership structures.

• Seeking S&T-based high risk innovation through new mechanisms.

• Fostering resource optimized cost-effective innovation across size and technology domains.

Salient features of StI policy, 2013

• India introduced its first Scientific Policy Resolution in 1958 which was directed to ‘foster, promote and sustain’ the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects. It focused on the need to attain technological competence and self-reliance.



• New Science, Technology and Innovation policy was formulated and enunciated in 2013.

• The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STI) 2013 places greater emphasis on innovation, setting up research institutes and encouraging women scientists with an aspiration to place itself among the top five scientific powers in the world by 2020.

• Modify the intellectual property regime to provide marching rights for social good when supported by public funds and co-sharing of patents generated in the public– private partnership mode.

• Create a policy environment for enhanced private-sector collaboration in research and innovation and to form international alliances to fulfil the national agenda.

• Increasing gross expenditure in R&D to 2% of GDP from the current 1% in this decade by supporting increased private-sector participation.

• Expedite the pace of discovery and delivery of science-led solutions for faster, sustain-able and inclusive growth.

• Engender an atmosphere for innovative abilities to flourish by leveraging partnerships among diverse stakeholders and by encouraging and facilitating enterprises to invest in innovations.

• Making careers in science, research and innovation lucrative, setting up world-class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in some select frontier areas of science.

aspirations of the policy

The main aspirational elements of the STI policy are as follows:

• Raising Gross Expenditure in Research and Development (GERD) to 2% from the pres-ent 1% of the GDP in the decade by encouraging enhanced private-sector contribution.

• Increasing the number of Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) of R&D personnel in India by at least 66% of the present strength within 5 years.

• Increasing accessibility, availability and affordability of innovations, especially for women, differently abled and disadvantaged sections of society.

mechanisms

Wide-ranging mechanisms are envisaged to be deployed to realize the policy aspirations, a few of these are as follows:

• Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society.

• Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social strata.

• Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and bright minds.

• Empowering women through appropriate STI inputs and investments.

• Facilitating private-sector investment in R&D centres in India and overseas.

• Promoting establishment of large R&D facilities in PPP mode with provisions for benefits sharing.

• Permitting ‘multi-stakeholders’ participation in the Indian R&D system.

• Treating R&D in the private sector at par with public institutions for availing public funds.



• Bench-making of R&D funding mechanisms and patterns globally.

• Sharing of IPRs between inventors and investors.

• Modifying IPR policy to provide for marching rights for social good when supported by public funds and for co-sharing IPRs generated under PPP.

• Providing incentives for commercialization of innovations with focus on green manu-facturing.

• Closing gaps in the translation of new findings at the grassroots level and the commer-cial space.

Table 2.1 A glance of development of S&T in five-year plans

First Five-Year Plan (1951–56) In the first five-year plan, attention was chiefly devoted to building up of national laboratories and other research institutions. At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were started as major technical institutions. The University Grants Commission was set up to take care of fund-ing and take measures to strengthen higher education in the country. During the first five-year plan, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research completed work on the establishment of national laboratories for physics, chemistry, met-allurgy, fuel, glass and ceramics, food technology, drugs, electrochemistry, road research, leather and building research.

Second Five-Year Plan (1956–61) The primary objective in the Second Plan was to develop existing facilities and to embrace the work of scientists in the national laboratories and of research workers in universities and other centres to bear as closely as possibly upon important problems in different fields of national development. The Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1957 with Homi J. Bhabha as its first chair-man. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established as a research institute. In 1957, a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train and work in the domain of nuclear power.

Third Five-Year Plan (1961–66) In the Third Plan, the programme of scientific and technological research was devoted specially to strengthen the existing research institutions and expand the facilities for research over a wide field and to encourage basic research in universities.

Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969–74) The Fourth Plan emphasized purposeful research and development programmes. The priority areas identified under the plan were steel, chemicals and instru-ments. The plan aimed at avoiding duplication in the research work of differ-ent laboratories and universities. The plan stressed the desirability of increasing the utilization with indigenous expertise and material in nuclear power projects. Funds earmarked for the industrial development had to be used for the war effort. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test in 1974, par-tially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and widening the war.

Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–79) This Plan was attempted to restructure the research programme to be practicable by handling projects with predetermined time-spans, costs and expected benefits. In agriculture, special emphasis was to be placed on programmes to control crop diseases, encourage farming and the development of agricultural implements.

(continued)



Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–85) The Sixth Plan considered science both as an outlook and a value system. The task of creating scientific temper is essential for the growth of science and its utilization in the development process. The plan also aimed at creating new research institutions with a strong mandate for theoretical and pure research and to conduct research in such frontier fields, like plasma physics, immunology and applied microbiology.

Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985–89) This plan continued to emphasize ‘growth, equality and social justice, self-reliance, improved efficiency and productivity.’ It recognized new areas in S&T emerging on the world scene, such as electronics, informatics, robotics, biotechnology, material science, oceanography and several areas in chemistry.

Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992–97) The Eighth Plan sought to integrate S&T with the socioeconomic sectors. In this plan, the key areas were identified for basic research. It aimed to support self- reliance and to develop socio-economic and rural sectors to avail the basic needs of water, nutrition, health, proper sanitation, energy, education and employment.

Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997–2002) This plan emphasized on self-reliance in the context of growing global restric-tions on high technology movement. The major focus of the S&T programmes was to encourage and strengthen interaction among R&D institution and the users. Special emphasis was also given to the need for a clean environment.

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2007) In the context of global economic order, the focus of the plan in the S&T sector would be to strengthen application oriented R&D for technology generation. The key sectors that were focused are as follows:

• At the macro level, S&T management should focus on meeting the needs of the nation.

• The industry should pay much more attention to the external sources of technology and upgrade the technology.

• Joint workshops and seminars should be organized to promote research. • To identify the programmes for application of S&T and to improve the

quality of life of the people.

• The S&T interventions must aim at providing affordable scientific solutions to save time and energy of an individual.

• Special emphasis would be given to identifying, promoting and support-ing grassroots innovations.

• To enable interaction between scientific researchers to update and rede-fine the knowledge base, develop advance technology and to take mutual advantages of complementary scientific and technological capabilities.

Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007–2012)

The objectives of this plan included facilitating the formation of a National Science and Engineering Research Board with functional autonomy.

• To participate in the formation of earth commission by enlarging the scope of IMD, NCMRWF, IIPM and some operational activities related to earth sciences.

• To launch and commission an intensive nanoscience and technology mission mode program.

(continued)

Table 2.1 A glance of development of S&T in five-year plans (Continued)



an approach to the 11th fIve year plan

contributions to Support and Strengthen human and Institutional capacity in Basic research (11th plan)

• The report of the Steering Committee constituted for the preparation of 11th Five-Year Plan, for the science sector proposed the establishment of new mechanisms for supporting basic research in the country. Accordingly, the Department of Science and Technology established the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) through an act of parliament during the 11th Five-Year Plan period. The Board has now become functional and has evolved mechanisms and tools for supporting basic research.

• To strengthen the research and developmental activities undertaken in autonomous institutions and create new centres in five select areas of national priority.

• To expand science communication and Vigyan Prasar functions to com-mission mission mode, National Innovation Campaign among young learners.

• To lead a joint initiative of centre with state functionaries as a super-grid for science promotion.

• To enlarge the national program on technology development for select industries, including pharmaceutical research and development.

• To establish a new cell for technology intelligence and S&T policy building.

Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012–2017)

The objective of this plan is to review the performance of various S&T projects implemented during the 11th Five-Year Plan period and to identify the thrust areas for the Twelfth Five-Year Plan. The other objectives are as follows:

• To formulate the objectives and to suggest strategies and programmes for the overall development of S&T in the state for the Twelfth Five-Year Plan.

• To suggest S&T components for inclusion in various sectoral plans of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan.

• To suggest schemes for application of S&T in the various sectoral plans of Twelfth Five-Year Plan including:

¡ Ocean resources development, coastal zone management and agri-cultural productivity.

¡ Biotechnology application for pest control and improving agricul-tural productivity.

¡ Development of petroleum-based products and other new materials. ¡ Electrical, electronic, communication and allied industries. ¡ Recycling and reuse of residues and waste products. ¡ Development of biotechnology and information technology.

Table 2.1 (Continued)



• The Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC), which emerged as a flagship programme of the Department of Science and Technology is the most important Extra-mural Funding Programme in the country, which is active for more than 3 decades. This programme has now been merged with the National SERB. Whereas SERC supported the research through a competitive grant model for selecting projects, the board has evolved tools for supporting the research of individuals and groups based on proven track record in addition to the SERC-evolved models of R&D funding. The Board with a fund of ` 200 crore has commenced its activities in the financial year 2011–12.

• There has been a fourfold increase in the quantum of funds deployed under research and development support during the 11th Five-Year Plan as compared to the 10th Five-Year Plan. There has been an increase of about 250% in the number of project investiga-tors supported through SERC. During the 11th Five-Year Plan, the Male : Female ratio among the principal investigators supported under Extramural Research projects has improved from 81 : 19 to 67 : 33 during the 11th Five-Year Plan period.

• During this year, a National Centre for Combustion Research (NCCR) has been estab-lished with two nodes at a cost of ` 93 crores. NCCR will create advances and state-of-the-art capacities in combustion research and will involve all the 55 known experts in the area in the country. It will also serve to increase the density of scientists and engineers in combustion research.

contributions to rejuvenation of research in university Sector • Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (PURSE) is a programme

under Research & Development wing of the Department of Science and Technology in 2008. Under this programme, the universities contributing to publications in a major impact-making manner are provided research incentive grants with flexibility for the universities to invest into R&D programmes.

• A total of 30 universities were added to the list of PURSE awardees during the year 2011–12, making it the total number of such awardees 44. The national share of univer-sities in scientific publications in the year 2010 has been estimated at 31%, which had been earlier assessed at 15% in 2003.

• Consolidation of University Research, Innovation and Excellence (CURIE) for women-only universities, designed and delivered proactively by the Department of Science and Technology, has benefited all the six women-only universities in the coun-try in strengthening their R&D infrastructure. Each university has also been provided mentor support for deciding investment priorities.

technical development and deployment and convergent Solution designs for Social challenges • Technology Development Programmes (TDP) implemented by the Department of

Science and Technology aim at several diverse objectives. Therefore, several sub-schemes have been designed to serve various objectives.

• National Science and Technology Management Information Systems (NSTMIS) is an information management system which gathers R&D statistics on India and brings out data on an annual basis.

• Natural Resource Data Management System (NRDMS) serves to collect resource related data and supports extramural research and capacity building in niche areas, while Geospatial technology related R&D is supported through NRDMS.



• National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) serves as a data-sharing platform for data-generating agencies of the Government of India. This unit has also motivated several states to establish State Spatial Data Infrastructure (SSDI) during the last few years.

S&t for Socioeconomic goods

• For technology action in the field, the Science for Equity, Empowerment and Develop-ment (SEED) programme of the department supported a large number of technology demonstration projects during 2011–12 to deploy scientific tools for improved liveli-hoods of weaker sections of the society especially the scheduled castes and tribal popu-lation including women and elderly.

• Through its flagship scheme, Technology Advancement for Rural Areas (TARA) long-term core support was extended to a select band of 20 S&T-based voluntary organi-zations to nurture and sustain scientific manpower for taking challenges to work on technology innovations, incubation and delivery related issues for tackling emerging livelihood problems in rural India.

• National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) has popular-ized and enlarged its network during 2011–12. Plans have been made to forge synergy with the Ministry of Environment and Forests for Science express to carry exhibits on biodiversity and climate change-related topics during the next round in 2012.

• On 3 March 2011, India gained full adherent status in the working group on Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) of the OECD. This put India in the group of 34 devel-oped countries and four other non-member adherent countries. India became the third non-member country to get this recognition. This full adherent status to mutual accep-tance of data (MAD) would imply that safety data for pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, industrial chemicals, food and feed additives and cosmetics generated in GLP certified laboratories of the country would now be acceptable in all OECD member and adherent countries.

mission mode actions in nanoscience and technology • Nano Mission made a significant impact in the country during 2011–12. More than 250

scientists, 12 thematic centres 8 units, and 8 centres of excellence have been supported under the Nano Mission. So far, more than 670 PhDs have graduated from the Nano Mission.

• During the year 2011–12, India emerged as the sixth major player in scientific publications in the nanoscience and technology field. The annual growth rate of scien-tific publications from India during 2011–12 is estimated at 9.7%, marginally lower than that of China at 10.1% and has registered the second-highest growth rate in the world.

• Some important technology leads in the field of nanotechnology have been gained, and a healthy growth trend in registration of patents in the area has been observed. Some technology leads from the Nano Mission have been commercialized, such as silver coat-ing of textile anti-microbial property, ceramic filters for water purification and thin film coating for solar energy harvesting.

geospatial technology and mapping Services • Survey of India (SoI) and National Atlas and Thematic Organization (NATMO) have

undergone major internal changes.



• SoI has launched an initiative to undertake digital mapping of India and prepare 1 : 10,000 maps within the next three years. A pilot experiment to prove the technical viability of 1 : 10,000 maps through digital mapping was completed during 2011–12.

preparing for the 12th five-year plan and the future • Preparation of the 12th Five-Year Plan programmes has been completed by the

department. The Department of Science and Technology has been assigned the task of establishing a supercomputer facility which will place the country among the top five nations with respect to technology capability in the supercomputing area.

• DST has proposed a plan to establish a policy development cell and propose at least 16 policy resolutions during the 12th Five-Year Plan. India has committed to spearhead the development and enunciation of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2012).

• Programmes have been developed to connect the science sector to about 3 million peo-ple in India. It aims to strengthen institutional capacities in at least 100 universities and R&D institutions and to establish at least five national centres in advanced research. The department has proposed to demonstrate planned technology interventions in at least two districts with beneficial outcomes on per capita incomes.

an approach to the 12th fIve-year plan (2012–17)

As the Indian economy and society grow and modernize, the Indian science and technology landscape also has to change to meet the magnitude of demands being made. The change should take care of the new responses needed, including delivery models for innovative deployment of technologies and business models for financing deployment of innovations. This would require adjustments in the existing governance and management models in our universities, research institutions and laboratories for supporting strategic goals in this area. Current practices and policies do not promote this objective sufficiently. This calls for a well-enunciated science, technology and innovation policy, which is supported by an ecosystem that addresses the national priority for inclusive and accelerated growth.

aligning S&t to developmental needs • There is a wide range of areas that would require breakthrough innovations and signif-

icant S&T inputs. These include energy, water management, farm production, medical research, waste disposal, health care, communications and so on. In order to play a productive and appropriate role to service these national needs, several critical decisions which affect the S&T system are needed.

• It is necessary to create a framework that takes into account the entire life cycle of ideas beginning with discovery or creation to commercialization, extension and value addition. Success in this area alone can stimulate appropriate innovation across the wider system. To achieve this, the current institutional structures and mechanism would require the following:

¡ A holistic approach to public funding of Research and Development (R&D) for socially relevant projects and treating the entire knowledge domain of R&D as connected.

¡ A much larger base of full-time researchers and flexibility in hiring them.

¡ Greater autonomy to work in a clearly defined charter.



¡ More flexibility for the younger generation of scientists to pursue their ideas and greater mobility between industry, academia and R&D institutions.

¡ Strengthening of gender parity initiatives in R&D sector by mobilizing suitable para-metres for women re-entry programmes in R&D.

¡ Enhanced scope and process of inter-institutional and international collaborative research.

¡ Significant participation of socio-economic ministries and states in technology deployment process.

¡ A culture of world-class, publicly owned and privately or autonomous-managed S&T institutions.

¡ A well-crafted strategy for technology acquisition in high-tech areas.

Interaction of public S&t Institutions with IndustrySignificant changes will have to be brought in current interaction of publicly-owned S&T establishment with industry, both in public and private sector. This should result in a significant enhancement of the private sector R&D expenditure, which is presently estimated at around 25% of national R&D expenditure to at least 50% in the 12th Five-Year Plan. The important elements which may play the catalytic role in achieving this outcome are as follows:

• Leveraging the government grants and other forms of financials to secure private finan-cial flows and support around a demand-driven R&D development path. Industries, i.e., both public and private, would also need to be incentivized to invest at least 2% of their sales turnover in R&D.

• Developing a workable protocol for facilitating interaction amongst the players. This would cover a range of issues, from the nature of testing to that of the regulatory frame-work and the facilitation of foreign direct investment (FDI) in R&D activity.

research in Strategic SectorsThe innovative component of several technologies that have been developed by the three stra-tegic departments (Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Space Science and Defence Research and Development), for their own respective needs, could trigger unique mechanisms for encouraging innovation and ensuring the right impact on social, industrial and strategic sectors in the 12th Five-Year Plan. Examples of successful spinoffs, such as automatic weather stations, fleet monitoring equipment and telemedicine systems developed by ISRO; the instru-mented pipeline inspection gauges, food-processing/irradiation technologies developed by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and biomedical instruments, diagnostic kits and bio toilets for water-scarce areas developed by DRDO are but a few examples of the enormous potential that exists, for further technology transfers to industrial and service sectors. In order to facilitate this, special directorates have been set up at the headquarters of the three depart-ments essentially to serve as a clearing house of the relevant information on technologies and also to coordinate, share and exchange information leading to new strategies on the deploy-ment of these technologies.

national missionsPan-India mission mode projects addressing national needs and priorities should be launched through extensive participation of stakeholders in the areas of health, water, energy, food and environment security with the objective to achieve the goals and targets in a defined time frame.



The major research concerns for agriculture sector relate to water management, soil degra-dation and fatigue, genetic erosion, increasing biotic and abiotic pressure, inefficient energy management, inadequate markets and unfavourable trade, increasing knowledge lag, manage-ment and protection of farm produce and harvest and post-harvest losses. Furthering R&D efforts in precision agriculture using space technology inputs for detailed assessment of biotic and abiotic stresses. The creation of spectral library for various crops and soils and appli-cation of microwave remote sensing and polarimetry for soil moisture, crop identification, etc., is essential. Resource conservation technologies for improving input use efficiency and the responsible use of biotechnology tools and realistic assessment of their potential in crop and livestock improvement are essentially needed for new generation designer crop plants. The bio-fortification of staple food crops, pre- breeding for resistance or tolerance to various stresses, microbial genomics in search of new genes and research solutions for secondary agriculture is also needed.

dialogue with other countriesWe must expand the scope of our dialogue with both the advanced and emerging economies in the sphere of defining S&T focus areas and avenues for exchange information and purposeful collaboration. To make this dialogue more meaningful, it has to be mediated through a frame-work that takes into account the realities of strategic national interest and diplomatic charter. Collaboration at the level of academic research, etc., is an activity that will in any case carry on, but it should not be confused with the government-sponsored dialogue with S&T establish-ments of our key counterparts in the rest of the world. Meaningful dialogue presupposes the achievement of a certain level of technical competency, such as in our participation in ITER.

expansion of Basic ScienceThe energization of S&T activities cannot be de-linked from expansion and deepening of basic science teaching and research in our centres of scientific learning (universities and teaching institutes). It is hard to envisage how basic scientific research can be carried forward when the leading centres of science teaching do not have an active role in this process. Therefore, the creation of greater infrastructure and more project-related funding for expanding the quality of basic science teaching and basic science research is, in the ultimate analysis, a prior condition for the expansion of the scope of S&T intervention in the development of the wider economy and society.

notaBle achIevementS In S&t

earth Sciences

• Desalination Technology: A totally indigenous and environmental friendly tech-nology, for conversion of sea water into potable drinking water has been developed, demonstrated and commissioned, at select island territories and coastal power plants. In 2011, two more desalination plants of 1 lakh litre capacity were established, one each in Minicoy and Agatti, in March (2011) and August (2011), respectively. These plants have been contributing significantly to the drinking water needs of the local population of these islands.

• District-Level Agro-Meteorological Advisory Service to Farmers: A quantitative district-level agro-meteorological advisory service covering 560 districts has been made operational for farmers in partnership with a number of central government ministries



and organizations, state-level institutions, private agencies, NGOs, progressive farmers, and the media. This service encompasses a 5-day weather forecast and advisory pro-posed out agricultural practices. About 30,00,000 farmers have already subscribed for receiving the information through mobile for planning their agricultural activities.

• Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS): A coral bleaching alert system for providing bimonthly status on five major coral environments of India, including Andaman Nico-bar, Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Mannar, and the Gulf of Kutch has been set up. This pro-vides information on early signs on the coral environments that undergo thermal stress and possible bleaching.

• Monsoon Mission: With a view to focus research by national and international research groups with definitive objectives and deliverables, the ministry had launched a pro-gramme ‘Monsoon Mission’ towards the improvement of the seasonal and intra-sea-sonal monsoon forecast and to improve medium-range forecast. This aims to improve models in the short, medium, extended and seasonal range scales through setting up of a framework for generating dynamical forecasts and improving skill of forecasts.

atmospheric Sciences

One of the major programs launched by the ministry during the 11th Five-Year Plan is the upgrade of weather forecasting in India, which has four components, such as the atmospheric observational network, strengthening the computing facilities, data integration and generation products, and dissemination of information. Considerable progress has been achieved in all these areas.

disaster Support • Tsunami Warning System: A state-of-the-art tsunami warning system was set up in

October 2007 as outlined in the prime minister’s 26 thrust areas. The system comprises a network of seismic stations, including international stations to compute earthquake parametres, simulated scenarios of travel time and run-up heights at 1800 coastal loca-tions in the Indian Ocean, observing platforms for sea-level variations both in deep sea and coast, robust communication and dissemination system, data centre and decision support system. In the last three years, many earthquakes larger than 7 magnitude, which can cause tsunami did occur. In all such cases, necessary advisories were provided to all concerned within 15 minutes. This system is recognized as the regional tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean and it provides services to many countries in the Indian Ocean as well.

• Disasters Alleviation Support: On 12 October 2011, a Pan-India mock drill exer-cise was successfully conducted as part of early warning system for tsunami in the Indian Ocean, in coordination with 29 countries of the Indian Ocean under the over-all framework of Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. The Indian Tsunami Warning System is capable of issuing tsunami warning for India and the Indian Ocean Rim countries within eight minutes of occurrence of the earth-quake in the Indian Ocean. The Indian Tsunami Warning System has been recognized as Regional Tsunami Service Provider (RTSP) for the Indian Ocean Region and has started operations to the Indian Ocean Rim countries.

• Earthquake Monitoring, Prediction and Mitigation: A set of 17 broadband seismic stations were set up and networked to estimate earthquake parametres in near real-time. The earthquakes are being auto-located and initial information is sent within 15 minutes using both Indian seismic stations and over 364 global seismic stations.



• Earthquake Pre-cursor Studies: During the last two decades, India has been affected by moderate-to-large earthquakes not only in the Himalayan region, but also in the Peninsular Shield region. The ongoing Seismicity programme is a research-driven pro-gramme with a long prospective to provide impetus to the studies related to seismology, which provides thrust to the earthquake-related studies and to generate inputs for the mitigation of earthquake disasters.

• Micro-Zonation Studies: Microzonation is a multidisciplinary and multi- institutional effort, which has direct application in disaster mitigation and management, urban devel-opment, planning, design and construction and risk assessment to existing life and prop-erty, defence installations, heavy industry and public utilities and services.

• Vulnerability Maps: INCOIS has initiated work on cutting-edge research areas, such as multi-hazard vulnerability mapping, real-time tsunami inundation modelling as well as 3-D GIS. The broad scientific methodologies have been established and a pilot work has been successfully completed in a few areas.

polar Sciences

• Research Station in Antarctica: The third station was established in March (2012) in the Lasermann Hills in the Antarctica towards conducting front-ranking research in the area of polar research in India.

• Antarctica Expeditions: Four Indian scientific expeditions to Antarctica (27 to 30) were successfully undertaken during 2007–11, and 36th (ISEA) took place on 22 March 2017. The objective of this expedition was to install stakes on Ice for Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) measurement around ‘Bharti and Maitri’ to validate glacier surface velocity derived from satellite data to estimate thickness over the land and sea ice using Ground Penatrating Radars (GPRs) and also to verify conditions of snow over the sea and land ice.

• Arctic Expedition: India embarked upon the Arctic research by launching the first Indian scientific expedition to Arctic in the first week of August 2007 using the interna-tional research facility at Ny-Alesund in Spitsbergen island of Norway. Subsequently, India has been sending scientific teams every summer and winter for carrying out studies in the Arctic, primarily in the fields of glaciology, hydrochemistry, microbiology and atmosphere sciences. A station building ‘Himadri’ was taken on lease from the Interna-tional Arctic facilities owned and managed by M/s Kings Bay.

ocean research

• Potential Fishing Zones Advisories: A unique system of fishery Advisories based on identification of Potential Fishing Zones (PFZs) using remote-sensing technology has been made operational. The PFZ advisories prepared in local languages and local mea-surement units are disseminated to over 225 nodes, thrice a week through innovative and novel initiatives, such as electronic display boards and information kiosks at the fishing harbours, radio, print media, e-mails and websites supplementing fax, telephone and mobile. Over 93 electronic display boards were installed in selected coastal areas for dissemination of the information.

• Ocean State Forecasting: In January 2009, Indian Ocean Forecasting System (INDO-FOS) was launched integrating the existing forecasts of ocean wave and the surface and subsurface parametres of the Indian Ocean. The system, at present, provides forecast on wave heights, wave direction, sea-surface temperature (SST), surface currents, mixed



layer depth (MLD) and depth of 20°C isotherm up to 5–7 days in advance. This system is operational since January 2010. The beneficiaries of INDOFOS are traditional and mechanized fishermen, the maritime boards, Indian Navy, coast guard, shipping compa-nies and oil and natural gas industries, energy industries and academia.

coastal marine ecology

• Technology for Fattening of Lobsters and Mud Crabs: A viable technology for fattening lobsters and mud crabs in cages was successfully developed and disseminated to select beneficiaries in the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and Andaman islands on an experimental basis. There has been a substantial improvement in earnings of coastal fishermen due to implementation of this scheme. The technology for seaweed culture will be extended to 100 female beneficiaries in Gulf of Mannar region, 25 women bene-ficiaries each for lobster fattening in Gulf of Mannar and crab fattening in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

• Island Development Activities: Ornamental fish culture was established in 2009 Kavaratti to commercialize in Agatti Island of Lakshadweep. Hatchery technology for spat development of black-lip pearl oysters has been perfected in the Andaman islands. A full-fledged hatchery unit for breeding and rearing ornamental fishes was established at Agatti in Lakshadweep. A set of 10-open sea-cage cultures were developed and deployed at selected locations of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Andaman islands for rearing of parrot and milk fish. All the technology development on commercial scale has significantly contributed to the income of the local population of the islands.

• Drugs from the Sea: In order to harness the bioactive compounds from the marine organisms for human therapeutic purposes, the ministry has been implementing with the participation of 14 different R&D laboratories, including Academia.

• Integrated Coastal Marine Area Management: Under the programme on shore-line management, problems of coastal erosion along the coast of Gopalpur (Orissa), Muthalapozhy, Vadanapally and Trissur (Kerala), Devbagh, Pavindurve and Kundapur-kodi (Karnataka) and Gangavaram (Andhra) have been studied with extensive oceano-graphic data to provide solutions to the respective states.

• Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System: Extensive monitoring of marine pollution along the coastal waters was continued at 76 locations and it has been found that the disposal of untreated sewage from towns, cities and villages cause decrease of dissolved oxygen and increase of nitrate and pathogenic bacteria in the sea close to the shore. The data collected revealed that pollution problems are confined up to 1 km in the sea, except at Mumbai where the pollution problem prevails up to 3 km in the sea. The model to predict the movement of oil during oil spills has been developed for the coast of Chennai. This system also works to develop similar models for the coasts of Goa, Kerala and Visakhapatnam. This process shall be completed by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan.

mISSIon programmeS

climate change programme

Out of a total of 8 national missions on climate change which form a part of the national action plan on climate, two important missions are being spearheaded by the Department of Science and Technology under the climate change programme. These include the National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge


Section a: unit I – Introduction to Science and technology1.44

for Climate Change (NMSKCC). These missions envisage building upon and creating syn-ergy amongst existing initiatives of various ministries and departments of the government of India, which provide support for research and development in climate change through intra and extra-mural systems. The missions propose to create linkages with State governments and their establishments or institutions on climate change related aspects.

himalayan glaciology programme

The Department of Science and Technology formulated a coordinated research program on Himalayan Glaciology during 1986. Since then several researchers from academics and ser-vice organizations have undertaken observational investigations of glaciological phenomena at a few glaciers in the Indian Himalaya.

national mission in Bamboo application

The National Mission on Bamboo Applications (NMBA) structured as a technology mission is one of the key initiatives of the Department of Science & Technology, which is aimed at creating the basis for enlarging the bamboo sector and by supporting the efforts of the Govern-ment of India towards augmenting economic opportunity, income and employment. NMBA’s track record in emergency relief shelters with low response and erection time has been widely acclaimed. NMBA has been participating in exhibitions and fairs to make the presence of bamboo felt in various aspects of life and livelihood.

mission on nanoscience and technology

The Mission on Nanoscience and Technology (Nano Mission), an umbrella programme was launched in the year 2007 to promote R&D in this emerging and highly competitive area of research in a comprehensive fashion. During the year 2011–12, Nano Mission continued to record expansion in its activities and also continued to break new grounds in R&D and human resource development in the fi eld of nanotechnology. Some technology leads from nano mis-sion have been commercialized, such as silver coating of textile, anti-microbial property and ceramic fi lters for water purifi cation and thin fi lm coating for solar energy harvesting.

mission for geospatial applications

The Mission Mode Project was initiated in 2007 as ‘Reinvigorating Indian Agriculture through S&T.’ Over a period of three years, the scope of the project widened to fl ood modelling, build-ing 3-D terrain model and the development of communication equipments. Keeping in view the expansion, the project was renamed as ‘Mission for Geospatial Applications.’

ScIence and technology In 21St century

• The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is mandated to provide the nation with the best possible services in forecasting the monsoons and other weather/climate parame-tres, ocean state, earthquakes, tsunamis and other phenomena related to earth systems through well-integrated programmes.

• The ministry also deals with S&T for the exploration and exploitation of ocean resources (living and non-living) and it plays a nodal role for Antarctic/Arctic and Southern Ocean research.

• The ministry is mandates to look after Atmospheric Sciences, Ocean Science & Technology and Seismology in an integrated manner.

Info

◗ India Meteorological Department (IMD).

◗ National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) under the Atmospheric Sciences and Seis-mology sector, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune.

◗ The Earthquake Risk Evaluation Centre (EREC) under the Ocean Science & Technology sector, National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai.

◗ National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa.

◗ The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad.

◗ The Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Director-ate (ICMAM-PD), Chennai.

◗ Centre for Marine Living Resources & Ecology (CMLRE), Kochi.

units under the ministry of earth Sciences



units under the ministry of earth Sciences

the earth System Science organization • The Earth System Science Organization (ESSO) operates as an executive arm to

implement policies and programmes of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.

• It encompasses four branches of Earth sciences as follows:

1. Atmospheric and Climate Science

2. Ocean S&T

3. Polar Science and Cryosphere

4. Geosciences

eSSo’s activities Include

• Providing scientific and technical support for both academic and applied research in Earth system sciences.

• Developing technology towards the exploration and exploitation of marine resources in a sustainable way.

The policies and programmes of the ministry are being pursued through its eight centres:

1. Indian Meteorological Department, New Delhi. 2. Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune. 3. National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, NOIDA. 4. National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai. 5. National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa. 6. Indian National Centre for Ocean and Information Services, Hyderabad. 7. Integrated Coastal and Marine Management, Chennai.

8. Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology, Kochi.

atmospheric Sciences

Weather ReportsProvided by the ministry for the socioeconomic well-being of the people.

Monsoon Monitoring and ReportingIn order to plan and execute programmes for the country’s agriculture and flood management.

District-Level Agro-Meteorological Advisory Services • In 540 districts of the country, weekly agro-meteorological advisory bulletins are

released to cater to the needs of the farmers and decision-makers.

• The weather information is disseminated through TV, radio, newspapers, SMS and Interactive Voice Response (IVR) for agriculture purpose to the farming community.

Aviation Services

• Meteorological services for aviation are provided through a network of four meteoro-logical watch offices located at four major international airports at Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and New Delhi.

• New transmitters for visibility and runway visible range measurements have been installed at various airports to meet the upgraded category of instrument landing systems.



Metropolitan Weather and Air Quality Services

• Installed in Delhi before the Commonwealth Games.

Monsoon Mission (2012–2017)

• Launched for improving the predictability of Indian monsoon.

• It consists of two sub-themes:

¡ Seasonal and intra-seasonal monsoon forecast

¡ Medium-range forecast

• Indian Institute for Tropical Meteorology will coordinate and lead the efforts for improving the forecast on seasonal and intra-seasonal scale.

• National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting will lead and coordinate the efforts for improving forecasting in medium-range scale.

polar Science and cryosphere

Indian Antarctic Programme

• Since 1981, scientific research expeditions have been conducted annually to Antarctica to utilize its singular environment as a great natural laboratory for scientific invigilations.

• India’s stations are located at Dakshin Gangotri, Maitri and Himadri (established in 1981).

31st India Scientific Expedition to Antarctica

This expedition was launched on 26 October 2011 from Cape Town for supervision of construction activities of the research base at Larsemann Hills.

ocean Sciences and Services

Potential Fishing Zone AdvisoryGenerated and disseminated to various sectors, such as fishery, shipping, ports, offshore industry, academia, coastal states and island authorities.

Ocean State Forecast

Indian Ocean Forecast System was upgraded with regional ocean modelling system set up at 1/8th degree.

Ocean Observation System

• For acquisition of real-time data from the seas around India.

• Sustained Indian Ocean Biogeochemical, Ecological Research (SIBER).

• Launched by MoES during the 11th Five-Year Plan period and is being continued during the 12th Five-Year Plan period.

• The programme seeks to understand biogeochemical and ecological processes in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea by establishing time series stations in place.

GEOTRACES

The GEOTRACES programme seeks to determine global ocean distributions of selected trace elements of isotopes to evaluate the source, sinks and internal cycling of these species to characterize the processes regulating their distributions and to understand the response of these cycles to global change and their impact on carbon cycles and climate.



ocean Survey and resources

Comprehensive Topographic Survey of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India

• India’s EEZ spans over 2 million km2.

• For mapping purposes, the entire EEZ is divided into two regions:

¡ Deep-water areas (depth > 500 m)

¡ Shallow-water areas (depth < 500 m)

Delineation of Outer Limits of Continental Shelf

• India made its first partial submission for an extended continental shelf under the pro-visions of Article 76 to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in May 2009.

• The second partial submission has been finalized and is with the ministry.

Indian Ocean Deep-Drilling Programme

It provided a unique platform for scientists from various countries to interact and prioritize existing ideas as well as to explore new research frontiers having larger societal relevance.

Gas Hydrates Exploration

Detailed seismic survey was carried out in the Krishna-Godavari Basin and the Mahanadi Basin.

Poly-Metallic Nodules

The PMN programme has the following three components:

• Survey and exploration • Environmental impact assessment • Technology development

Studies in Cobalt Crusts Exploration

• Data has been collected and processed.

Studies on hydrothermal Sulphides • The programme carried out the first Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) cruise over

the Central Indian Ridge in 2012. • The significant achievements are as follows:

¡ Hydrothermal plumes discovered over the Carlsberg Ridge. ¡ Discovery of two active vent sites over the Carlsberg Ridge. • A hydrothermal plume at 10 degrees 30 minutes south latitude on the Central Indian

Ridge.

ocean technology

Remotely Operable In-situ Soil Tester

• In order to harness deep sea resources, development of the following equipment has been undertaken:

¡ Remotely operable submersible ¡ Remotely operable in-situ soil testers

• The data collected from these equipments will be utilized to develop mining equipment.



low temperature thermal desalination plants • These plants use the temperature difference between the surface and deep waters of the

ocean for desalination. • One plant was commissioned at Minicoy in March 2011. • Another plant was set up in Agatti in August 2011. This plant is the third in Lakshadweep

and fourth overall.

ocean acoustics • The objective is to develop fully automated ambient noise measurement system for time

series measurements. • This is the most effective means of exploring the oceans.

energy generationTo harness energy from the ocean, the following turbines are being developed:

• Ocean thermal energy conversion turbine • Current turbine • Wave energy turbine

marine Sensors and Instruments • The buried object scanning sensor is being developed for underwater sensor applications.

• It would be utilized in the detection of tsunami.

marine micro-algae Biotechnology

Coastal and Marine Ecology • Development of shoreline management plans.

• The project is aimed at understanding and analysing the problem of erosion and devel-oping site specific shoreline management plans.

• It is being implemented in three sites along the Kerala coast and one each along the Andhra and Odisha coast.

• A project on performance of coastal protection structures along the North Chennai coast has been undertaken to study the impact of these structures on the shoreline.

Ecosystem Modelling

• Ecosystem modelling is done to predict the primary productivity and subsequently secondary production through carbon flow method.

• Ecosystem modelling is going on for Chilika Lake and the backwaters of Kochi.

Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction Systems

• Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction Systems (COMPAS) uses data on 25 environ-mental parametres to estimate the health of the coastal seas using sediments collected from coastal waters up to 5 km from the coast.

Marine Ecotoxicology

• There is a programme in place that aims to develop safe Sea Water Quality Criteria (SWQC) for cadmium, copper, zinc, lead and mercury for the following regions.

¡ The Ennore creek and adjacent coastal waters of Chennai

¡ The Gulf of Mannar

• It is also proposed to develop certain criteria for chemicals used in agriculture.



Marine Living Resource Programme

It is a multidisciplinary and multi-institutional programme which focuses on studying the marine ecosystems and correlating the living resources with their physical environment in order to develop predictive capabilities.

assessment of environment and productivity patterns in the Indian eeZ • It involves the estimation of tertiary production using a trophodynamic model.

• It was found that a matured northern cyclonic eddy influences the ecological structure of the generally oligotrophic Bay of Bengal making it biologically more productive.

• It was also found that the persistent occurrence of Arabian Sea Warm Pool in and around the Lakshadweep islands led to the mass bleaching of corals in 2009.

• The maximum sustainable yield of fishery resources from within the Indian EEZ has been revalidated through trophodynamic modelling approach.

Deep-Sea and Distant Water Fishery

Many species of potential seafood have been discovered through the four fishery cruises conducted on board FORV Sagar Sampada along the mainland coast and the Andaman waters.

Ocean Biogeographic Information System

• Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) is an international information sys-tem focused on marine biodiversity. It provides expert geo-referenced data on marine species.

• The information is readily and freely accessible by the internet and requires no special software to use.

• Indian Ocean BIS and Census on Marine Life activities were initiated.

• Major contributions during the year include the following:

¡ Discovery of three possible new species

¡ Reporting of several new records

¡ Deep-sea finfish

¡ Three species of deep sea sharks

¡ Two species of chimera

Ornamental Fish Culture

In a hatchery in Agatti, the technology for breeding and rearing of the following was developed:

• Four species of clown fish and

• One species of Damsel fish.

Pearl Production

Technologies for production of pearls using sea animals are being developed by adapting the methods used traditionally elsewhere.

Aquaculture and Mariculture

A prototype archival tag has been designed and developed to study tuna migration.

Drugs from Sea

• A national coordinated research programme, development of drugs from ocean, is being implemented to harness bioactive compounds from the marine organisms.

• Many compounds have been harnessed and are undergoing tests.



Climate Change and Disaster Management

• Climate Monitoring and Information Services

• The National Data Centre, Pune provides data for research and preparation of normal climate as per World Meteorological Organization guidelines, and brings out the state climate summary.

Cloud Physics

High-altitude cloud physics laboratory has been opened at Mahabaleshwar to conduct cutting-edge research in the field of physics and dynamics of clouds and rain at Mahabaleshwar. Such research would help us to improve the skill of prediction of extreme rain events and droughts.

Disaster Support

Compilation of data on rainfall statistics, river regimes, hydro-meteorological aspects of catchment areas and the same are being done for providing disaster support services.

Thunderstorms, Squalls and Gusty Winds Monitoring, Warning and Nowcast System at IGI Airport, Delhi

Various high-end technology products have been successfully utilized to render enhanced quality aviation support services.

Cyclone Warning Services

Deep Bore Holes Investigating in Koyna-Warna region is being launched to address major issues pertaining to the occurrence of earthquakes. Their mechanism is drilling a deep borehole of 6–7 km in a continental earthquake zone, enabling the study of physical and chemical changes before and after an earthquake.

Early Warning System for Tsunami

• The Indian Early Tsunami Warning Centre has reported 74 earthquakes of magnitude greater than 6.5 during 30 September 2001 to November 2012.

• India is providing Regional Tsunami Advisory services to the Indian Ocean region countries.

Extramural and Sponsored Research

Areas covered under R&D in Earth sciences are as follows: • Atmospheric research • Coastal and marine ecosystem • Climate change • Disaster management • Atmospheric technology • Geoscience

• Ocean S&T

Advanced Training School

At Pune, the main objective is to create a large pool of trained and dedicated earth and earth system scientists with in-depth understanding and hands-on expertise on individual physical processes with special emphasis on climate modelling.



International cooperation

• In cooperation with NOAA, the United States is doing research work on the impact of background error statistics on analysis and forecast in the context of SARR has been carried out.

• The Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction provides measurements to advance monsoon research and forecasting.

• Cooperation with UKMO in relation to research in climatology.

• Indian-US Cooperation on Weather and Climate Forecasting and Agriculture.

• Cooperation with Natural Environmental Regional Council.

• Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System for Afro-Asian Region.

• SIBER-International Programme Office at INCOIS.

A rapid development and improvement has been recorded with the study of science and its applications. Science helps us to accrue rich knowledge about both living things and inanimate objects around us.

Chief Scientists WorkAryabhata Indian mathematician

Nagarjuna Discovered many methods of curing diseases.

Edward Jenner Found out vaccine against diseases.

Alexander Fleming Discovered a very effective medicine called penicillin which cured various infectious diseases.

Madame Curie Discovered Radium and Polonium.

Leeuwenhoek Prepared a microscope useful in studying different types of germs, examining the blood and so on.

Louis Pasteur Found out methods to preserve milk, jam, etc.

Jagadish Chandra Bose Studied the sensitivity of plants in detail.

connect

Table 2.2 National institutes of science and technology

Name of the Institute Location

• Central Soil and Materials Research Station New Delhi

• Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee Vadodara

• Bansagar Control Board HQ Rewa (MP)

• National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee

• National Institute for the Visually Handicapped Dehradun

(continued)

◗ Other Modern Scientists: Sir C. V. Raman, S. Ramanujan, S. N. Bose, M. N. Saha, D. N. Wadia, B. Sahni, P. Maheshwari, G. N. Ramachandran, T. R. Sheshadri, Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai.




• National Institute of Orthopedically Handicapped Kolkata

• Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Hearing Impaired Mumbai

• Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Mentally Handicapped Secunderabad

• National Institute of Rehabilitation Training & Research Cuttack

• National Institute of Physically Handicapped New Delhi

• National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities Chennai

• Netaji Subhash National Institute of Sports Patiala

• Lakshmi Bai National Institute of Physical Education Gwalior

• Institute of Life Science Bhubaneshwar

• Indian National Centre for Indian Ocean Information Services Hyderabad

• National Institute of Ocean Technology Chennai

• Centre for Marine Living Research and Ecology Kochi

• National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) Goa

• Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Chennai

• Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute (SRFTI) Kolkata

• Film and Television Institute of India Pune

• V.V. Giri National Labour Institute Noida (UP)

• National Aluminium Comp. Ltd (NALCO) Bhubaneshwar

• Hindustan Antibiotics Limited–Pimpri (Pune) Rishikesh

• Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology Gurugram

• Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd Rasayani

• Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd Amjhore (Bihar)

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Institute of Textile Management Coimbatore (TN)

• Rural Health Training Centre New Delhi

• Gandhigram Institute of Rural Health and Family Welfare Trust Tamil Nadu

• National Institute of Communicable Diseases New Delhi

• Institute of Virology Pune

• National Test House Kolkata

• National Institute Training for Standardization Noida

• Indian Grain Storage Management and Research Institute Hapur

• National Institute of Bank Management Pune

• Salim Ali Centre for Omithology and Natural History Coimbatore

• Wildlife Institute of India Dehradun

• National Museum of Natural History New Delhi

• National Institute of Animal Welfare Faridabad

• National Biodiversity Authority Chennai

• Centre for Wind Energy Technology–(C-WET) Chennai

(continued)

Table 2.2 National institutes of science and technology (Continued)


chapter 2 – Science and technology policies in India 1.53


• The Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Prathisthan Ujjain

• Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan New Delhi

• Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tirupati

• Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha New Delhi

• Bhim Rao Ambedkar Institute of Telecom Training Jabalpur

• National Academy of Telecom Finance and Management Hyderabad

• Indian Diamond Institute Surat

• Indian Institute of Packaging Mumbai

• Marine Products Exports Development Authority Kochi

• Central Secretariat Library–Shastri Bhavan New Delhi

• National Library New Delhi

• Ram Krishna Mission Institute of Culture Kolkata

• Central Institute of Fisheries, Nautical and Engineering Training Kochi

• Charan Singh National Institute of Agricultural Marketing Jaipur

• National Plant Protecting Training Institute Hyderabad

• Locust Warning Organization Jodhpur

• National Bio-Fertilizer Development Centre Ghaziabad

• Central Fertilizer Quality Control and Training Institute Faridabad

• Indian Institute of Sugar Technology Kanpur (UP)


chapter at a glance

• Vigyan Prasar (VP) has played a major role in the fi eld of science and technology communication through-out the country and it continues to produce science communication materials disseminated through print and digital media, including the science magazines such as Dream 2047 and VIPNET News.

• The Government of India launched a mission on Nanoscience and Technology in May 2007, which predominantly focuses on the fundamental aspects of nanoscience.

• The Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) has emerged as a fl agship programme of the Department of Science and Technology.

• On 3 March 2011, India gained the full adherent sta-tus in the working group on Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) of the OECD which is a group of 34 developed countries and other non-member adherent countries. Now, India became the third non-member country to get this recognition.


Section a: unit I – Introduction to Science and technology1.54

main Questions

1. Comment on ‘INSPIRE programme’ of the Depart-ment of Science and Technology. (2011)

2. What does the solar system consist? Discuss the motion of the entire solar system as a whole, and also the motion of most of the bodies forming the solar system (About 150 words). (2003)

3. What are the fundamental constants and their use in the measurement system? (About 150 words).

(2002) 4. What is the difference between a comet and a meteor?

(About 20 words). (1997) 5. What are quasars? (About 20 words). (1997)

6. What is a microwave oven? How does it cook food? (About 150 words). (1996)

7. What are Bailey’s beads? (About 25 words). (1996) 8. What is centchroman? (About 25 words). (1996) 9. What is ultrasonography? (About 25 words). (1996) 10. What do you understand by ‘Karnal technology’? For

what is it used? (About 150 words). (1995) 11. What is ‘amniocentesis’? What has made it a contro-

versial technique? (About 150 words). (1995) 12. What is pacemaker? (About 20 words).

13. What is EI Nino? What is its relevance to India? (About 20 words). (1995)

chapter end eXercISe

prevIouS yearS’ QueStIonS

prelims Questions

1. What is the Universal Product Code (UPC) adopted? 2009

(a) Fire safety code in buildings

(b) Earthquake-resistant building code

(c) Bar code

(d) Against adulteration in eatables

2. To which one of the following processes is the terms CMYK related? 2007

(a) Railway signalling (b) Navigation

(c) Offset printing (d) Electronic voting machine

3. Match List-I (Indian Scientist/Scholar) with List-II (Area of work) and select the correct answer using the code given in the lists: 2006

List-I List-II (A) C. N. Rao 1. Telecommunication

(B) Jagdish Bhagwati 2. Physics

(C) G. N. Ramachandran 3. Economics

(D) Ashok Jhunjhunwala 4. Solid State Chem-istry and Material Science

Codes: A B C D

(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3 (c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 4 1

4. Virtual water trade is being looked at by experts as a solution to the world’s water crisis. What does virtual water imply? 2005

(a) Volume of heavy water required to replace ordi-nary water.

(b) Volume of water required to produce a commod-ity or service.

(c) Volume of water saved by using rainwater har-vesting.

(d) Volume of water utilized by an effective fl ood control.


1.55Chapter 2 – Science and Technology Policies in India

14. What are encilites? (About 20 words). (1994) 15. What is Talsur? (About 20 words). (1994)

16. What is piezoelectricity? (About 20 words). (1994) 17. What is ‘Shoemaker-Levy 9’? Why was it in the news

recently? (About 20 words). (1994)

practIce eXercISe

1. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) was established in which year?

(a) 1875 (b) 1885

(c) 1901 (d) 1923

2. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award is given in which of the following fields?

(a) Literature

(b) Science and Technology

(c) Journalism

(d) Community Leadership

3. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was estab-lished on which of the following dates?

(a) 3rd August 1950 (b) 3rd August 1952

(c) 3rd August 1954 (d) 3rd August 1956

4. Uranium mines are located at which of the following places?

1. Jaduguda 2. Bhatin

3. Narwapahar 4. Turamdih

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All the above

5. Dhruva, CIRCUS and Apsara are which of the following?

(a) Pressurized heavy water reactors

(b) Research reactors

(c) Boiling water reactors

(d) Advanced heavy water reactors

6. Which one of the following is present in the uranium process plant?

(a) Haematite (b) Dolomite

(c) Magnetite (d) Beryllite

7. The Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) use which of the following?

(a) Uranium-based fuel

(b) Thorium-based fuel

(c) Both uranium and thorium-based fuel

(d) Uranium and yttrium-based fuel

8. In which year the Indian Space Research Organiza-tion was formed?

(a) 1965 (b) 1967

(c) 1969 (d) 1972

9. Consider the following statements:

1. India is among the six nations of the world to pos-sess the capability to launch satellites into GTO.

2. INSAT is a multipurpose satellite system. (a) Both 1 and 2 are correct. (b) Both 1 and 2 are incorrect. (c) Only 1 is correct. (d) Only 2 is correct.

10. Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited is a project of which of the following?

(a) Himachal Pradesh

(b) Punjab

(c) Himachal Pradesh and Government of India joint venture

(d) Punjab and Government of India joint venture

11. Match List-I with List-II.

List-I List-II A. National Thermal Power 1. 1989 Corporation

B. Power Grid Corporation 2. 1969 of India Limited

C. Rural Electrification 3. 1975 Corporation Limited

D. Power Finance 4. 1986

Corporation Limited

A B C D (a) 4 3 2 1

(b) 3 1 2 4

(c) 1 3 4 2

(d) 1 2 3 4



12. Arrange the following states in ascending order of the coal reserves they possess:

1. Jharkhand 2. Orissa 3. Madhya Pradesh 4. West Bengal

(a) 4, 3, 2, and 1 (b) 4, 3, 1, and 2

(c) 3, 4, 2, and 1 (d) 3, 4, 1, and 2

13. In which year was nationalization of the coal industry done?

(a) 1973 (b) 1974

(c) 1975 (d) 1971

14. In the context of recent development in India’s Space Programme, which of the following statements are correct?

1. In India’s 100th space mission, a PSLV launched a French satellite and a Japanese satellite.

2. GSLV Mark II is being built with indigenous cryogenic engine with a payload capacity of 2 ton.

3. IRNSS-1A is the first satellite in India’s Regional Navigation Satellite System.

4. Mars Orbiter Mission aims at studying Martian surface, atmosphere and mineralogy.

Select the correct answer using the following codes:

(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4 (b) Only 1, 2, and 3

(c) Only 2, 3, and 4 (d) Only 1 and 4


1. Management of diseases of important crop plants.

2. Conferring attributes to the plant to combat biotic and abiotic stresses.

3. Management of various diseases, pests, shelf-life extension of fruits and vegetables.

4. As smart food packaging material with anti- bacterial properties.


(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4 (b) Only 1 and 2

(c) Only 1, 2, and 4 (d) Only 1, 2, and 3

16. In relation to the Centres of Excellence in Biotech-nology, which of the following centre(s) is/are not part of the bio-cluster of NCR region?

1. National Centre for Biological Sciences

2. Translational Health Science and Technology Institute

3. National Institute for Plant Genome Research

4. Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine


(a) None of the above (b) Only 1

(c) Only 2 (d) Only 1 and 4

17. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) was estab-lished in which of the following year?

(a) 1875 (b) 1885

(c) 1901 (d) 1923

18. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was estab-lished on

(a) 3 August 1950 (b) 3 August 1952

(c) 3 August 1954 (d) 3 August 1956

19. Uranium mines are located at which of the following places?

1. Jaduguda 2. Bhatin

3. Narwapahar 4. Turamdih

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 3, and 4

(c) 1, 2, and 3 (d) All the above

20. Dhruva, CIRCUS and Apsara are

(a) Pressurized heavy water reactors

(b) Research reactors

(c) Boiling water reactors

(d) Advanced heavy water reactors

21. Which one of the following is present in the uranium process plant?

(a) Haematite (b) Dolomite

(c) Magnetite (d) Beryllite

22. The Indian Space Research Organization was formed in the year

(a) 1965 (b) 1967

(c) 1969 (d) 1972


1. India is among the six nations of the world to pos-sess the capability to launch satellites into GTO.

2. INSAT is a multipurpose satellite system.

(a) Both 1 and 2 are correct

(b) Both 1 and 2 are incorrect

(c) Only 1 is correct

(d) Only 2 is correct


1.57Chapter 2 – Science and Technology Policies in India

anSWer KeyS

prelims Questions

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b)

practice exercise

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a)

hIntS and eXplanatIonS

prelims Questions

1. The Universal Product Code was the first bar code symbology widely adopted. Its birth is usually set at 3 April 1973, when the grocery industry formally established UPC as the standard bar code symbology for product marking.

2. CMYK is a subtractive colour model used in colour printing. The colours are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Key black.

3. Reference pages 10 and 14 of Wizard Current Affairs.

4. Report of World Water Conference, Plachimada, Kerala.


Unit IIProgression of Science and Technology

Chapter 1: Space TechnologyChapter 2: Indian Nuclear Programme and TechnologyChapter 3: Biotechnology and GeneticsChapter 4: Information and Communication

TechnologyChapter 5: Defence Research and Technology Chapter 6: Renewable and N on-Renewable Resources Chapter 7: Nutrition and HealthChapter 8: Environment and Ecology (Online)


INTRODUCTION

Outer space, often simply called space, comprises the relatively empty regions of the universe in outside the atmosphere of celestial bodies. The term ‘outer’ is used to distinguish ‘outer space’ from airspace (and terrestrial locations). Contrary to popular understanding, outer space is not completely empty (i.e., a perfect vacuum), but it contains a low density of particles, predominantly hydrogen plasma as well as electromagnetic radiation. Hypothetically, it also contains dark matter and dark energy.

The term outer space was first coined by H. G. Wells in 1901.

SpaCe SCIeNCe

Space science is an encompassing term that describes all of the various science fields, which are concerned with the study of the Universe, generally also meaning ‘excluding the Earth’ and ‘outside of the Earth’s atmosphere.’

Exploration of the space and universe has been one of the fundamental human instincts. For centuries, man has marvelled at the night sky and has been devising several means to go beyond Earth and reach the stars.

Two Ways of exploration

The exploration of space has been done through two ways: exploration of space through instru-ments based on Earth (e.g., telescopes) and space exploration through space travel.

The latter means exploration of space by travelling through it, either in person or by drone. Closely associated with space travel is a Space Station, either manned or unmanned. All man-made satellites are a form of unmanned or manned space stations.


❍ Understand the growth and development of space technology.

❍ Discuss the influence of space technology on society, economy and polity of India.

❍ Learn about the objectives and achievements of Indian Space Technology.

Learning Objectives

1Chapter

Space Technology


Section a: Unit II – progression of Science and Technology1.62

Unmanned space travel includes the sciences of spacecraft propulsion, rocket launch technology, rocket, astrodynamics, unmanned space missions, and others.

Manned space travel further includes the sciences of microgravity environment, space transport, manned space missions, interplanetary travel, interstellar travel and generation ship.

Though space explorations began with man’s quest for knowledge, the technologies that were developed in the process have found applications that are of direct relevance to the devel-opment of the society. Today, space-based telecommunication, television broadcasting, meteo-rology, resources monitoring, etc., have become very important and essential in everyday life.

Apart from its value as a technological fi rst, Sputnik also helped to identify the upper atmo-spheric layer’s density, through measuring the satellite’s orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere.

SpaCe ReSeaRCH IN INDIa

The objective of Indian space research is to develop space technology so that it could be applied to various national tasks. The organization that is involved in the space research in India is ISRO.

In fact, Government of India set up Space Commission and Department of Space (DOS) in June 1972. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was established under DOS executes space programme through its establishments located in different places in India.

ISRO has established two major space systems—1. INSAT for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services and 2. Indian Remote-Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for resources monitoring and management. ISRO has developed two satellite launch vehicles (viz., PSLV and GSLV) to place INSAT and IRS satellites in the required orbits.

From the beginning, space activities in the country, concentrated on achieving self-reliance and developing capability to build and launch communication satellites for television broadcast, telecommunications and meteorological applications, and remote-sensing satellites for management of natural resources.

Table 1.1 Chronology of the space age

Year Important Event of the Space Age

1957 Sputnik 1, the world’s fi rst artifi cial satellite is launched by the Soviet Union.

1959 Luna 3 takes the fi rst pictures of the ‘dark side of the moon’ and transmits them back to Earth.

1961 Yuri Gagarin becomes the fi rst man in space.

1965 Alexey Leonov makes the fi rst ‘spacewalk’ during the Voskhod 2 mission.

20 July 1969 Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11, becomes the fi rst human being to walk on the Moon.

1971 Salyut 1 is launched, becoming the fi rst space station.

1976 Viking 1 lands on Mars and transmits pictures from the surface,

1981 The fi rst reusable space ship, the Space Shuttle, is launched for the fi rst time.

1986 The fi rst long-duration space station, Mir, is launched. It stayed in orbit for over 15 years.

1990 The fi rst large-space telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, is launched into the orbit.

2000 The fi rst resident crew enters the International Space Station, a large space station designed as a human habitat

20 July 2011 End of Space Shuttle Era: Atlantis returned to Earth.

INFO

The launch of Sputnik I (the fi rst artifi cial satellite to orbit the Earth) in 1957—by the former Soviet Union at the height of the cold war—sent shock waves around the world. The 83 kg aluminium sphere lasted 92 days in space before burning up in the atmo-sphere. The result was the space race, with the founding of the National Aero-nautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958.


Chapter 1 – Space Technology 1.63

Accordingly, ISRO has successfully operationalized two major satellite systems, namely Indian National Satellites (1NSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote-Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites.

ORGaNIZaTION SeTUp UNDeR ISRO

For the realization of its objectives, ISRO has developed a sound infrastructure that consists of the following:

The ISRO Council and ISRO headquarter at Bengaluru and provide the overall guidance and direction to the scientific, technological and managerial tasks.

RISAT-1

SARAL

IRNSS-1A IRNSS-1B IRNSS-1E

CARTOSAT-2C

RESOUCESAT-2A

SCAT-SAT

GSAT-9IRNSS-1F

IRNSS-1G

GSAT-6

GSAT-16 GSAT-15

GSAT-18

INSAT-3DR

IRNSS-1C

IRNSS-1DGSAT-14

GSAT-10Procured LaunchService

INSAT-3D

GSAT-7

Mars

Crew module

RLV-TD

ASTROSAT

C19

PSLV GSLV GSLV-MkIII

C22 MkIII-XC24 C28 C29 C34 C33 C35 C36C30 C31 C32C23 C26 C27C21 C25 D5D6

HEX-01

F08 F09C20

Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial

CHANDRAYAAN-2

Orbiter

EarthObservationSatellites

Communication &NavigationSatellites

Space science &PlanetaryExplorationSatellites

TechnologyDevelopment

Launch Vehicles

Achieved Proposed

Missions 2013-14 2014-15 2016-172015-162012-13

AchievedTargeted

SatellitesLaunch vehicle

INSAT GSLV

IRS PSLV

CONNeCT

Table 1.2 Space missions 2012–2017


Section A: Unit II – Progression of Science and Technology1.64

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)

The VSSC, at Thiruvananthapuram, is the lead centre for all rocket and launch vehicle programmes.

ISRI Satellite Centre (ISaC)

The ISAC at Bengaluru is the lead centre for satellite technology.

Sriharikota High altitude Range Centre (SHaR)

The SHAR centre, located at Sriharikota Island, about 100 km north of Chennai, is the main launch centre of ISRO.

SHAR operates launch ranges at Balasore in Orissa and Thumba in Kerala, besides the one at Sriharikota for conducting sounding rocket flights. Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Thiruvananthapuram is responsible for the development of liquid and cryogenic propulsion stages for launch vehicles and auxiliary propulsion systems for both launch vehi-cles and satellites. The test facilities are located at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu.

Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad, conducts space applications research and development. Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU) DECU, Ahmed-abad, is involved in the conception, definition, planning, implementation and socioeconomic evaluation of space applications.

ISRS Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network

ISRS Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) has the prime responsibility of providing mission support to near-earth satellites and launch vehicle missions. An integrated network of ground stations at Bengaluru, Lucknow, Port Blair, Sriharikota, Thiruvananthapuram and Mauritius has been established by ISTRAC with a multi-mission Spacecraft Control Centre at Bengaluru.

INSaT Master Control Facility

INSAT Master Control Facility (MCF) located at Hassan, Karnataka, is responsible for all the post-launch operations of INSAT satellites, including orbit manoeuvres, station keeping and on-orbit operation of the spacecraft. A second ISRO master control facility was inaugurated in Bhopal in 2005.

National Remote-Sensing agency

National Remote-Sensing Agency (NRSA) at Hyderabad is an autonomous institution supported by DOS. The agency is responsible for acquisition, processing and distribution of data from remote-sensing satellites.

National Mesosphere-Troposphere Radar Facility

National Mesosphere-Troposphere Radar Facility (NMRF) is a national facility setup at Gadanki near Tirupati. NMRF is an autonomous society. The facility has been made available for national and international scientists to conduct atmospheric research.



3. Umbilical Tower (UT)

4. Jet Deflector

5. Lightning Protection Towers

6. Propellant Storage and Servicing Facilities

antariksh Corporation Limited

The Antariksh Corporation Limited, located at Antariksh Complex in Bengaluru, is the apex marketing agency under the Department of Space. ISRO officials hope to corner 10% of the global space market within the decade. This will put it in competition with the United States, Russia, China, and the European Space Agency in offering commercial space services.

Second Launch pad at Sriharikota

The Second Launch Pad (SLP) which is built at Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota is a state-of-the-art launch complex. The SLP consists of the following major elements:

1. Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB)

2. Mobile Launch Pedestal (MLP)

Figure 1.1: Organizational structure of ISRO

NARL

PRL

NRSA

Prime Minister

Space Commission

Department of Space

ANTRIXSCL

NESAC

ISRO

ISACSDSC SHARSACLPSCVSSC

ISTRACMCF RRSSCs


Section a: Unit II – progression of Science and Technology1.66

INDIaN SpaCe VISION FOR THe NexT DeCaDe

The guiding vision for the Indian Space Programme, from the very inception of the programme, had been to be ‘second to none’ in the development and applications of space technology to the solution of the real problems of society.

The programme directions and the major thrust areas of the space programme during the next decade 2010–20 are as follows:

1. Enhanced Capabilities for Space Communications • Competitive and state-of-art space segment capacity augmentation in INSAT/GSAT

system for national needs in the area of communications, broadcasting and informa-tion infrastructure.

• Establishment of Regional Satellite Navigational System and positioning services.

• Major thrust on societal applications, including Tele-education, Tele-medicine and Village Resource Centres.

• Undertake major technology enhancement and applications development for space communications, including mobile communications.

• Transitioning INSAT system towards self-sustenance and enabling private sector role in Indian Satellite Systems.

2. Leadership in Earth Observations: Position Earth Observation Infrastructure to meet national imaging demands and support National Natural Resource Management Sys-tems, disaster management support system, developmental activities, improved weather and ocean-state forecast.

3. Major Thrust for Space Transportation: Long-term goal of realization of a cost-ef-fective state-of-the-art Two-Stage-To-Orbit (TSTO) Vehicle by 2025 and support the national launch needs till such time through expendable launch vehicles by upgrading the existing launch capabilities.

4. Space Science Enterprise: Undertake advanced space science endeavours, including planetary exploration.

5. Enhanced Industry Participation: Increased role for Indian industries in realizing the space products and services.

6. Promoting Spin-offs: Human resources development, strengthening the academia interface and forging international partnerships.

The ongoing decade 2010–20 unfolds with several challenges and opportunities in the space technology in the context of social, economic and strategic growth of the country.

The space programme, thus, will play a more critical role in the national development in the years to come.

TechTalk

Indian Space Vision 2025

◗ Satellite-based communication and navigation systems for rural connectivity, security needs and mobile services.

◗ Enhanced imaging capability for natural resource manage-ment, weather and climate change studies.

◗ Space science missions for better understanding of solar system and universe.

◗ Planetary explora-tion.

◗ Development of heavy lift launcher.

◗ Reusable launch vehicles: Technol-ogy demonstrator missions leading to Two-Stage-To- Orbit (TSTO).

◗ Human space fl ight.



Table 1.3 Milestones in Indian space research and development

2019 1 April 2019, PSLV-C45 successfully launches EMISAT and 28 customer satellites

13 March 2019, ISRO Awards presented to 96 achievers

6 February 2019, India’s communication satellite GSAT-31 launched successfully from French Guiana

25 January 2019, PSLV-C44 successfully launched Microsat-R and Kalamsat-V2

CHANDIGARH• Semi-conductor laboratory

JODHPUR• Western RRSC

UDAIPUR• Solar observatory

Mt.ABU• Infrared observatory

AHMEDABAD• Development and educational communication unit• Physical research laboratory• Space applications centre

MUMBAI• ISRO liaison office

BHOPAL• Master control facility-B

HASSAN• Master control facility

BYALALU• Indian deep space network

BENGALURU• Laboratory for electro-optic systems• Southern RRSC• Space commission• ISRO satellite centre• Departement of space and ISRO headquaters• ADCOS secretariat• Liquid propulsion systems centre• INSAT programme office• NNRMS secretariat• Antrix corporation• ISRO telemetry, tracking and command network• Civil engineering programme office

NEW DELHI• ISRO branch office• Delhi earth station• DOS branch secretariat

DEHRADUN• Centre for space science and technology education in Asia-Pacific• Indian institute of remote sensing

LUCKNOW• ISEO Navigation centre• ISTRAC Ground station

SHILLONG• North eastern-space application centre

KOLKATA• Eastern RRSC

NAGPUR• Central RRSC

HYDERABAD• National remote sensing centre

SRIHARIKOTA• Satish dhawan space centre, SHAR

TIRUPATI• National atmospheric research laboratory

ALUVA• Ammonium perchlorate experimental plant

PORT BLAIR• Down range station

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM• ISRO inertial systems unit• Indian institute of space science and technology• Liquid propulsion system centre• Vikram sarabhai space centreMAHENDRAGIRI• Liquid propulsion test facilites

Figure 1.2: Centres of Indian space programme in India

(continued)



18 January 2019, UNNATI (UNispace Nanosatellite Assembly and Training by ISRO)

18 January 2019, UNNATI (UNispace Nanosatellite Assembly and Training by ISRO)

1 January 2019, ISRO launches Samwad with Students on New Year Day

2018 19 December 2018, GSLV-F11 Successfully Launches GSAT-7A

5 December 2018, India’s Heaviest Communication Satellite GSAT-11 Launched Successfully From French Guiana

29, November 2018, PSLV-C43 Successfully Launches Hysis and 30 Customer Satellites

14 November 2018, GSLV Mkiii-D2 Successfully Launches GSAT-29

16 September 2018, PSLV-C42 Launches 2 Foreign Satellites

30 August 2018, Successful Acceptance Hot Testing of Cryogenic Engine

5 July 2018, Successful Flight Testing of Crew Escape System – Technology Demonstrator

22 June 2018, Discovery of A Sub-Saturn Like Planet Around A Sun-Like Star

12 June 2018, Release of Request For Qualification (RFQ) For Technology Transfer of Lithium-Ion Cell By ISRO To Indian Industries

25 April 2018, GSAT-11 Launch Rescheduled

12 April 2018, PSLV-C41 Successfully Launches IRNSS-1I Navigation Satellite

29 March 2018, GSLV Successfully Launches GSAT-6 A Satellite

23 March 2018, ISRO-BHEL Tie up for the Production of Space Grade Lithium-Ion Cells

20 February 2018, Swachhta Pakhwada Observed at DOS/ISRO During February 01-15, 2018

12 January 2018, PSLV Successfully Launches 31 Satellites in a Single Flight

2017 6 November 2017, CZT Imager of AstroSat measures first phase resolved X-ray polarisation of Crab pulsar

31 August 2017, PSLV-C39 Flight Carrying IRNSS-1H Navigation Satellite Unsuccessful

29 June 2017 , India's GSAT-17 Communication Satellite Launched Successfully

23 June 2017, PSLV-C38 Successfully Launches 31 Satellites in a Single Flight

5 June 2017, First Developmental Flight of India's GSLV MkIII Successfully launches GSAT-19 Satellite

5 May 2017, GSLV Successfully Launches South Asia Satellite

15 February 2017, ISRO created milestone launching a record 104 satellites abroad is PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

2016 Indian on 23 May 2016, ISRO successfully launched the first indigenously made Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), capable of launching satellites into orbit around Earth and re-entering the atmosphere from Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh.

2016 Dec 7, 2016 ISRO sucessfully launched the remote sansing satellite RESOURCESAT-2A using PSLV from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. • ISRO started service of ground and aerial test linked on the critical Moon landing of

Chandrayaan-2 on 26 October 2016.

Table 1.3 Milestones in Indian space research and development (Continued)

(continued)



• ISRO launched weather satellite INSRT-3DR, into GTO (Geosynchroomy Transfer Orbit on 7 sep 2016.

• ISRO successfully flight test of Scramjet Engine Technology on 27 August 2016.

2015 PSLV successfully put into orbit IRNSS-1D, the fourth satellite of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) after its successful launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

2014 GSLV successfully placed GSAT-14 into GTO. PSLV-C24 successfully launched IRNSS-1B, IRNSS from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. PSLV-C23, successfully launched French Earth observation Satellite-SPOT-7, and four co-passenger PSLV-C26, successfully launched IRNCS-1C the third satellite of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System form Sriharikota. GSAT-15 successfully launched by ARIANE-5 VA221.

2013 PSLV-C20 launched Indo-French Satellite SARAL with its smaller satellite, PSLV-C22, successfully launched IRNSS-1A and India’s first interplanetary Mission 70 planet Mars PSLV-25 from Sriharikota.

2012 PSLV-C19 launched RISAT-1 on April 26, 2012 (successful).

2011 • PSLV-C18 launched Megha-Tropiques, SRMSat, VesselSat-1 and Jugnu on October 12, 2011 (successful).

• PSLV-C17 successfully launches GSAT-12 from Sriharikota (July 15, 2011).

2010 • GSLV-F06 launched from Shriharikota (December 25, 2010).

• GSAT-5P could not be placed into orbit as the GSLV-F06 mission was not successful.

• PSLV-C15 successfully launches five satellites-CARTOSAT-2B, ALSAT-2A, 2 nanosatel-lites-MLS-6.1 & 3.2 and a picosatellite-STUIDSAT from Sriharikota (July 12, 2010).

2009 PSLV-C14 successfully launched seven satellites OCEANSAT-2, four CUBESAT satellites and two RUBIN-9 from Sriharikota. PSLV-C12 successfully launched RISAT-2 and ANUSAT from Sriharikota.

2003 PSLV-C11 successfully launched CHANDRAYAAN 1 from Sriharikota. PSLV-C9 successfully launched CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and eight foreign nano-satellites from Sriharikota. PSLV-C10 successfully launched TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract with Antariksh Corporation.

2007 Successful launched of GSLV (GSLV-F04) with INSAT 4CR on board from Sriharikota. ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C8, successfully launched Italian astronomical satellite, AGILE from Sriharikota.

2009 Second operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F02) from SDSC SHAR with INSAT-4C on board. Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

2005 Successful launched of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou, French Guyana. ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully launched CARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota.

2004 The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched EDUSAT from Sriharikota.

2003 ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-05, successfully launched RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6) satellite from Sriharikota. Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou, French Guyana. The second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota. Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou, French Guyana.


(continued)



2002 ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched KALPANA-1 satellite from Sriharikota. Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou, French Guyana.

2001 ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3, successfully launched three satellites— Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD of Germany and PROBA of Belgium into their intended orbits. The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from Sriharikota.

1997 INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched by ISRO in G50 orbit becomes inoperable. (An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, was acquired in November 1997 to partly augment the INSAT system). First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board. The satellite was placed in the orbit. It to also known as INSAT-2R

1998 INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of 1NSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT.

1996 Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 on board. Satellite placed in polar sun syn-chronous orbit.

1995 Launch of third operational Indian Remote-Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C. INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, was launched.

1994 Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2 on board. Satellite successfully placed in polar sun synchronous orbit. Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board. The satellite was placed in the orbit.

1993 First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board. The satellite could not be placed in the orbit. INSAT 2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, was launched.

1992 INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-generation INSAT series, was launched. Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS C on board. The satellite was placed in the orbit.

1991 Second operational Remote-Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, was launched.

1990 INSAT-1D was launched.

1988 INSAT-1C was launched. It was abandoned in November 1989. Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board. The satellite could not be placed in the orbit. Launch of first operational Indian Remote- Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A.

1987 First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board. The satellite could not be placed in the orbit.

1984 Indo-Soviet manned space mission.

1983 INSAT-1B launched. Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 was placed in the orbit.

1982 INSAT-1A was launched.

1981 Bhaskara-Il was launched. APPLE, an experimental geostationary communication satellite was successfully launched. RS-D1 was placed in the orbit. First developmental launch of SLV-3.

1980 Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite was successfully placed in the orbit.

1979 First experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board. Satellite could not be placed in orbit. Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched.

1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.

Table 1.3 Milestones in Indian space research and development (Continued)

(continued)



1975–76 Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.

1975 ISRO’s first Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched. ISRO becomes government organization.

1972–76 Air-borne remote-sensing experiments conducted.

1972 Space Commission and Department of Space set up. ISRO brought under DOS.

1969 Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) formed under the Department of Atomic Energy.

1968 TERLS dedicated to the United Nations.

1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.

1965 Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.

1963 First sounding rocket launched from TERLS

1962 Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of Atomic Energy and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started.


Figure 1.3: Functioning of GPS

LEO

GPS

SaTeLLITe SySTeMS

Different Types of Orbits

Four important types of orbits are discussed below.

1. Low Earth Orbit: It includes orbits having apogees (high points) and perigees (low points) between about 100 km and 1,500 km. The majority of all satellites, as well as the space shuttle and International Space Station, operate from LEO.



The LEO for communications has more in common with terrestrial Land Mobile Radio communications networks than conventional geostationary satellite communica-tions systems.

A special type of LEO is the Polar Orbit. This is a LEO with a high inclination angle (close to 90 degrees). This means the satellite travels over the poles.

2. Medium Earth Orbit: It is an orbit that is intermediate in altitude between that of LEO and Geostationary Orbit (GSO) at 35,900 km.

The orbital periods of MEO satellites, with orbits properly coordinated can provide global wireless communication coverage. A global-coverage fleet of MEO satellites can have fewer members than a global-coverage fleet of LEO satellites.

3. Geostationary Orbit: The most common orbit used for satellite communications is the geostationary orbit (GEO). This is the orbit at an altitude of 35,784 km that lies in the plane of Earth’s equator and the rotational period is equal to that of the Earth. The satellite and the Earth move together. So, a GEO satellite appears as a fixed point in the sky from the Earth.

It was only in 1945 that the idea of an apparently stationary satellite around the Earth was proposed. The noted science-fiction writer, Arthur C. Clarke put forward the idea to relay radio signals from a satellite around the Earth.

In an article entitled ‘Extra-terrestrial Relays,’ he stated that an orbit with a radius of 42,000 km has a period of 24 hours and a body in such an orbit, if its plane coin-cided with that of the Earth’s equator, should revolve with the Earth as stationary above the same area. Today the orbit is also called the Clarke Orbit.

Advantages: The advantages of such an orbit are that no tracking is required from the ground station since the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. The satellite can also provide continuous operation in the area of visibility of the satel-lite. Many communications satellites travel in geostationary orbits, including those that relay TV signals into our homes.

Limitations: However, due to their distance from Earth GEO satellites have a signal delay of around 0.24 seconds for the complete send and receive path. This can be a problem with telephony or data transmission.

Also, since they are in an equatorial orbit, the angle of elevation decreases as the latitude or longitude difference increases between the satellites and earth station. Low elevation angles can be a particular problem to mobile communications.

4. The Transfer Orbit: It is considered economical to reach the orbit in stages. More-over, the accuracy demanded in injecting the satellite into the correct orbit is ensured if a series of manoeuvres around the Earth is performed instead of depending only on one step injection of satellite into the orbit directly.

Accordingly, a satellite is put into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) with a perigee (nearest point) of about 250 km and an apogee (farthest point) of 35,800 km.

A rocket on-board the satellite, called an ‘apogee motor,’ will be fired on radio command when the satellite reaches the apogee.

The rocket firing will give it enough push to increase its velocity and circularize the egg-shaped lower orbit.

The point at which the satellite requires minimum velocity change and therefore minimum consumption of propellant is determined on the basis of theory elaborated in 1925 by Walter Hohmann (1880–1945).

Figure 1.4: Different types of Earth's orbit

LEOMEO

EARTH

GeostationaryOrbit

Figure 1.5: LEO, MEO and HEO orbits

Perigee

ICO(MEO)

LEO

Molnya

TundraHEO

Apogee

Orbit Types

Figure 1.6: Illustration of geosynchronous orbit

Shuttle

Hohmann orbit

Earth



So, after the separation from a rocket or a shuttle, a geosynchronous satellite goes into the transfer orbit. Small corrections are made to the orbit, but a lot of calculations would be necessary before the apogee motor is fired.

It is generally fired when the satellite reaches the apogee after 3 or sometimes 10 orbits. Even a slight malfunction in injecting the satellite into this orbit would result in a degraded transfer orbit.

The speed of the satellite in the egg-shaped orbit is typically 10.15 km/s at the perigee, while it is 1.46 km/s at the apogee. Hence, it would need only an addition of about 3.07 km/s in the circular GSO.

After firing thrice on radio command from ground control, the on-board liquid apogee motor contributes nearly half the velocity of the satellite in the GSO.

The process consumes typically more than 70% of the on-board fuel, leaving the rest for corrections during the entire lifetime of the satellite.

INDIaN SaTeLLITe SySTeM/INSaT

The INSAT series, commissioned in 1983, has today become one of the largest domestic satellites system in the Asia-Pacific region comprising nine satellites in service. The Indian Remote-Sensing satellites (IRS) system in one of the largest constellations of remote-sensing satellites in operation in the world today. The IRS programme, commissioned with the launch of IRS-1A in 1988, presently continue to provide imageries in variety of spatial resolutions from better than one metre ranging up to 500 m. Today, Indian space programme has become self-reliant with the operationalization of two satellites launch vehicles, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle mainly for launching IRS class of satellites in polar orbits and geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle for launching communication satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV can carry 2–2.5 tonne satellite into 36,000 km range for geostationary transfer orbit and India was the sixth country in the world to have this capability.

For the past four decades, ISRO has launched more than 60 satellites for various scientific and technological applications like mobile communications, direct-to-home services, mete-orological observations, telemedicine, tele-education, disaster warning, radio networking, search and rescue operation, remote-sensing and scientific studies of the space.

ISRO has established two major space systems—1. The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) series for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services which is geostationary satellites and 2. IRS system for resources monitoring and management which is Earth Observation Satellites. ISRO has launched many experimental satellites, which are generally small comparing to INSAT or IRS and Space Missions to explore the space.

1. Geostationary Satellites: The geostationary satellites which are placed in an orbit about 36,000 km over the equator are used for telecommunication, television broadcast-ing and meteorological services. INSAT is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in the Asia-Pacific Region. Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s communications sector and sus-tained the same later. INSAT space segment consists of 24 satellites out of which 10 are in service (INSAT-2E, INSAT-3A, INSAT-4B, INSAT-3C, INSAT-3E, KALPANA-1, INSAT-4A, INSAT-4CR, GSAT-8 and GSAT-12).

The system with a total of nearly 175 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands, provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, weather forecasting, disaster warning and search and rescue operations.

METSAT (renamed as Kalpana-1) is the first in the series of exclusive meteoro-logical satellites built by ISRO.

CONNeCT



HAMSAT (launched in 2005) is a micro-satellite for providing satellite-based Amateur Radio services to the national as well as the international community of Amateur Radio Operators (HAM). It consists of two transponders—one indigenously developed by Indian Amateurs, with the expertise of ISRO and the experience of HAMSAT-INDIA and the second transponder has been developed by a Dutch Amateur Radio Operator and Graduate Engineering student at Higher Technical Institute, Venlo, The Netherlands.

2. Earth Observation Satellites: Indian Remote-Sensing (IRS) satellite system was com-missioned with the launch of IRS-1A, in 1988. With 11 satellites in operation, IRS is the largest civilian remote-sensing satellite constellation in the world providing imag-eries in a variety of spatial resolutions, spectral bands and swaths. The data are used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, drought and flood forecasting, ocean resources and disaster management.

The satellites under this system are Megha-Tropiques, ResourceSat-2, Cartosat-2B, OceanSat-2, RiSat-2, CartoSat-2A, IMS1, Cartosat-2, Cartosat-1, ResourceSat-1. TES.

3. Experimental Satellites: ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for the experimental purposes. This experiment includes remote sensing, atmospheric studies, Payload development, orbit controls, recovery technology, etc. (e.g., Jugnu, SRMSat and YouthSat).

Control and Stability in Orbit

A perfect GSO would be a circle at a uniform distance of 42,164.2 km from the centre of the Earth (composed of the Earth’s equatorial radius of 6,378 km and 35,786 km of the distance of the satellite from the edge of the Earth). The perfection often changes a little because of natural perturbances affecting the eccentricity (shape) of the orbit and its inclination to the equatorial plane (which should be ideally zero).

The Earth is not spherical in shape; it approximates to an oblate spheroid. Its equatorial radius is 6,678.14 km, flattened at the poles by 21.4 km. The elliptical nature of the equatorial plane causes a satellite to drift in longitude.

The GSO has two stable equilibrium points at 105° West and 75° east. At any other location, the satellite has to be actively kept stable. Otherwise, it will oscillate back and forth across the nearest stable equilibrium point.

The inclination to the equatorial plane does not stay constant and it tries to match the plane of the ecliptic (that is the Earth’s orbit around the sun). The GSO will go up and down (north and south) from 0°, 15° inclination. It is calculated that without correction, a satellite will drift away from the ideal orbit path by 15° every 56 years tracing a figure of 8 horizontally with reference to the rotating Earth.

Even if there is a 4° inclination from the final geosynchronous orbit, an observer on the Earth will see a motion described by ‘8.’

The satellite could move in the north-south direction by plus or minus 1° over a period from 60 to 100 days and more quickly in the east-west direction. In the north-south direction, the deviation is allowed to accumulate until it crosses 1°, when it is corrected by firing of micro-thrusters. The east-west movement is confined to within plus or minus 0.0° by slight adjustments every 3 days or so in a week, so as to avoid possible interference with other satellites.

Though there is no atmosphere at an altitude of about 36,000 km, a geostationary satellite (such as INSAT) is subject to the influence of the sun, the moon and the magnetic force of the Earth. As a result, there is an inevitable and natural tendency for a satellite to experience



a decrease in velocity at about 50 km per second in a year. Though the decrease is very small compared to the satellite’s speed (about 8 km/s), it will move the satellite by plus or minus 0.1°.

On orbit station keeping needs firing of micro-thrusters once every 3 days in the east-west line and once every 60 to 100 days in the north-south line. This is done by micro-thrusters on-board the satellite to keep it within 0.1° variation. They can operated even for a period of 16 milliseconds.

INDIa’S eaRLIeR SaTeLLITeS

India’s earlier satellites were of experimental in nature. A brief description of each these satellites has been given as follows:

aryabhata

It was the first Indian satellite, launched into a near earth orbit on in 1975, by an Intercosmos rocket of erstwhile USSR. It carried three payloads, one each for X-ray astronomy, solar physics and aeronomy.

Bhaskara-I & II

They were of experimental remote-sensing satellites launched in 1979 and 1971, respectively, by Intercosmos rockets. It carried 2 TV cameras, one invisible and the other in near-infrared band, and a 3-frequency passive microwave radiometre.

appLe (ariane passenger payload experiment)

It was an experimental communication satellite with a C-band transponder, launched in 1981 by an Ariane launch vehicle of European Space Agency (ESA). It was used to conduct several communication experiments.

Rohini

Rohini series of satellites was a series of technological/scientific satellites, launched by India’s own launch vehicle, SLV-3. The first one was used to measure the performance of SLV-3, the second and third carried land mark sensor payloads.

Stretched Rohini Series Satellites (SROSS-C and SROSS-C2)

They were launched by India’s Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle. ASLV, in 1992 and 1994, respectively. They carried a Retarding Potential Analyser and a Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) detector. SROSS-C2 is still providing valuable scientific data.

ReMOTe-SeNSING SaTeLLITeS

The term ‘remote sensing’ literally means observation and gathering data from a distance. The observation of the Earth from space is usually termed as remote sensing of the earth and the satellites used for the purpose are known as Remote-Sensing Satellites.

Simple photograph is also a form of remote sensing. But in more specific terms, it refers to the recording and analysis of electromagnetic radiation in the visible, infra-red, ultraviolet and microwave wavelengths reflected, scattered or radiated from various objects on Earth.



polar Sun-Synchronous Orbits

A polar orbit is inclined at 90° to the equatorial plane, so that a satellite is able to pass over both poles of the earth. With the plane of the orbit lying north south and almost fixed in space, the spinning Earth results in a polar-orbiting satellite sweeping over different swathes of ground with each orbit, enventually covering the entire globe the orbit is designed to ensure that the angle between the orbital plane and the Sun remains constant, resulting in consistent lighting conditions. This is achieved by a careful selection of orbit parameters to produce a precession of the orbit equal to the apparent motion of the Sun as seen from Ereath orbit, about one degree eastward each day. The Satellite’s orbital plane must be inclined away from a true north-south polar orbit with an inclination of 98.7° to the equatorial plane the asymmetric gravitational pull of the Earth causes the orbit to process by the required amount.

Sun Synchronous polar Orbit

The remote-sensing satellites are usually deployed in what is known as sun synchronous Polar Orbit at a height of 800 to 1,000 km. It is called polar orbit because it passes over both the polar regions of the earth in a north-south direction.

It is called sun synchronous because the orbit also keeps step with the Sun in that it passes over a specific location on the sun lit side of the Earth when the Sun is at the same height above the eastern horizon.

This helps in image interpretation because with the same Sun-angle, the shadows cast by different features are then only a function of their heights. With this kind of an orbit, the satellite passes over the same spot on Earth every 16 to 22 days at around 10:00 am local time.

Multispectral Imaging

In present day, satellite-based remote-sensing ‘multispectral imaging’ is used (i.e., the simultaneous imaging of the Earth’s surface in more than one colour, or wavelength, both visible and invisible) to bring out a lot of latent information unavailable in ordinary photographs.

Multispectral cameras used in remote-sensing satellites usually take 4 to 6 photographs at the same time of the same area using different colour filters. The use of filters brings out differ-ent rocks, soil, vegetation, water and other features distinctly, which is otherwise not possible. This is because each of them reflects light of a different wavelength preferentially when sun-light falls on them. The colour filters in the camera separate out these wavelength and produce different images when processed bringing out the different features clearly. The final image is usually produced by combining two or more of the separate images.

A unique advantage of multispectral space photography is that the images can be ‘colour coded’ by computer for easy interpretation. For example, the data may be used to pro-duce a detailed map of crops under cultivation that shows cotton in red, wheat in yellow and fallow land in blue. Potential water resources can be similarly coloured to assess their viability.

However, imaging with multispectral camera does bring out a wealth of information about the land below as clouds often obstruct a clear view. This problem is solved by incorpo-rating some sort of on-board radar imaging system which is able to penetrate cloud cover easily.



Charge-Coupled Devices or CCDs

Unlike ordinary cameras, which use photographic film to record images, multispectral cameras carried on-board Remote-Sensing Satellites use solid-state electronic detectors known as Charge-Coupled Devices or CCDs to receive the images.

CCDs are not only more sensitive than films, but also have an advantage as they can directly convert the images into electronic signals for transmission to ground stations.

After the signals are received on ground, they are decoded and converted into black-and-white or colour pictures. During the period when the satellite is out of range of the ground stations, the images are recorded on video tape on board the satellite for later retrieval.

advantages of Remote Sensing Over Conventional Methods • Remote sensing is accurate, faster and cheaper. For example, IRS-IC can survey the

subcontinent in 5 days.

• More than one survey can be done simultaneously through remote sensing.

• Remote sensing could bring in lot of foreign exchange as the data could be sold, especially to foreign nations.

• It can have military applications too.

Remote-Sensing applications

The data obtained from remote-sensing satellites are primarily used for natural resources management, though it has other applications such as in the field of defence.

In India, the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) has been set up under the aegis of DOS. It is done so with the aim of deriving optimum utilization of the country’s natural resources by systematic inventory using Earth observation data in conjunc-tion with conventional techniques.

Groundwater prospects MappingUnder the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, Phase I of Groundwater Prospects Mapping was launched for 6 states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan).

Crop acreage and production estimateCrop Acreage and Production Estimate (CAPE) is a countrywide project funded by the Ministry of Agriculture. Acreage and production estimates for principal crops, such as wheat, rice, sorghum, cotton, mustard and groundnut are generated under the project using stratified random sampling approach.

agro Climate planningThe agro resource potential of a region can be managed with the help of data provided by RSS. For example, through the agro climate planning taken up for six districts of Karnataka, a web based information bank has been generated for 63 major horticultural crops.

potential Fishery Zone ForecastingPotential fishing zones (PEZs) were initially forecast using sea-surface temperature data. Addition of chlorophyll information derived from OCEANSAT-1 introduced the important link of sea food chains and hence improved the accuracy of forecast.

Indian Space CapabilitiesIndian remote-sensing satellites currently have a resolution of 0.8 m which is at par with that of advanced remote-sensing satellites of other nations.

CONNeCT



A third parametre, the Sea Surface Wind (SSW), which indicates the effect of currents on feeding grounds, has now been incorporated resulting in further improvement in forecasts.

Biodiversity CharacterizationIt was initiated jointly by the Department of Biotechnology and the Department of Space. The biodiversity characterization at landscape level covers four main biodiversity rich regions of the country—NE Region, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Desertification Monitoring and AssessmentThe Integrated Resources Information System for Desert Areas (IRIS-DA) is a project that covers 76,527 km2 in 83 desert or drought-prone blocks distributed in 18 districts of four states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Karnataka.

Snowmelt Run-off ForecastSnow and Glacier investigations have been given emphasis as glaciers are emerging as first measurable indicators of global warming.

Coastal, Mangroves and Coral Reef StudiesThis enables constant monitoring and sustainable maintenance of coastal ecology.

National Wastelands Inventory Updation and Watershed Development projectThis enables wasteland development and hence contributes to sustainable agricultural development.

archaeological applicationsSatellite archaeology is based on the study of geometric patterns of soil and vegetation marks, paleo-channels, palaeo-mudflats and trend lines. Through the help of satellite archaeology, it has been found that Great Rann of Kutch was an arm of sea or part of the sea where a few sites were located in the past. This has been found using the analysis of LISS-IV data of IRS satellite.

One such site is a fortified structure identified as Kotda archaeological site, which has been confirmed on ground by Directorate of Archaeology, Gujarat, based on the pottery, copper coins, millstones, skulls, etc.

evaluation of Irrigation TanksMinistry of Water Resources initiated Nationwide pilot scheme NPRRR (National Project for Repair, Renovation and Restoration of water bodies directly linked to agriculture under Bharat Nirman Programme) covering about 1076 water bodies linked to agriculture in 24 districts spread over 14 states, for renovating these irrigation tanks to augment their storage capacities and to recover their lost irrigation potential.

Reservoir Capacity estimationAt the behest of Central Water Commission (CWC) under phase III, 12 reservoirs spread over different states in the country are selected for the capacity estimation using satellite remote sensing. They are Budua (Bihar), Getalsud (Jharkhand), Kadam and Ramappa (Andhra Pradesh), Sunei and Ramiala (Odshi), Harsi (Madhya Pradesh), Majalgaon, Siddheshwar, Sirpur and itiadoh (Maharashtra) and Gudha (Rajasthan).



Tea area Development and Management Using Remote Sensing and GISIn the first phase, it will be implemented in West Bengal and Assam. The scope of the project is to generated comprehensive geospatial database on natural resources of tea gardens, analysis and development of an information system for total management solutions of the tea industry.

National Urban Information SystemDOS is participating in realising National Urban Information System (NUIS) of Ministry of Urban Development taken up under NNRMS Standing Committee on Urban development. Apart from providing IRS satellite data and aerial photography, DOS shares the responsibility of the preparation of thematic maps at 1:10,000 scale. In Phase-I, 158 towns covering for a geographical area of around 55,755 km2 has been taken up.

Accelerated Irrigation Benefit ProgrammeAccelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) of Government of India has the mandate of speeding up implementation of on-going irrigation/ multipurpose projects. All the 143 irrigation projects across India using Cartosat-1 data to assess irrigation potential created by these projects have been taken up on behalf of Ministry of Water Resources.

Sedimentation Survey of ReservoirsSedimentation survey using satellite remote-sensing data has been completed for 2 reservoirs: Sriramsagar in Andhra Pradesh and Ujjani in Maharashtra.

Water-Logging and Salinity Mapping for Command areasThis enables sustainable water management in command areas.

National Geographic Information SystemNational Geographic Information System (GIS) is a major initiative of organizing the image and spatial data assets and make them accessible to users—for both viewing and physical access. Major themes covered are land use/land cover, soils, drainage, water bodies, wasteland, vegetation type besides administrative boundaries at different levels, settlements, transport network, etc.

Large-Scale MappingBringing out large-scale maps (LSMs) at 1:10,000 using the high-resolution satellite remote-sensing data has been taken under 2 phases: (a) pilot phase using IKONOS data and (b) operational phase using CARTOSAT-1 data.

SIGNaL SySTeMS

For years, watching TV has involved analogue signals and cathode-ray tube (CRT) sets. The signal is made of continually varying radio waves that the TV translates into a picture and sound. An analogue signal can reach a person’s TV over the air, through a cable or via satellite. Digital signals, like the ones from DVD players, are converted to analogue when played on traditional TVs. This system has worked pretty well for a long time, but it has some limitations:

• Analog pictures are interlaced: A CRT’s electron gun paints only half the lines for each pass down the screen. On some TVs, interlacing makes the picture flicker.



• Converting video to analogue format lowers its quality.

A digital signal transmits the information for video and sound as ones and zeros instead of as a wave. For over-the-air broadcasting, DTV will generally use the UHF portion of the radio spectrum with a 6 MHz bandwidth, just like analogue TV signals do.

Digital Television (DTV): This includes all the components of digital television, HDTV, SDTV, datacasting, and multicasting.

High-definition Television (HDTV): The highest quality picture available in DTV. In the US, the 1080i and 720p formats in a 16 × 9 aspect ratio are considered high definition. HDTV is a component of DTV. It is often described simply as ‘HD.’

DTV has several advantages as follows:

• The picture, even when displayed on a small TV, is of better quality.

• A digital signal can support a higher resolution, so the picture will still look good when shown on a larger TV screen.

• The video can be progressive rather than interlaced. The screen shows the entire picture for every frame instead of every other line of pixels.

• TV stations can broadcast several signals using the same bandwidth. This is called multicasting.

• If broadcasters choose to, they can include interactive content or additional information with the DTV signal.

• It can support high-definition (HDTV) broadcasts.

Regular NTSC signals have 525 lines of resolution. HDTV has 1125 lines of resolution having over five times the video information than that of a conventional NTSCC-type TV set. In spite of its obvious advantages, transmission requires extraordinary bandwidth of five times the capacity of a conventional TV signal. TV receivers are estimated to be 30% more expen-sive than today’s most costly sets. DTV also has one really big disadvantage—analog TVs cannot decode and display digital signals. When analogue broadcasting ends, you will only be able to watch TV on your trusty old set if you have cable or satellite service transmitting analogue signals or if you have a set-top digital converter. High-definition television (HDTV) is a digital television broadcasting system with higher resolution than traditional television systems (SDTV). HDTV is digitally broadcast because digital television (DTV) requires less bandwidth if sufficient video compression is used. Most HDTV systems offer more than 1000 scan lines, in a wider aspect ratio, with superior colour and sound fidelity.

DIReCT-TO-HOMe SeRVICe

The direct-to-home (DTH) service is a digital satellite service that provides television services direct to subscribers anywhere in the country. Since it makes use of wireless technology, programmes are sent to the subscriber’s television direct from the satellite, eliminating the need for cables and any cable infrastructure. This is particularly valuable in remote and difficult to reach areas where cable and in many cases, terrestrial television services are poor or non-existent. DTH services also provide the finest of picture and sound quality which is considered to be second to none worldwide. Now surround sound, home theatres, live concerts and daily television programming are all delivered to your home with the same quality as any modern movie theatre.



DTH services were first proposed in India in 1996. But they did not pass approval because there were concerns over national security and a cultural invasion. In 1997, the government even imposed a ban when the Rupert Murdoch-owned Indian Sky Broadcasting (ISkyB) was about to launch its DTH services in India. DTH is defined as the reception of satellite pro-grammes with a personal dish in an individual home. DTH does away with the need for the local cable operator and puts the broadcaster directly in touch with the consumer. Only cable operators can receive satellite programmes and they then distribute them to individual homes.

Working of DTH Network

A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders, multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers. A DTH service provider has to lease Ku-band transponders from the satellite. The encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer mixes these signals. At the user end, there will be a small dish antenna and set-top boxes to decode and view numerous channels. On the user’s end, receiving dishes can be as small as 45 cm in diameter. DTH is an encrypted transmission that travels to the consumer directly through a satellite. DTH transmission is received directly by the consumer at his end through the small dish antenna. A set-top box, unlike the regular cable connection, decodes the encrypted transmission.

advantages and Limitations of DTH Network

The way DTH reaches a consumer’s home is different from the way cable satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on the window or rooftop of the subscriber’s home. So the broadcaster directly connects to the user. The middlemen, like local cable operators are not there in the picture.

DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of a cable operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we explained above, in DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish. Also, with DTH, a user can scan nearly 700 channels.

Figure 1.7: DTH dish in a field

SFC

. Shu

tter

stoc

k



For multiple connections in the same premises, one can use the same connection. However, every television set will need to have an individual STB.

Also, DHT is a national service and the STBs enable a viewer to change service providers without changing the STB, even if one moves from one city to another.

DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is ana-logue. Despite digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analogue. DTH offers stereophonic sound effects. It can also reach remote areas where terrestrial transmission and cable TV have failed to penetrate. Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH has also allows from interactive TV services, such as movie-on-demand, Internet access, video confer-encing and you only pay for what you want to watch. It is not an all of nothing proposition like most cables. Advanced Viewing Control Features like the Electronic programme Guide (EPG) which provides you with the current and next Programme on all channels, Parental Lock which safeguards your children’s viewing option, and pre-booked Pay-Per-View and impulse Pay-Per-View-Watch that boxing or golf match, horse racing or Olympic events you have been waiting to see-in the comfort of your own home.

A big problem that broadcasters face in India is the issue of under-reporting of subscribers by cable operators. In DTH, the payment will be made directly by the subscriber to the satellite company offering the service. The local cable operator under-report the number of subscribers because showing a lesser number of households benefits them. With no way to actually cross check, the multi service operators and the broadcasters lose a lot. Broadcasters do not earn much in subscription fees and are mostly dependent on advertisement revenue to cover their costs, which is not sustainable and does not offer high set-top box is a must for DTH, Earlier, when CAS made set-top box mandatory for households, the costs between HTH and cable would not have been too wide.

VeRy SMaLL apeRTURe TeRMINaLS (VSaT)

A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a two-way satellite ground station with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3 m. Most VSAT antennas range from 75 cm to 1.2 m. Data rates typically range from narrowband up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit to relay data from small remote earth stations (terminals) to other terminals (in mesh configurations) or master earth station ‘hubs’ (in star configurations). VSATs are most commonly used to transmit narrowband data (point of sale transactions such as credit card, polling of RFID data; or SCADA), or broadband data (for the provision of Satellite internet access to remote locations, VolP or video). VSATs are also used for transportable, on-the-move or mobile maritime communications.

The largest VSAT network (more than 12,000 sites) was deployed for the US Postal Service. VSATs are used by car dealerships affiliated with manufacturers such as Ford and General Motors for transmitting and receiving sales figures and orders, as well as for receiving internal communications, service bulletins, and receiving sales figures and orders, as well as for receiv-ing internal communications, service bulletins, and interactive distance-learning courses from manufactures. VSAT technology is also used for two-way satellite Internet providers in the United States and Europe. These services are used across the world as a means of delivering broadband Internet access to locations which cannot get less expensive broadband connections such as ADSL or cable internet access; usually remote or rural locations. Nearly all VSAT systems are now based on IP, with a very broad spectrum of applications. The total number of VSATs ordered stood at over 1 million, with nearly 6,50,000 in service.



VSaT Technology

VSAT was originally intended for sporadic store-and-forward data communications, but it has evolved into real-time Internet services. VSAT uses existing satellite broadcasting technology with higher powered components and antennas manufactured with higher precision than conventional satellite television systems. The satellite antenna at the customer’s location includes, in addition to the receiver, a relatively high-powered transmitter that sends a signal back to the originating satellite. A very small portion of a transponder is used for each VSAT return path channel. Each VSAT terminal is assigned a frequency for the return path which it shares with other VSAT terminals using a share transmission scheme such as time division multiple access.

An innovative feature of VSAT is that the technology has evolved to the point that something that previously could only be done with large, high-powered transmitting satellite dishes can now be done with a much smaller and vastly lower-powered antenna at the customer’s prem-ises. In addition, several return-path channels can co-exist on a single satellite transponder, and each of these return-path channels is further subdivided using to serve multiple customers.

The return path is transmitted from the customer’s receiver in the L-and to a device called a low-noise block upconverter. There it is converted into the much higher frequency satellite transmission frequency, such as Ku-band and Ka-band, and amplified. Finally the signal is emitted to the dish antenna which focuses the signal into a beam that approximately covers the satellite with its beam. Because the transmission cannot be precise in these smaller dishes, there is some effort to use frequencies for the uplink that are not used by adjacent satellites otherwise interference can occur to those other satellites.

Another satellite communications innovation, also used by satellite trucks for video trans-mission, is that only a small portion of a single satellite transponder is used by each VSAT channel. Previously a single transponder was required for a single customer, but now sev-eral customers can use one transponder for the return path. This is in addition to time-based subdivision.

Figure 1.8: VSAT system

Satellite

Hootcomputer

Hubequipment

Send

SendReceive

Indoorunit

User’sterminal

VSAT remote sites



Advantages • Availability: VSAT services can be deployed anywhere having a clear view of the

Clarke Belt.

• Diversity:VSAT provides a wireless link completely independent of the local terrestrial/wireline infrastructure-especially important for backup or disaster recovery services.

• Deployability:VSAT enables customers to get the same speeds and service level agree-ments at all locations across their entire network regardless of location.

• Acceleration:Most modern VSAT systems use on-board acceleration of protocols, such as TCP and HTTP; this delivers high-quality Internet performance regardless of latency.

• Multicast:Most current VSAT systems use a broadcast download scheme which enables them to deliver the same content to tens or thousands of locations simultaneously at no additional cost.

• Security:Corporate-grade VSAT networks are private layer-2 networks over the air.

Disadvantages • Latency: Since they relay signals off a satellite in geosynchronous orbit 36,000 km

above the Earth, VSAT links are subject to a minimum latency of approximately 500 ms round-trip. This makes them a poor choice for ‘chatty’ protocols or applications such as online gaming.

• Encryption: The acceleration schemes used by most VSAT systems rely upon the abil-ity to see a packet’s source/destination and contents; packets encrypted via VPN defeat this acceleration and perform slower than other network traffic.

• Environmental Concerns: VSATs are subject to signal attenuation due to weather (‘Rain Fade’); the effect is typically far less than that experienced by one-way TV systems that use smaller dishes, but is still a function of antenna size and transmitter power and frequency band.

• Installation: VSAT services require an outdoor antenna installation with a clear view of the sky; this makes installation in skyscraper urban environments or locations where a customer does not have ‘roof rights’ problematic.

FUTURe appLICaTIONS

Advances in technology have dramatically improved the price/performance equation of FSS (Fixed Service Satellite) over the past 5 years. New VSAT systems are coming online using Ka band technology that promise higher bandwidth rates for lower costs. FSS satellite systems provide various applications for subscribers, including phone conversations; fax; TV broadcast; high-speed communication services; Internet access; video conferencing; Satellite News Gathering (SNG); Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and others. These systems are applicable for providing various high-quality services because they create efficient communication systems, both for residential and business users.

SaTeLLITe LaUNCH VeHICLeS

Launch Vehicles are used to transport and put satellites or space crafts into space. In India, the launch vehicles development programme began in the early 1970s. The first experimental Satellite Launch Vehicles (SLV) was developed in 1980. An Augmented version of this, ASLV was launched successfully in 1992. India has made tremendous strides in launch



vehicle technology to achieve self-reliance in satellite launch vehicles programme with the operationalization of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). PSLV represents ISRO’s first attempt to design and develop an operational vehicle that can be used to orbit applications satellites. While SLV-3 secured fore India a place in the community of space-faring nations, the ASLV provided the rites of passage into launch vehicles technology for ISRO. And with PSLV, a new world-class vehicle has arrived. ISRO also makes the Rohini series of sounding rockets used by the India and international, scientific investigations. These rockets are also used to qualify some of the critical system used for advanced launch vehicles.

Rocket Technology

Galileo calculated that gravity would force a falling body to come down at the rate of 980 cm/s after every second. This is the force which gravity exerts on a body at sea level (9.81 m/s

2).

This is also referred to as ‘Ig’ or as a unit of acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s gravity would reduce the speed or a rocket by 35 km/h every second. Newton

formulated a law on it, which stated that if the distance from the Earth is doubled, the pull of gravity is reduced to a quarter.

As the gravitational intensity declines with height, doubling the initial velocity of an object hurled upward would more than double the height reached. For example, if the initial velocity is 1.6 km/s, the maximum height reached above the Earth’s surface is 130 km.

But if the initial velocity is raised to 9.6 km/s, the height reached goes up to 17,900 km. The Earth’s sphere of influence has radius of about 1,000,000 km. Beyond that boundary, the sum ‘captures’ the satellite.

The only means available for any object that needs to be placed in orbit is rocket propulsion. Newton’s laws of motion govern the working of a rocket engine, a form of jet propulsion. The mass escaping through a rocket’s nozzle is described as action, while the rocket’s flight in the opposite direction is termed as its reaction.

It illustrates the third Newtonian law that to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.The thrust provided by the rocket jet is balanced by an equal and opposite thrust on the rocket

itself, resulting in increased velocity of the rocket as it discards its stages and reduces its fuel.This is in accordance with Newton’s second law-a force active upon a body causes it to

accelerate in the direction of the force, the acceleration being directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass.

And the rocket’s guidance system is based on the first law, such as a body remains at rest or in a state of motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.

SLV-3

• Conceived to develop four generations of launch vehicles.

• SLV-3 is India’s first experimental satellite launch vehicle.

• It was first successfully launched on 18 July 1980 from SHAR Centre, Sriharikota when a Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit.

• The first experimental flight of SLV-3 had taken place in July 1979, but the mission was only partially successful due to a jammed valve in the second-stage control system resulting in the leak of oxidizer.

• Conceived in 1969, SLV-3 was a 22-metre long, four-stage vehicle, weighing 17 tonne.

• All its stages used solid propellant and it employed open-loop guidance with stored pitch programme to steer the vehicle in flight along predetermined trajectory.



aSLV

• ASLV was configured as a five-stage solid-propellant vehicle, weighing about 40 tonne and having a length of about 23.8 m.

• The first developmental flight test of ASLV took place in March 1987, but the mission did not succeed due to non-ignition of the first-stage motor after the strap-on stage burn out.

• The second, ASLV-D2, was launched in July 1988. This mission also did not succeed.

• The third developmental flight, ASLV-D3, was successfully conducted on May 20, 1992 when SROSS-C satellite was placed in the intended orbit.

• Another launch of ASLV (ASLV-D4) was conducted on May 4, 1994 when a 113 kg SROSS-C2 satellite was put into a low earth orbit.

• ASLV provided valuable inputs to the development of PSLV.

pSLV

• The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) project was initiated in 1982. In the present configuration, PSLV has four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately.

• While the first developmental launch of PSLV (PSLV-D1), on September 20, 1993 did not fulfil the mission of injecting the IRS-1E satellite into orbit, most of the PSLV systems performed normally.

• The second developmental flight, PSLV-D2, on 15 October 1994, was successful when the vehicle injected the 804 kg remote-sensing satellite, IRS-P2, into the desired orbits. The various stages of PSLV are as follows:

Table 1.4 Stages of PSLV

Stages Description

Stage – I • Solid fuel

• III biggest 1st stage

• The US Space Shuttle-1st

• Titan of France-II

• Uses special alloy-maraging steel based on iron and nickel with high strength and duc-tility, withstand tremendous pressure and lighter in weight. It reduces the weight of the booster case by half.

• Fuel: Hydroxyl-terminated poly-butadiene.

Stage– II • Uses indigenous Vikas Engine.

• Based on Viking engine of Airpane-4 of France.

• 1st rocket by India based on liquid fuel.

• Fuel: Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine.

Stage– III • Solid fuel.

• Fuel HTPB based.

• Special alloy known as polyamide fibre also known as Kevlar.

Stage– IV • Liquid fuel.

• MMH: Mono-methyl hydrazine.



Implications of Successful pSLV • West opposes India’s development of PSLV, because it confers ICBM status to India. • Demonstrated capability to launch and place IRS type satellites with almost one-third

cost. • Can help the Third World countries to launch communication platform in near earth

orbits. • Big step in the development of GSLV, a major goal of ISRO.

PSLV Generations Description

PSLV-C7 PSLV-C7 launched India’s remote-sensing satellite CARTOSAT-2 and the Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE) on 10 January 2007.

PSLV-C8 PSLV-C8 mission is intended for launching the AGILE satellite of Italy under a commercial contract. The 360 kg satellite will be launched into a 550 km low earth orbit.

PSLV-10 ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C10 launched Commercial Satellite TECSAR of Israel on January 21, 2008.

PSLV-C9 ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C9 launched CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and eight Nano-satellites on April 28, 2008.

PSLV-C11 PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota (October 22, 2008). PSLV-C11, is an updated version of ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle standard configuration. Weighing 316 tonnes at lift-off, the vehicle uses larger strap-on motors to achieve higher payload capability.

Table 1.5 Features and description of various generations of PSLV

Figure 1.9: Types of launch vehicles

SLV

-3

AS

LV

PS

LV-X

L

GS

LV M

k II

GS

LV M

k III



New Solid-propellant Strap on Motor

• ISRO has successfully ground tested an improved version of the solid propellant strap on motor for PSLV. The new motor, PSOM-XL, was static tested at Sriharikota on December 29, 2005.

• PSLV at present employs six solid propellant strap-on motors, each carrying 9 tonne of propellant. The new version, PSOM-XL, with a length of 13.5 m, has the capacity to carry 12.4 tonne.

• The performance of the new motor, developed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre at Thiruvananthapuram, was as per the prediction.

Geostationary Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

• The first operational flight of India’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F01) was successfully conducted from Sriharikota on September 20, 2004. The project was initiated in 1990.

• The first test flight GSLV-D1 was conducted on 18 April 2001 when the 1,540 kg exper-imental satellite, GSAT-1, was placed in GTO.

• In the second test flight GSLV-D2, conducted on 8 May 2003, the vehicle launched 1820 kg GSAT-2.

Table 1.6 Features and description of stages of GSLV

Stages Description

Stage – I: Solid Fuel • The first stage of GSLV comprises a solid propellant motor (S125) and four liquid propellant strap-on motors (L40). S125 stage is 20.3 m long and 2.8 m in diameter.

• Its motor case is made of high strength steel. It carries 129 tonne of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene-based solid propellant. The stage develops about 4,700 k Newton thrust and burns for 100 s.

• The four strap-on (L40) stages are 19.70 m long and 2.1 m in diameter and they are fabricated using aluminium alloy.

• Each of them is loaded with 40 tonne of hypergolic propellants, namely unsym-metrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N

2O

4) as

oxidizer, stored in two tanks mounted in tandem.

Stage – II • The second stage of GSLV is 11.6 m long and diameter. It is loaded with 37.5 tonne of UDMH and N

2O

4 in two compartments of an aluminium alloy tank

separated by a thin metal sheet known as common bulkhead.

• The engines used for the strap-on motors and the second stage are similar and employ a turbo-pump fed engine producing a thrust of about 700 k Newton in vacuum.

Stage – III (Cryogenic Engine) • The third stage of GSLV uses a Cryogenic Stage (CS) which is procured from Glavcosmos, Russia.

• The stage, that employs liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as fuel and oxidizer respectively, is 8.7 m long and 2.9 m in diameter.

• Liquid Hydrogen (LH) and Liquid Oxygen (LOX) are stored in two separate aluminium alloy tanks connected by an inter-stage structure.



GSLV Stages • GSLV is a three-stage vehicle, 49 m tall and weigh 401 tonne at lift-off. • The vehicle uses some of the systems that have been fl ight proven in ISRO’s Polar

Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV; the solid propellant fi rst stage motor and the liquid pro-pellant second stage motors of PSLV are employed in the GSLV core fi rst and second stages, respectively.

• The four liquid strap-on motors are also derived from the PSLV second stage.

HISTORy OF INDIGeNOUS CRyOGeNIC UppeR STaGe pROjeCT (CUSp)

• India paid Russian Glavcosmos to develop the technology for cryogenic engine. • ISRO took up the CUSP challenge after the United States illegally arm-twisted Russia

in April 1992 and July 1993 not to sell the cryogenic technology know-how to India. • The US falsely claimed that the sale would violate the Missile Technology Control

Regime (MTCR) guidelines since cryogenic technology could be used to propel missiles. • Russia, however, agreed to sell seven cryogenic stages and a ground mock-up stage

instead of the stipulated fi ve stages and technology. • ISRO began work on the development of a cryogenic engine in the 1980s when it tested

a single element injector generating 60 kg thrust. • A 1-tonne subscale engine was also realized and tested up to 600 s. With this, develop-

ment of the cryogenic engine for use in the GSLV was initiated in 1994. • 5 December 2003: Cryogenic engine was tested. • India has completed qualifi cation of indigenously-developed powerful cryogenic engine

used in rockets to launch satellites in geostationary orbits. • The achievement has put the country in a select band of fi ve countries—United States,

Russia, France, China and Japan, who have the capability to launch rockets with cryogenic engines.

Cryogenic engine Technology

Cryogenic technology is the development of useful applications based on cryogenic science, which is the study of very low temperatures below–150°C, how to produce such low temperatures and the behaviour of materials at those temperatures. The word cryogenics stems from Greek and means the production of freezing cold.Various areas of cryogenic technology/science are as follows:

• Cryobiology: The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low tempera-tures on organisms, most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation.

• Cryoelectronics: The fi eld of research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures. • Cryotronics: The practical application of cryoelectronics.

applications of Cryogenic Technology

1. Superconductivity: Cryogenic materials such as liquid nitrogen are useful for produc-ing the temperatures necessary for superconductivity applications.

2. Cryogenic Fuels: Cryogenic fuels, mainly liquid hydrogen, have been used as rocket fuels. Liquid oxygen is used as an oxidizer of hydrogen, but oxygen is not, strictly speaking, a fuel.

INFO

Liquefi ed gases, like liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are mainly used in cryo-genic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics. Liq-uid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable tempera-tures to be reached. These liquids are held in special containers known as Dewar fl asks.



3. Cryostorage: Cryogenic gases are used in transportation of large masses of frozen food. When very large quantity of food must be transported to regions, like war field, earth-quake hit regions, etc., they must be stored for a long time. So, cryogenic food freezing is used.

4. Cryocooling: Use of cryogenic gases for cooling (heat exchanges) purposes in indus-trial applications, such as electrical cables.

5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging: MRI is a method of imaging objects that uses a strong magnetic field that is generated by electromagnets, and high field strengths can be achieved by using superconducting magnets. Traditionally, liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting coils.

6. Cryogenic Processing: The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear.

7. Cryomilling: Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low tem-peratures, which make cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures.

Successful long duration hot test (635 s) of high thrust cryogenic engine (CE20) was carried out on 28 April 2015 at ISRO Propulsion Complex in Tamil Nadu’s Mahendragiri. The achievement is considered as a major milestone in the development of next generation launch vehicle, GSLV MKIII. The CE20 cryogenic engine is being indigenously developed by ISRO to power the cryogenic stage of GSLV MKIII launch vehicle. The completion of successful long duration hot test has once again proved ISRO’s capability in mastering the complex cryogenic technology.

NeW TeCHNOLOGy IN LaUNCH VeHICLe pROGRaMMe

To go into orbit, 90% of a spacecraft’s launch weight must be fuel. The percentage is also known as the mass fraction. The materials of the rockets developed so far are heavy, though aluminium is used.

In recent years, lighter materials have been developed, including graphite-epoxy composite and aluminium-lithium alloy that can be used for fuel tanks.

Further, composites of carbon and silicon carbide have been developed to withstand the heat of re-entry of the vehicle into the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, computer fluid dynamics has created a revolution in the way aerodynamic flow data are obtained.

programme Materials production

New developments in materials production have greatly boosted the effort to reduce the weight of the reusable rocket.

Thermal protection is crucial, as the rocket will encounter severe thermal forces (touching 2800 K) and aerodynamics during its ascent and descent phases.

During re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere, the rocket would just burn up unless protected.Following advance concepts are under study for thermal protection:

• Composites of carbon and silicon carbide.

• C-foam noted for its ultra-light weight but high temperature.

• Gamma titanium aluminides that retain the properties at high temperature.

• Materials that can change their contours according to thermal loads, and shape memory alloys (e.g., nitinol), which return to their original shape after suffering deformation. Other materials include graphite epoxy composites and aluminium-lithium alloy for fuel tanks.



Newer Rocket Launch Methods

In the United States, an attempt was made by McDonnell Douglas (a US fi rm). In 1993, its fi rst Delta Clipper experimental rocket (DC-X) took off from New Mexico.

DC-X was proving the idea of a single-stage rocket. It was only a one-third-scale model of the launcher. The 12-m high DC-X rose 30 m, stopped, hovered for a while, travelled sideways before coming to a smooth halt 90 m away and lowered itself on to a concrete pad under its own power provided by cryogenic propellants.

DC-X fl ew eight times between 1993 and 1995. However, in 1996, the unpiloted rocket failed during landing.

air-Breathing Rocket

Growing out of the scramjet technology is a concept for air-breathing in the fi rst stage to attain low-Earth orbit. While rockets have to store oxidizer to burn their propellants, air-breathing engines can use oxygen from the atmosphere, resulting in smaller and lighter launchers.

Turbo-jet engines, which compress the air from the atmosphere for combining it with fuel, can provide a speed of Mach 3-4.

Ione engine

An innovative way of pulling through the pull of the Earth’s gravity near the Earth and within the solar system is by using the ion engine. Basically, the ion engine also obeys Newton’s third law—every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

The difference made by the ion engine is due to the additional acceleration given by the fuel. In contrast, chemical rockets would simply need an increase in fuel. The exhaust from an ion engine is 10 times faster than that of a chemical thruster.

Options to Bring Down the Cost

Recoverable and reusable rockets are needed as against the present ‘once-only’ used rockets. Specifi cally, the research worldwide is focused on developing two-stage-to-orbit or single-stage-to-orbit launchers.

The key to this effort lies in developing new materials with high strength and tolerance of damage or fatigue, lighter and durable thermal protection systems, effi cient cryogenic fuel containment, special coatings and advanced on-board power storage, etc.

a Reusable Launch Vehicle

A reusable launch vehicle is in the initial phase of design in ISRO. Studies have also been initiated on air-breathing Propulsion, which uses the oxygen in the air instead of carrying it in the propellants.

The materials for reusable aerospace vehicles include effi cient airframe materials, high strength composites (e.g., carbon-fi bre-reinforced polymer), and graphite epoxy with high strength-to-weight ratio.

Thermal protection is vital in reusable rockets as they encounter severe aerodynamic and thermal forces during ascent and descent phases.

Re-entry into the Earth atmosphere is highly critical as the capsule will just bum up, if it cannot withstand the extreme heat generated at the angle of entry.

The materials needed would include carbon composite, operating in the range of–150 K to 3000 K (for the nose-cone) and silica tiles for which lab-scale process has been developed by ISRO.

◗ Innovative ideas to go into space are being explored. Electricity fl owing through a conductive wire can interact with the Earth’s magnetic fi eld to generate pro-pulsion. The meth-ods would cut fuel consumption.

◗ Since the 1960s, tethers have been used in 17 satellite applications, launch vehicles.

CONNeCT

INFO

Reusable Launch Vehicles Technol-ogy demonstrator missions leading to Two-Stage-To-Orbit (TSTO).



SpaCe CapSULe ReCOVeRy expeRIMeNT (SRe)

• SRE is for demonstrating the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule. The exper-iment envisages the development of a 500 kg recoverable capsule and the associated technologies.

• SRE is to test reusable thermal protection system, navigation, guidance and control, hypersonic aero-thermodynamics, management of communication blackout, decelera-tion and floatation system, recovery operations, etc.

• SRE was launched as a co-passenger of CARTOSAT-2 on board PSLV C7.

• SRE comprises aero-thermo structure, spacecraft platform, deceleration and floatation system and micro-gravity payloads.

• After its launch by PSLV, SRE remained in orbit for a few days during which it was used to perform experiments in micro-gravity environment.

• The capsule was then de-orbited and it re-entered the earth’s atmosphere. On re-entry, after initial aerodynamic braking, a parachute system reduced the touch down velocity.

• SRE splashed down in the Bay of Bengal, about 140 km east of Sriharikota coast. A floatation system kept SRE afloat and enabled its recovery.

Reuseable Launch Vehicle Tested Successfully

• In this experimental mission, the HS9 solid rocket booster carrying RLV-TD lifted off from the first launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota at 07:00 hr IST. After a successful flight of 91.1 s, HS9 burn out occurred, following which both HS9 and RLV-TD mounted on its top coasted to a height of about 56 km. At that height, RLV-TD separated from HS9 booster and further ascended to a height of about 65 km.

• From that peak altitude of 65 km, RLV-TD began its descent followed by atmospheric re-entry at around Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound). The vehicle’s Navigation, Guidance and Control system accurately steered the vehicle during this phase for safe descent. After successfully surviving a high temperatures of re-entry with the help of its Thermal protection system (TPS), RLV-TD successfully glided down to the defined landing spot over Bay of Bengal, at a distance of about 450 km from Sriharikota, thereby fulfilling its mission objectives. The vehicle was successfully tracked during its flight from ground stations at Sriharikota and a shipborne terminal. Total flight duration, from launch to landing of this mission of the delta winged RLV-TD, lasted for about 770 s.

• In this flight, critical technologies such as autonomous navigation, guidance and con-trol, reusable thermal protection system and re-entry mission management have been successfully validated.

• ISRO acknowledges the support of Indian coastguard and National Institute of Ocean technology (NIOT) for the mid-sea wind measurement and shipborne telemetry, respec-tively, in this mission.

SOUNDING ROCkeTS

• A sounding rocket is an instrument-carrying suborbital rocket designed to take measure-ments and perform scientific experiments during its flight.

• The rockets are commonly used to take readings or carry instruments from 50 to 300 km above the surface, the region above the maximum altitude for balloons and below the minimum for satellites. The term ‘sounding’ is taken from the maritime expression.

On 23 May 2016, ISRO India’s first winged body aero-space vehicle oper-ating in hypersonic flight regime, was tested successfully.

CONNeCT



• A common sounding rocket consists of a solid-fuel rocket motor and a payload. The freefall part of the flight is an elliptic trajectory with vertical major axis and the average flight time is less than 40 minutes. The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the rising part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc and return to the ground with a parachute (e.g., RH-125, RH-200, RH 560, etc., by ISRO).

• These are capable of reaching 300 km with a payload of 100 kg.

Location of Launch pads

Following are the parameters that are kept in mind while choosing location for launch pads.

• Located to take advantage of the West-East spin of the Earth.

• If any failure, rockets fall directly into the sea (less dangerous).

• Situated near equator—maximum rotational velocity at equator and least attractive force at equator.

TeRLS

• Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station

• Operational in 1963 with Soviet help

• In 1968 dedicated as a UN facility

• Thumba located on magnetic equator

• Mainly for upper atmospheric studies

Figure 1.10: A sounding rocket

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HypeRpLaNe pROjeCT SpaCe SaTaL aVaTaR

• Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) has launched a mega-project for development of a hypersonic aerospace vehicle.

• The project is called AVATAR. It is an effort by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, and the Aeronautical Development Agency, Bangalore.

• DRDL proposes to develop an unmanned as well as a manned vehicle which will fly at hypersonic speeds in the range of 4 to 8 Mach numbers.

• The Avatar design is a kerosene-fuelled, scramjet-powered vehicle and would be much cheaper to build and operate than hyperplanes under development in Germany, France and Japan.

• The hyperplane would be able to take off from conventional airfields, collect air in the atmosphere on the way up, liquefy it, separate oxygen and store it on board for subse-quent flight beyond the atmosphere.

• AVATAR is primarily intended as a reusable missile launcher, one that can launch missiles, land back and is loaded again for more missions.

GLOBaL pOSITIONING SySTeM

• Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) is funded by and controlled by the US Department of Defense (DOD). While there are many thousands of civil users of GPS world-wide, the system was designed for and is operated by the US military.

• GPS provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to compute position, velocity and time.

• Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock.

• The nominal GPS operational constellation consists of 24 satellites that orbit the earth in 12 hours. There are often more than 24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to replace older satellites.

• The master control facility is located at Schriever Air Force Base (formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado.

• It can determine the exact location of a person or a vehicle anywhere in the world. • Also used to find out shortest distance between two places. • Aircrafts equipped with GPS can fly and land in an airport without any help from ground.

Ships can sail without external assistance.

Galileo (european Satellite Navigation System)

• Navigation satellites broadcast signals, which are used by a receiver to determine pre-cisely its position, velocity and time. Satellite navigation systems support an unlimited number of users.

• GALILEO is a global navigation infrastructure under civil control. It will consist of 30 satellites, the associated ground infrastructure and regional/ local augmentations.



Need for GaLILeO

• GALILEO will ensure European economies’ independence from other states’ systems, which could deny access to civil users at any time, and to enhance safety and reliability. The only systems currently in existence are the United States Global Positioning Service (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS system, both military but made available to civil users without any guarantee for continuity.

• GALILEO will be used in all modes of transportation for navigation, traffic and fleet management, tracking, surveillance and emergency systems. As such, GALILEO will be a key element of the future inter-mode traffic management system. Moreover, it has many non-transport applications.

GaGaN

• India plans to build its own version of a satellite-based regional GPS Augmentation System consisting of a cluster of satellites.

• The programme is called GAGAN–GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation. • The indigenous system, better known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS),

would be part of the satellite-based communications, navigation and surveillances/Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation.

• GAGAN system uses two-core constellation of medium orbiting satellites (i.e., GPS and GLONASS).

• The positioning services offered by these two constellations for civilian use including civil aviation fall short of accuracy, integrity, availability and continuity requirements of air navigation services.

• Indian air space, coming in between Europe on the West and Japan on the East, occu-pies a very critical position and hence there is a need to have a system to bridge the gap between the coverage of EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System) and MSAS (Multi-Functional Transport Satellites (MTSAT) Satellite-based Augmen-tation System JAPAN) and to facilitate seamless navigation of the aircraft from East to West and vice versa.

• GAGAN will provide the coverage over Indian airspace to the users. Indian augmenta-tion with Indian payloads on GSAT-4 satellites, which are controlled by India, will offer some amount of control and flexibility on the position accuracies available to strategic users.

• India will be able to play an important role in providing seamless SBAS in the world. In years to come, India may well become a SBAS service provider to the neighbouring countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

• The national plan envisages implementation of a full operational capability SBAS in three phase and will be operational in the year 2008.

GLONaSS

• The Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is based on a constellation of active satellites which continuously transmit coded signals in two frequency bands, which can be received by users anywhere on the Earth’s surface to identify their position and velocity in real time based on ranging measurements.



• The system is a counterpart to the United States Global Positioning System (GPS) and both systems share the same principles in the data transmission and positioning methods. GLONASS is managed for the Russian Federation Government by the Russian Space Forces and the system is operated by the Coordination Scientific Information Centre (KNITs) of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.

• The operational space segment of GLONASS consists of 21 satellites in 3 orbital planes, with 3 on-orbit spares.

• Each satellite operates in circular 19,100 km orbits at an inclination angle of 64.8 degrees and each satellite completes an orbit in approximately 11 hours 15 minutes.

• The ground control segment of GLONASS is entirely located within former Soviet Union territory. The Ground Control Centre and Time Standards is located in Moscow.

• The first GLONASS satellites were launched into orbit in 1982.

Telemedicine

• ISRO on May 16, 2006 signed Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) with four specialty hospitals to further expand its telemedicine network.

• The four specialty hospitals are Manipal Hospital, Bangalore; Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi; Madras Diabetic Research Foundation, Chennai and Dr Venkatrao Dawle Medical Foundation, Ambajogai (Maharashtra).

• ISRO’s satellite based Telemedicine network, which started in 2001 on an experimental basis, is aimed at linking remote/rural district hospitals with super-speciality hospitals in major cities, via., INSAT.

• While ISRO provides the software, hardware and communication equipment as well as satellite bandwidth, the speciality hospitals provide the infrastructure, manpower and maintain the system.

• ISRO’s telemedicine network has matured into an operational system and now covers 165 hospitals (132 remote/rural/district hospitals/health centres connected to 33 special-ity hospitals located in major cities).

• ISRO’s telemedicine programme is an example of societal orientation of Indian space programme.

• Also efforts are being made by ISRO to establish Village Resource Centres (VRC) which are being set up in association with NGOs, trusts and state and central agencies. There is a need to integrate telemedicine also in these VRCs along with space enabled information related to natural resources, tele-education, farmers’ advisory services, tele-fishery, etc.

Village Resource Centres (VRCs)

• Satellite-based communication and remote-sensing technologies have demonstrated their capabilities to provide services related to education, healthcare, weather, land and water resources management, mitigation of impact of natural disasters, etc.

• To provide these space-based services directly to the rural areas, DOS has initiated a programme to set up Village Resource Centres (VRCs) in association with NGOs and trusts and state and central agencies concerned.



• VRCs are envisaged as single window delivery mechanism for a variety of space based products and services, such as tele-education, tele-medicine, information on natural resources for planning and development at local level, interactive advisories on agri-culture, fisheries, land and water resources management, livestock management, etc., interactive vocational training towards alternative livelihood, e-governance, weather information, etc.

• The first cluster of three VRCs set up in Tamil Nadu in association with M. S. Swamina-than Research Foundation (MSSRF), Chennai, last year has been functioning well.

• During the year 2005-06, the second cluster of nine VRCs has been set up in Kerala (6) and Tamil Nadu (3), in association with AMRITA Vishwa Vidyapeetham.

• This cluster has VRCs located in schools, tsunami relief camps and orphanages.

• DOS is also identifying NGOs/ trusts for setting-up VRCs in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhatisgarh.

SpaCe TeCHNOLOGy IN WORLD

World Space Research programme

• The acronym ‘NASA’ stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

• NASA became operational in 1958: 1 year after the Soviets launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite.

• The term ‘aeronautics’ originated in France and was derived from the Greek words for ‘air’ and ‘to sail’.

• NASA’s Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology programme (known as ERAST) develops pilotless airplane technology. It also work on making science instruments very small so that they can be carried on remote-controlled aircraft.

• In 1985, Explorer I became the first artificial satellite launched into space by the United States. On-board was a cosmic ray detector designed to measure the radiation environ-ment in Earth orbit.

• In 1926, Dr Robert H Goddard successfully launched the first liquid-fuelled rocket. The launch took place at Auburn, Massachusetts, and is regarded by flight historians to be as significant as the Wright Brothers flight at Kitty Hawk.

• Landsat was the series of revolutionary satellites that were first launched in 1972 for the purpose of systematically photographing the surface of the Earth from space.

• The first mission to orbit the moon was Apollo 8.

• The third human to walk on the surface of the Moon was Charles P ‘Pete’ Conrad-during the Apollo 12 Mission. Armalcolite is a mineral that was discovered at Tranquillity Base by the Apollo 11 crew. It was named for Armstrong, AL drin and COL lins, the three Apollo 11, lifted off in 1969. After Mission Control confirmed that the hardware was working well, Apollo 11 began the 3-day trip to the Moon.

• At the height of Greek colonization of the ancient world, Apollo was seen as a God who accompanied emigrants and travellers on their war.

The Russian Space Technology programme

• Sputnik I: History changed in 1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I. The world’s first artificial satellite was about the size of a basketball, weighed only 183 pounds, and took about 98 minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path.



That launch ushered in new political, military, technological and scientific develop-ments. While the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the space age and the US-USSR space race.

• The R-7 Semyorka was the world’s first intercontinental ballistic missile and was deployed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War from 1959 to 1968. The rocket was also the basis for the Soyuz space launcher.

• The Soyuz human spaceflight programme was initiated in the early 1960s as part of the manned lunar programme that was intended to put a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon. The Soyuz spacecraft and the Soyuz launch vehicle are both part to this programme.

• The Moon objective was abandoned when technological problems meant that the US would reach the Moon first.

• The Baikonur Cosmodrome, also called Tyuratam, is the world’s oldest and largest working space launch facility. It was originally built by the Soviets and is now under Russian regulation, although located in Kazakhstan. It is situated about 200 km to the east of the Aral Sea, on the north bank of the Syr Darya, near the town of Tyruatam, in the south-central part of the country.

The european Space Technology programme

• The European Space Agency (ESA), established in 1975, is an inter-governmental orga-nization dedicated to exploration of space with currently 17 member states. Its head-quarters is in Paris, France.

• ESA’s spaceport is the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, a site chosen because it is close to the equator from which commercially important orbits are eas-ier to access. During the era of Ariane 4, ESA gained the position of market leader in commercial space launches and in recent years ESA has established itself as the major competitor of NASA in space exploration.

• Ariane 4 was an expendable launch system designed by the European Space Agency and manufactured and marketed by its subsidiary Arianespace.

• The development programme began in 1983 and the first successful launch was in 1988. The system has become the basis for European satellite launch with a stellar record of 104 successful missions and only three launcher failures. Ariane 4 provided a payload increase from 1700 kg for Ariane 3 to a maximum of 4800 kg to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The record for Ariane 4 to GTO was 4946 kg.

China’s Space Technology programme

The space programme of the People’s of China is directed by the China National Space Administration (CNSA). The first Chinese crewed flight programme began when an accelerated programme of technological development culminated in Yang Liwei’s successful 2003 flight aboard Shenzhou 5. This achievement made China the third country to independently send humans into space. Future plans include a permanent space station and crewed expeditions to the Moon and Mars.

China operates four satellite launch centres: • Jiuquan Satellite Launch Centre (JSLC) • Xichang Satellite Launch Centre (XSLC)

• Taiyuan Satellite Launch Centre (TSLC)

• Wenchang Satellite Launch Centre (WSLC)



INDIa’S SpaCe TeCHNOLOGy pROGRaMMe

Hubble Space Telescope

• The Hobble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was carried into orbit by the space shuttle in 1990. It is named after the American astronomer Edwin Hubble.

• Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well-known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy.

Spacex’s Dragon

• The SpaceX Dragon is a spacecraft developed by SpaceX, a space transportation company in Hawthorne, California.

• The first operational Dragon missions will be flown for NASA to deliver cargo to the International Space Station.

• Dragon is designed to carry up to seven people, or a mixture of personnel and cargo, to and from low Earth orbit.

• These flights will be contracted under the Commercial Resupply Services program.

• The Dragon spacecraft blasted off from Cape Canaveral, Florida atop the massive Falcon 9 rocket.

• The bullet-shaped capsule entered orbit about 10 minutes later, then circled the Earth twice before re-entering the atmosphere from low orbit, and splash-landed into the Pacific Ocean.

Hyperplane

• The Indian concept of hyperplane, a fully reusable system, is regarded as an innovation in rocketry, providing a payload fraction (which indicates the efficiency of the rocket in terms of its launch weight and payload) of 15%, drastically reducing the launch cost.

• The hyperplane will have to be designed for extensive reusability, high payload effi-ciency and at one-fiftieth of the current cost.

Hyperplane: project aVaTaR

• Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) has launched a mega-project for development of a hypersonic aerospace vehicle.

• The project is called AVATAR. It is an effort by the Defense Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, and the Aeronautical Development Agency, Bengaluru.

RLV-TD

• The RLV-TD will act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, viz., hyper-sonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air breathing propulsion. Also part of the technology development effort is the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX).

• As a first step towards realizing a Two-Stage-To-Orbit (TSTO) fully reusable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, a Winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has

◗ India successfully launched weather observation satellite ‘Cartosat 2’ series and 29 other space-craft on board the polar satellite launch vehicle PSLV.

◗ C-40 from Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh in January 2018 marked ISRO’s 100th satellite launch.

CONNeCT



been configured. The RLV-TD will act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies (viz., hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air breathing propulsion). First in the series of demonstration trials is the HEX.

Space Recovery experiment

• As a prelude to the development of reusable launchers, ISRO launched space recov-ery experiment in 2007. A PSLV launched a cone-like recovery module along with Cartosat-2 and two small satellites for Indonesia and Argentina.

• The recovery module was put into a circular orbit at 637 km, and after 12 days recovered from the Bay of Bengal.

• On the last day, the orbit of the module was made elliptical. It entered the atmosphere at 29,000 km per hour, and at 2 km above the Earth’s surface, its main parachute opened, bringing it to about 43 km an hour at splash down.

• The Coast Guard recovered the floating capsule and brought it ashore.

Chandrayaan-II

• Chandrayaan-II is the second unmanned lunar exploration mission proposed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).

• The wheeled rovers will move on the lunar surface, to pick up soil or rock samples for onsite chemical analysis. The data will be sent to Earth through the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter.

• The lander will carry to robotic rovers to collect and examine lunar soil samples, which will be jointly designed and developed by India and Russia.

• Chandrayaan-2 mission will have an orbiter/ lander/ rover configuration. The science goals of the mission is to further improve our understanding of origin and evolution of the Moon using instruments on-board Orbiter and in-situ analysis of lunar samples and studies of lunar regolith properties (remote and direct analysis) using Robots/Rovers.

Satellite Navigation

Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite-based system with commercial and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite-based Navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the civil aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the civil aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

1. GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN): This is a Satellite-based Aug-mentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI). The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil aviation applications and to provide better air traffic management over Indian Airspace. The system will be interoperable with other international SBAS system and provide seamless navigation across regional boundaries. The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.



2. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)-NAVIC (Navigate with Indian Constellation): This is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning sys-tem for critical national applications. The main objective is to provide reliable position, navigation and timing services over India and its neighbourhood, to provide fairly good accuracy to the user. The IRNSS will provide basically two types of services:

(i) Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

(ii) Restricted Service (RS)

Space segment consists of seven satellites, three satellites in geostationary orbit (GEO) and four satellites in geosynchronous orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of 29° to the equatorial plane. All the satellites are visible at all times in the Indian region. It provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the orbital and clock parametres and navigation data uploading. The ground segment comprises TCC and Uplinking Stations, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing Centre, CDMA Ranging Stations, Navigation Control and Data Com-munication Links. Space segment is compatible with single frequency receiver for Standard Positioning Service (SPS), dual frequency receiver for both SPS and RS service and a multi-mode receiver compatible with other GNSS providers.

IRNSSIRNSS-1A is the first satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) launched on 1 July 2013. It is one of the seven satellites constituting the IRNSS space segment. It carries two types of payloads navigation payload and ranging payload. The navigation pay-load of IRNSS-1A transmits navigation service signals to the users. It carries Comer Cube Retro Reflectors for laser ranging. Its applications are as following:

• Terrestrial, aerial and marine navigation • Disaster management • Vehicle tracking and fleet management • Integration with mobile phones • Precise timing • Mapping and geodetic data capture • Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travelers • Visual and voice navigation for drivers

IRNSS-IB is the second dedicated navigation satellite of India launched on 4 April 2014. It is one of the seven satellites constituting the IRNSS space segment. The configuration of IRNSS-1B is similar to that of IRNSS-1A.

IRNSS-1C is the third navigation satellite of the seven satellites constituting the IRNSS space segment. It was launched on 16 October 2014. IRNSS-1C has a lift-off mass of 1425.4 kg. The configuration of 1RNSS-1C is similar to that of IRNSS-1A and IRNSS-1B. The satellite has been realized in less than 6 months after the launch of its predecessor.

The satellite is powered by two solar arrays, which generate power up to 1,660 watts, and has a life-time of ten years. IRNSS-1C carries two types of payloads-navigation payload and ranging payload. The navigation payload of IRNSS-1C transmits navigation service signals to the users. This payload is operating in L5-band and S-band. A highly accurate Rubidium atomic clock is part of the navigation payload of the satellite. The ranging payload of IRNSS-1C consists of a C-band transponder which facilitates accurate determination of the range of the satellite. IRNSS-1C also carries Corner Cube Retro Reflectors for laser ranging.



IRNSS-ID is the fourth navigation satellite of the. seven satellites launched on 28th of March, constituting the IRNSS space segment. IRNSS-lD has a lift-off mass of 1425 kg. The two solar panels of IRNSS-1D consisting of Ultra Triple Junction solar cells generate about 1660 Watts of electrical power. IRNSS-1D was launched into a sub Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (sub GTO) with a 284 km perigee (nearest point to Earth) and 20,650 km apogee (farthest point to Earth) with an inclination of 19.2 deg with respect to the equatorial plane.

After injection into this preliminary orbit, the two solar panels of IRNSS-1D are automat-ically deployed in quick succession and the Master Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan takes control of the satellite and performs the initial orbit raising manoeuvres consisting of one manoeuvre- at perigee (nearest- point to earth) and three-at apogee (farthest point to earth). For these manoeuvres, the Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) of the satellite is used, thereby finally placing it in the circular geostationary orbit at its designated location.

IRNSS-1E The IRNSS space segment IRNSS-1E has a lift-off mass of 1425 kg. IRNSS-IE carries two types of payloads-navigation payload and ranging payload. The navigation pay-load of IRNSS-1E transmits navigation service signals to the users. This payload is operating in L5-band and S-band. A highly accurate Rubidium atomic clock is part of the navigation payload of the satellite. The ranging payload of IRNSS-1E consists of a C-band transponder which facilitates accurate determination of the range of the satellite. IRNSS-1E also carries Corner Cube Retro Reflectors for laser ranging. PSLV-C31 successfully launched IRNSS-1E on 20 January 2016 from Sriharikota, and the spaceport of India.

IRNSS-1F was launched by PSLV-C32 into a sub Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (sub GTO) on March 10, 2016 from Sriharikota. The two solar arrays of IRNSS-1F consisting of ultra triple junction solar cells generate about 1660 Watts of electrical power. The attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS) of IRNSS-1F maintains the satellite’s orientation with the help of reaction wheels, magnetic torques and thrusters. Its propulsion system consists of a Liquid Apogee Motor (LAM) and thrusters. IRNSS-IF carries two types of payloads-navigation payload and ranging payload. The navigation payload of IRNSS-1F transmits navigation ser-vice signals to the users. This payload is operating in L5-band and S-band. A highly accurate Rubidium atomic clock is part of the navigation payload of the satellite. The ranging payload of IRNSS-1F consists of a C-band transponder, which facilitates accurate determination of the range of the satellite. IRNSS-1F also carries Corner Cube Retro Reflectors for laser ranging.

IRNSS-1G IRNSS-1G was launched into a sub Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (sub GTO) on 28 April 2016 from Sriharikota. It is the seventh navigation satellite of the seven satellites con-stituting the IRNSS space segment. Its predecessors, IRNSS-1A, IB, 1C, ID, IE and IF were launched by PSLV-C22, PSLV-C24, PSLV-C26, PSLV-C27, PSLV-C31 and PSLV-C32 in July 2013, April 2014, October 2014, March 2015, January 2016 and March 2016, respectively. Like all other IRNSS satellites, IRNSS-1G also has a lift-off mass of 1425 kg. The configura-tion of IRNSS-1G too is the same as IRNSS-1A, IB, 1C, ID, IE and IF.

Table 1.7 Indian space technology in recent years

Invention Highlights

Space Guard to thatched Roofs Scientists of Vikhram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) are planning technology that protects rockets launched vehicle from high temperature fire. • Uses Ceramic-Polymer hybrid (CASPOL)

• Withstand upto 800°C

(continued)



SCRAMJET Engine • Uses the O2 from atmosphere

• Has no moving parts • Helps in bringing down launch coast by reducing the amount of oxidizer that

needs to be carried along with the fuel.

Einstein Ring • Is a distracted image of very distance galaxy. • Distortion is produced by bending of the light rays from the source due to a

massive galaxy.

Space Launch System (SLS) • Is a powerful launch co-vehicle for a new era of human exploration beyond Earth’s orbit.

• Includes robotics scientific mission to place like Mars, Saturn, Jupiter. • NASA describes it as ‘world’s most powerful rocket’.

JUNO Spacecraft • Successfully entered Jupiter orbit. • On a mission to study Jupiter’s atmosphere. • 1st spacecraft to orbit Jupiter from pole to pole. • 1st solar-powered spacecraft to go this far out into the Solar System.

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)

• Joint work of NASA-ISRO on ‘dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite’.

• Will be used for estimating agricultural biomass over full duration of crop cycle, assessing soil moisture, monitoring of floods and oil slicks.

SCATSAT 1 • Wuppercase Weather forcasting satellite will monitor surface winds and pre-diction of cyclones.

• Its a polar-orbiting satellite and will take 2 days to cover the globe. • This will replace OceanSat-2

QUESS Satellite • China launched World’s first Qunatum satellite. Quantum Experiments at Space Scale cannot be hacked.

Cassini Mission Cassini-Huygens spacecraft sent to Saturn rings. • Study the dynamic behaviour of the rings. • Composition of satellite surface. • Dynamic behaviour of Saturn’s atmosphere at cloud level.

GSAT-10 • ISRO successfully launched GSAT-10 from Europe’s spaceport in French Guiana.

• To augment telecommunication, Direct-To-Home and radio navigation services.

Mission Lucy • NASA Mission to explore Jupiter’s mysterious Trojan asteroids. • Scheduled to launch for October 2021.

NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation)

• Also known as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite system (IRNSS) placed 3 geosynchronous orbit satellites.

• IRNSS is similar to GPS of the USA, GLONASS of Russia, Galileo of Europe & BeiDou of China.

• It is said to be ‘Indian GPS’ that will give reliable position, navigation and timing services.

• It will aid terrestrial, aerial, marine navigation, vehicle tracking, fleet man-agement

Table 1.7 Indian space technology in recent years (Continued)

(continued)



ASTROSAT • India’s First dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory. • Aim to study more in detail about our universe. • Designed to observe the universe in the optical, ultraviolet, low and

high-energy x-ray regions. • Only USA, European Space Agency, Japan, Russia have much observations

in space and now India.

Europa Clipper • NASA is clipper to be launched in 2020 to study the Jupiter’s Icy moon Europa.

PSLV-C38/Cartosat-2 Series Satellite

• India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C38 was launch Vehicle, PSLV-C38 was launched for the First Launch Pad (FLP) of SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota. This is the seventeenth flight of PSLV in ‘XL’ configuralion (with the use of solid strap-on motors). The co-passenger satellites comprise 29 Nano satellites from 14 countries, namely Austria, Belgium, Chile, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Slova-kia, the UK and the USA of America as well as one Nano satellite (NIUSAT) from India PSLV-C38/ Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Mission was launched on June 23, 2017 from Sriharikota.

GSLV Mk III-D1/GSAT-19 Mission

• GSLV-Mk III-D1 is the first developmental flight, carrying 3136 kg GSAT-19 satellite to a Gcosynchronous GSLV Mk III-Dl launched GSAT-19 on Mon-day, 5 June 2017 from the Second Lainch Pad (SLP) at Sriharikota,

GSLV-F097 GSAT-9 • GSLV-F09 launches 2230-kg South Asia Satellite GSAT-9 into a Geosynchro-nous Transfer Orbit (GTO) GSLV-F09 was launched on 5 May 2017 from the Second Launch Pad (SLP) at Sriharikota, the space port of India. S-band telemetry and C-band lransponders enable GSLV-F09 performance monitoring, tracking, range safety/flight safety and Preliminary Orbit Determination (POD.

C37/Cartosat-2 Series Satellite • India’s polar satellite launch vehiele lift-off into a 505-km polar Sun Syn-chronous Orbit (SSO), Sriharikota. The co-passenger satellites comprised 101 nano satellites, one each from Kazakhstan, ISRAC, the Netherlands, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and 36 from the USA, as well as two Nano salelliles from India. PSLV-C37/Cartosat-2 Series Satellite was successfully launched on Wednesday, February 15, 2017 at 9:28 Hrs IST from Sriharikota.

GSLV-F08/GSAT-6A Mission • ThenextflightofGSLVwithindigenouscryogenicstageisscheduledtotakeplace during the fourth quarter of 2017, which will launch the GSAT-6A com-munication satellite.


progress of Space Technology

Indian Space Research Organisation achieved the grand launch from PSLV-C43 on November 29, 2018 from the First Launch Pad (FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota and successfully launched India’s Hyper spectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) and 30 international co-passenger satellites. And in its thirty ninth flight (PSLV-C37), ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle successfully launched the 714 kg Cartosat-2 Series Satellite along with 103 co-passenger satellites on February 15, 2017 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota. This was the thirty eighth consecutively successful mission of PSLV. The total weight of all the 104 satellites carried on-board PSLV-C37 was 1378 kg. As



previously India was used to call the Country of snake charmers but now with efforts of ISRO it has reached to Moon and Mars in the space.

Now, India is focusing to sending an Indian astronaut to space – like human crew module and environment control and life support system - have already been developed by the year 2022 ISRO will become capable to this.

Table 1.8 Progress of space technology

Date LaunchersLaunched Satellite Important Facts /Remarks

1. 6 February 2019

Ariene - 5 GSAT-31 India’s latest communication satellite, GSAT-31 was successfully launched from the Spaceport in French Guiana. With a lift-off mass of 2536 kg, GSAT-31 will augment the Ku-band transponder capacity in Geostationary Orbit. The satellite will provide continu-ity to operational services on some of the in-orbit satellites. GSAT-31 derives its heritage from ISRO’s earlier INSAT/GSAT satellite series. The satellite provides Indian mainland and island coverage.

2. 24 January 2019

PSLV-C44 Microsat-R and Kalamsat-V2

India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C44) successfully injected Microsat-R and Kalamsat-V2 satellites into their desig-nated orbits. The PSLV-C44 lifted from the First Launch Pad at Satish Dha-wan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota in its 46th flight. About 13 minutes 26 seconds after lift-off, Microsat-R, an im-aging satellite was successfully injected into intended orbit of 274 km. Subsequently, the fourth stage (PS4) of the vehicle was moved to a higher circular orbit of 453 km after two restarts of the stage, to establish an orbital platform for carrying out experiments. Kalam-sat-V2, a student payload, first to use PS4 as an orbital platform.

3. 19 December 2018

GSLV-F11 GSAT-7A Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-F11) successfully launched the communication satellite GSAT-7A from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota today. The GSLV-F11 lifted off from the Second Launch Pad carrying 2250 kg GSAT-7A and about 19 minutes later, injected GSAT-7A into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) of 170.8 km x 39127 km which is very close to the intended orbit. An ISRO team lead by Chairman Dr K Sivan, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) S Somanath, U R Rao Sat-ellite Centre (URSC) Director P Kunhikrishnan, Space Applications Centre (SAC) Director D K Das, SDSC Direc-tor S Pandian, Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) Dr V Narayanan and ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC) Director T Mookiah witnessed the launch. Mission Director Mohan M and Satellite Director Killedar Pan-kaj Damodar oversaw the launch proceedings. Soon after the separation of the satellite, ISRO’s Master Con-trol Facility (MCF) at Hassan in Karnataka took over the com-mand and control of GSAT-7A.The satellite’s health parameters are normal.

(continued)



4. 5 December 2018

Ariane-5 GSAT-11 India’s next generation high throughput communication satel-lite, GSAT-11 was successfully launched from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-246. Weighing about 5854 kg, GSAT-11 is the heaviest satellite built by ISRO. GSAT-11 is the fore-runner in the series of advanced communica-tion satellites with multi-spot beam antenna coverage over Indian mainland and Islands. GSAT-11 will play a vital role in providing broadband services across the country. It will also provide a plat-form to demonstrate new generation applications. GSAT-11 was launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit and subsequently ISRO’s Master Control Facility at Hassan taken over the control of GSAT-11 to perform the initial orbit raising maneuvers using the Liquid Apogee Motor of the satellite for placing it in circular Geostationary Orbit.

5. 29 November 2018

PSLV-C43 Hyper spectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) and 30 international co-passenger satellites.

PSLV-C43 lifted off from the First Launch Pad (FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota and successfully launched India’s Hyper spectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS) and 30 international co-passenger satellites. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is a four stage launch vehicle with alternating solid and liquid stages. PSLV-C43 is the Core Alone version of PSLV, without the six strap-ons. HysIS, the primary satellite of PSLV-C43 mission, weighing about 380 kg, is an earth observation satellite configured around ISRO’s Mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2) bus. The primary goal of Hy-sIS is to study the earth’s surface in the visible, near infrared and shortwave infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The co-passengers of HysIS include 1 Micro and 29 Nano satellites from 8 different countries. These satellites have been commercially contracted for launch through Antrix Corporation Limited, the commercial arm of ISRO.

6. 14 November 2018

GSLV-MK-IIID2

GSAT-29 GSAT-29 satellite with a lift-off mass of 3423 kg, is a multi-beam, multiband communication satellite of India, configured around the ISRO’s enhanced I-3K bus. This is the heaviest satellite launched from India. GSAT-29 carries Ka/Ku-band high throughput communication transponders which will bridge the digital divide of users includ-ing those in Jammu & Kashmir and North Eastern regions of In-dia. It also carries Q/V-band payload, configured for technology demonstration at higher frequency bands and Geo-stationary High Resolution Camera. carried onboard GSAT-29 spacecraft. An op-tical communication payload, for the first time, will be utilized for data transmission.


(continued)



7. 16 Septem-ber 2018

PSLV-C42 NovaSAR and S1-4 (together weighing nearly 889 kg)

PSLV-C42 Successfully Launches two foreign satellites from ‘Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), SHAR, Sriharikota’. This mission was designed to launch two earth observation sat-ellites, Nova-SAR and S1-4 (together weighing nearly 889 kg) of M/s Surrey Satellite Technologies Limited (SSTL), United Kingdom under commercial arrangement with Antrix Corpora-tion Limited, Department of Space. Both satellites were injected into 583 km Sun Synchronous Orbit. Nova-SAR is S-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar satellite intended for forest mapping, land use & ice cover monitoring, flood & disaster monitoring. S1-4 is a high resolution Optical Earth Observation Satellite, used for surveying resources, environment monitoring, urban management and for the disaster monitoring.

8. 12 April 2018

PSLV-C41 IRNSS-1-I India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its forty-third flight (PSLV-C41) in XL configuration launched IRNSS-1-I Satellite from First Launch Pad (FLP) of SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota. The ‘XL’ configuration of PSLV is used for the twentieth time. The IRNSS-1I is the eighth satellite to join the NavIC navigation sat-ellite constellation.

Note: The following eight IRNSS satellites have been launched.

1-IRNSS 1A, 2- IRNSS 1B 3- IRNSS 1C,

4- IRNSS 1D, 5- IRNSS 1E, 6- IRNSS 1F,

7- IRNSS 1G ,8- IRNSS 1I.(In the year 2017 IRNSS 1H satellite launch could not succeed.)

9. 29 March 2018

GSLV-F08 GSAT-6A GSLV-F08 is the12th flight of Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and Sixth flight with indigenous Cryogenic Stage. The Launch of GSLV-F08 carrying GSAT-6A took place from the Second Launch Pad (SLP) in Satish Dhawan Space Cen-tre SHAR, Sriharikota.

10. 12 January 2018

PSLV-C40 Cartosat-2 Series Satellite

India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its forty second flight (PSLV-C40), successfully launched the 710 kg Cartosat-2 Series Satellite for earth observation and 30 co-passenger satellites to-gether weighing about 613 kg at lift-off. PSLV-C40 was launched from the First Launch Pad (FLP) of Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. The co-passenger satellites comprise one Microsatellite and one Nanosatellite from India as well as 3 Microsatellites and 25 Nanosatellites from six countries, namely, Canada, Finland, France, Republic of Korea, UK and USA. The total weight of all the 31 satellites carried onboard PSLV-C40 is about 1323 kg.

Table 1.8 Progress of space technology (Continued)



Table 1.9 Proposed Space Plan (2019–20)

S. No Name of the Mission

Year Launched Vehicle

Important Facts / Remarks

1. Gaganyan 2022 GSLV-Mark-3 The Indian Space Research Organisation wants to make the ambitious manned mission Gaganyaan ‘more and more’ indig-enous by utilizing the facilities available in the country.

Addressing a press conference after successfully launching ISRO’s earth observation satellite HysIS and 30 other co-pas-sengers into their designated orbits the space agency may have to take outside help for some tests. HysIS means Hyper Spectral Imaging Satellite. In order to meet the Prime Minister’s (Nar-endra Modi) vision (of sending humans to space) by 2022, to undertake some testing we may go abroad.

The space agency is aiming to undertake the first unmanned programme under the Gaganyaan project by December 2020. If Gaganyaan is successful, then India would become the fourth nation to achieve the feat.

On the future launches planned by ISRO, ‘For next year it has planned to undertake almost 12-14 missions’.

After GSAT-11 in December, next GSAT-7A is there. In Jan-uary a micro-satellite launched then Chandrayaan-II mission have been under the process. Rs. 10,000-crore mission will be a turning point in India’s space journey. ISRO has developed some critical technologies like re-entry mission capability, crew escape system, crew module configuration, thermal protection system, deceleration and flotation system, sub-systems of life support system required for Mission Gaganyaan.

Re-entry and Recovery Technique: In general ISRO’s satellites launched in space so they persist there in space, even Chan-drayaan and Mars ‘Mission were not made to return from the Space but Gaganyaan is full of recovery technique, in any case of technological problem, it will return to the earth.

2. Chandrayaan-2 2019 GSLV-F-10 India’s second mission to the Moon is a totally indigenous mis-sion composing of an Orbiter, Lander and Rover. After reach-ing, the 100 km lunar orbit, the Lander housing the Rover will separate from the Orbiter. After a controlled descent, the Lander will soft land on the lunar surface at a specified site and deploy a Rover.

The mission will carry a six-wheeled Rover which will move around the landing site in semi-autonomous mode as decided by the ground commands. The instruments on the rover will observe the lunar surface and send back data, which will be use-ful for analysis of the lunar soil.

(continued)



The Chandrayaan-2 weighs around 3290 kg and would orbit around the moon and perform the objectives of remote sensing the moon. The payloads will collect scientific information on lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, lunar exo-sphere and signatures of hydroxyl and water-ice.

The Lander Actuator Performance Test (LAPT) is one of the crucial tests required to be demonstrated for a successful soft and safe landing of Vikram (Chandrayaan-2 Lander). To carry out this test, an LAPT module which is a scaled down version of Vikram with all the required hardware was realized for test-ing in earth environment. The reason for the scaling down is to compensate the effect of earth’s gravity as compared to Moon’s gravity and to match the thrust generation of sea level liquid engines as compared to flight engines which will operate in vac-uum environment. The module was tethered to a crane hook for conducting the test. To carry out this test, a special test facility was erected at ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri.

The objective of the test was to assess the closed loop integrated performance of Sensors, Actuators and Navigation, Guidance & Control (NGC) and guidance algorithms below 100 m height. Three tests have been conceived as part of LAPT Phase-2 activ-ities to demonstrate these objectives. The First test was con-ducted to demonstrate vertical descent while the second test was conducted to demonstrate hovering.

The third and final test was successfully conducted to demon-strate re-targeting in a parabolic trajectory, on 25th October 2018 at ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri. This test demonstrated the capability of the NGC system of Vikram to meet the mission requirement of safe, soft and precise landing on the lunar surface by steering the module horizontally as well as vertically down to a predefined target. With this, all the tests have been completed successfully. This is a major milestone accomplished in Chandrayaan-2 Lander.

3. Aditya - LI 2019 GSLV-Mark-3 The Aditya-I mission was conceived as a 400 kg class satellite carrying one payload, the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) and was planned to launch in an 800 km low earth orbit. A satellite placed in the halo orbit around the Lagrang-ian point I (LI) of the Sun-Earth system has the major advan-tage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occulta-tion/ eclipses. Therefore, the Aditya-1 mission has now been revised to ‘Aditya-Ll mission’ and will be inserted in a halo orbit around the LI, which is 1.5 million km from earth. The satellite carries additional six payloads with enhanced science scope and objectives.


(continued)



Aditya-Ll with additional experiments can now provide obser-vations of Sun’s Photosphere (soft and hard X-ray), Chromo-sphere (UV) and corona (Visible and NIR). In addition, particle payloads will study the particle flux emanating from the Sun and reaching the LI orbit, and the magnetometer payload will measure the variation in magnetic field strength at the halo orbit around LI. These payloads have to be placed outside the inter-ference from the earth’s magnetic field and could not have been useful in the low earth orbit.

Table 1.9 Proposed Space Plan (2019–20) (Continued)

Human Spaceflight Programme

Vostok-I (USSR) April 12, 1961 Gagarin Cosmonaut Yuri Garagin became the first human in space

Mercury-3 (USA) May 5, 1961 Shepard Alan Shepard became the first American in space during a fifteen-minute sub-orbital flight

Shenzhou 5 15 October 2003 Yang Liwei The first human spaceflight mission of the Chinese space program.

SoyuzT-11 2 October 1984 Rakesh Sharma Salyut 7 was unmanned after the undocking of Soyuz T-11 in October 1984 until Soyuz T-13 docked with the station in June 1985. Rakesh Sharma conducted an earth observation program concentrating on India.



CHapTeR aT a GLaNCe

• The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space tech-nology and its application to various national needs.

• ISRO has established two major space systems, INSAT for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services, and Indian Remote-Sens-ing Satellites (IRS) system for resources monitoring and management. ISRO has developed two satellite launch vehicles, PSLV and GSLV, to place INSAT and IRS satellites in the required orbits.

• Indian Space Programme began at Thumba Equato-rial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) located at Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram.

• A remote-sensing satellite is intended for natural resource monitoring and management and operates from a Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO).

• The fi rst step into space was taken only on 4 October 1957 by the erstwhile Soviet Union (USSR) which successfully launched the fi rst satellite named ‘Sput-nik I’ into space.

• Sputnik II was successful in sending important data which provided vital information and paved the way for putting the fi rst man into outer space.

• Main purpose of developing space technol-ogy included communication, resource, survey,

meteorological studies scientifi c experiments and above all for collecting information for military pur-poses, that is, for spying.

• The Department of Space executes its space activi-ties through the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).

• India entered the space age on 19 April 1975 when the fi rst satellite designed and fabricated in India was launched from the erstwhile Soviet Union. The satel-lite was named ‘Aryabhata’ after the famous mathe-matician. It was purely experimental in nature. The satellite enabled Indian scientists to develop the skills and facilities for fabricating satellites and monitoring their performance in orbit.

• The fi rst operational satellite intended to be used on a commercial basis was conceived in 1977. This programme was named Indian National Satellite (INSAT). The satellite was expected to carry out three independent tasks, namely (a) communication (b) television and radio broadcasting and (c) meteo-rological observation. The construction, testing and launching of the satellite was entrusted to the Ford Aerospace Corporation of the United States.


1.112 Section a: Unit II – progression of Science and Technology

CHapTeR eND exeRCISe

pReVIOUS yeaRS’ QUeSTIONS

prelims Questions

1. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (2018)

1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satel-lites.

2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fi xed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch l vehicle with the fi rst and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct.?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

2. With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements : (2018)

1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.

2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.

3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only (d) None

3. In which of the following areas can GPS technology be used? (2018)

1. Mobile phone operations

2. Banking operations

3. Controlling the power grids

Select the correct answer using the code given below:


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. Consider the following phenomena : (2018) 1. Light is affected by gravity.

2. The Universe is constantly expanding.

3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media ?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. With reference to ‘Astrosat,’ the astronomical obser-vatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)

1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

2. Astrosat is a 200-kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.


(a) 1 only (b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

6. Consider the following statements: (2016) The Mangalyan launched by ISRO

1. Is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.

2. Made India the second country to have a space-craft orbit the Mars after USA

3. Made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very fi rst attempt.




7. In which of the following activities are Indian Remote-Sensing (IRS) satellites used? (2015)

1. Assessment of crop productivity

2. Locating groundwater resources


1.113Chapter 1 – Space Technology

3. Mineral exploration

4. Telecommunications

5. Traffic studies


(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 4 and 5 only

(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

8. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (2014)

Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini Huygens Orbiting the Venus and trans-

mitting data to the Earth

2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury

3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer sola systems



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

9. Due to improper/ indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste?

(2013) 1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium

3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor

5. Mercury 6. Lead

7. Plutonium


(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 (b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6

(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

10. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?

(2013) 1. Chikungunya 2. Heptatitis B

3. HIV-AIDS



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

11. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineer-ing) allows genes to be transferred (2013)

1. Across different species of plants

2. From animals to plants

3. From microorganisms to higher organisms


(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

12. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer storage life because (2013)

(a) exposure to sunlight to prevented

(b) concentrated of carbon dioxide in the environ-ment is increased

(c) rate of respiration is decreased

(d) there is an increase in humidity

13. Ball bearings are used in bicycles, cars, etc., because (2013) (a) the actual area of contact between the wheel and

axle is increased

(b) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is increased

(c) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is reduced

(d) None of the above statements is correct

14. Consider the following phenomena: (2013) 1. Size of the sun at dusk

2. Colour of the sun at dawn

3. Moon being visible at dawn

4. Twinkle of stars in the sky

5. Polestar being visible in the sky

Which of the above are optical illusions?

(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3, 4 and 5

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 5

15. Many transplanted seedlings do not grow because (2013)

(a) the new soil does not contain favourable minerals

(b) most of the root hairs grip the new soil too hard

(c) most of the root hairs are lost during transplanta-tion

(d) leaves get damaged during transplantation

16. The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, viz., gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. With reference to them, which one of the following statements is not correct? (2013)


1.114 Section A: Unit II – Progression of Science and Technology

(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four

(b) Electromagnetism act only on particles with an electric charge

(c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity

(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom

17. The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs Boson particle have become frequent news in the recent past. What is/are the importance/importances of dis-covering this particles? (2013)

1. It will enable us to understand as to why elemen-tary particles have mass.

2. It will enable us in the near future to develop the technology of transferring matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them.

3. It will enable us to create better fuels for nuclear fission.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

18. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in rehabili-tating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables the plants to (2013)

1. resist drought and increase absorptive area

2. tolerate extremes of pH

3. resist disease infestation

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

19. Which of the following is/are citied by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the continued expansion of universe? (2012)

1. Detection of microwaves in space

2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space.

3. Movement of asteroids in space

4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only

(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) None of the above can be cited as evidence

20. Electrically charged particles from space traveling at speeds of several hundred km/sec can severely harm living beings if they reach the surface of the Earth. What prevents them from reaching the surface of the Earth? (2012)

(a) The Earth’s magnetic field diverts them towards its poles.

(b) Ozone layer around the Earth reflects them back to outer space.

(c) Moisture in the upper layers of atmosphere prevents them from reaching the surface of the Earth.

(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above is correct.

21. An artificial satellite orbiting-around the Earth does and not fall down. This is so because the attraction of Earth (2011)

(a) does not exist at such distance

(b) is neutralized by the attraction of the moon

(c) provides the necessary speed for its steady motion

(d) provides the necessary acceleration for its motion

22. What is the difference between asteroids and comets? (2011)

1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while com-ets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.

2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.

3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only

(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

23. A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere called Ionosphere facilitates radio communication. Why? (2011)

1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of radio waves to Earth.

2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.

Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?





24. Consider the following statements: (2010) The satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere

2. predicting the onset of monsoons

3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

25. In the context of space technology, what is ‘Bhuvan’ recently in the news? (2010)

(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, I for Chandrayan-II

(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabili-ties of India

(d) A space telescope developed by India

26. Selene-1, the lunar orbiter mission belongs to which one of the following? (2008)

(a) China (b) European Union

(c) Japan (d) USA

27. ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located? (2008)

(a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram

(c) Mahendragiri (d) Karwar

28. Which one of the following is a spacecraft? (2008) (a) Apophis (b) Cassini

(c) Spitzer (d) TechSar

29. What is the purpose of the US Space Agency’s Themis Mission, which was recently in the news? (2008)

(a) To study the possibility of life on Mars.

(b) To study the satellites of Saturn.

(c) To study the colourful of display of high latitude skies.

(d) To build a space laboratory to study the stellar explosions.

30. Consider the following statements in respect of a jet engine and a rocket: (2008)

1. A jet engine uses the surrounding air for its oxygen supply and so is unsuitable for motion in space.

2. A rocket carries its own supply of oxygen in the gas form, and fuel.




31. NASA’s Deep Impact space mission was employed to take detailed pictures of which comet nucleus? (2007)

(a) Halley’s Cornet (b) Hale-Bopp

(c) Hyakutake (d) Tempel 1

32. What is the Galileo Project which has been in news recently? (2007)

(a) An intercountry programme of missile shield developed by the United States of America

(b) A project developed by India with assistance from Canada

(c) An environmental protection project being devel-oped by Japan

(d) A multi-satellite navigation project being devel-oped by the European Union

33. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (2007)

(a) Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE): Satellite Programme

(b) Falcon: Under-sea cable system

(c) Discovery: Space shuttle

(d) Atlantis: Space station

34. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly recited? (2006)

Well-known Place Country

(a) Baikonour Russia

(b) Kourou French Guiana

(c) Borobudur Indonesia

(d) Cannes France

35. Consider the following statements in respect of India’s advanced satellite INSAT-4A. (2006)

1. INSAT-4A was launched in December, 2005 from New Mexico.

2. The European commercial launch service pro-vider Arianespace was associated with the launch of INSAT-4A.



3. Tata-Sky-a digital cable service provider is asso-ciated with DTH television broadcasting services from INSAT-4A.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only


36. Consider the following statements: (2005) 1. Vigyan Rail is a Science Exhibition on wheels

organized by the Council of Scientific and Indus-trial Research.

2. Vigyan Prasar is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Human Resource Development.

3. EDUSAT, the ISRO’s educational satellite was launched from French Guyana in 2004.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3 (d) None

37. Consider the following statements: (2005)

1. A geostationary satellite is at an approximate height of 10,000 km.

2. FM transmission of music is of very good qual-ity because the atmospheric or man-made noises which are generally frequency variations can do little harm.




38. INSAT-3E, India’s communication satellite, was launched in 2003 from (2004)

(a) French Guiana (b) Seychelles

(c) Mauritius (d) Mauritania


1. India launched its first full-fledged meteorologi-cal satellite (METSAT) in September, 2002

2. For the first time, the space vehicle PSLV-C4 carried a payload of more than 1000 kg into a geosynchronous orbit

(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2


40. In the year 2001, NASA launched a spacecraft to Mars named (2002)

(a) Mars Climate Orbiter

(b) Mars Global Surveyor

(c) Mars Odyssey

(d) Mars Polar Lander

41. With reference to Indian satellites and their launch-ers, consider the following statements: (2002)

1. All the INSAT-series of satellites were launched abroad

2. PSLVs were used to launch IRS-series of satel-lites

3. India used the indigenously built cryogenic engines for the first time for powering the third stage of GSLV

4. GSAT, launched in the year 2001, has payloads to demonstrate digital broadcasts and intemet services.

Which of these statements are correct?

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

42. A : Artificial satellites are always launched from the earth in the ‘eastward direction. (2002)

R: The earth rotates from west to east and so the satellite attains the escape velocity.

43. The world’s highest ground based telescopic observa-tory is located in

(a) Colombia (b) India

(c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

44. The location of the space organization units have been marked in the given map as 1, 2, 3 and 4. Match these units with the list given below and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (2001)

A. ISRO B. IIRS

C. NRSA D. SAC

Codes:

A B C D A B C D

(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 1 4 3 2

(c) 1 4 2 3 (d) 4 1 3 2

45. Who is the scientist in whose honour the ‘Chandra’ X-ray telescope has been named? (2001)



1. Discuss India’s achievements is the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped in its socio-economic develop-ment? (150 words) (2016)

2. The safe landing of the ‘Curiosity’ Rover under NASA’s space programme has sparked many possi-bilities. What are those and how could human king benefit from them? (2012)

3. The ‘Kessler syndrome’ with reference to space debris (50 words) (2011)

4. Define Gliese 581 g. (2011)

5. Define Saturn’s Titan. (2011)

6. What is Hubble Space Telescope? How many Ser-vicing Missions (SMs) have been conducted for it? (About 150 words) (2009)

7. Write about the following: (about 30 words each) (2009)

(a) Artificial Sun

(b) Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA)

8. Write about the following: (about 30 words each) (2009)

(a) ‘Bhuvan’ website (b) GAGAN Project

9. What do you know about Indian National Satellite Systems? Describe its important features. (About 250 words) (2008)

10. In which year and by which countries was Interna-tional Space Station (ISS) launched? How many countries are participating in this programme? What

are the unique studies being made in the station which could not be made so accurately on the earth? (About 150 words). (2003)

11. Discuss the significance of GSLV in space research. (About 250 words) (2001)

12. What is a cryogenic engine? Discuss its significance in India’s space programme. (About 250 words) (2001)

13. What is the significance of the geostationary orbit? What would happen if it becomes too crowded? (About 250 words) (2000)

14. From where was the most advanced commercial sat-ellite of India Insat 2E launched? (About 25 words each) (1999)

15. What is Global Positioning System (GPS)? (About 25 words each) (1999)

16. Where is Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre located? (About 25 words) (1999)

17. What is remote sensing? What are its uses especially in the Indian context? (About 250 words) (1998)

18. State the importance of Antariksh Corporation. (About 20 words) (1998)

19. What is cryogenic engine? Explain its importance to our country. (About 150 words) (1997)

20. Describe how India’s space programme has helped its socio-economic development. (About 250 words) (1996)

21. Where is Space Applications Centre located? Give the name of the city and state. (About 25 words) (1996)

(a) Chandrasekhar Venkat Raman

(b) Jagdish Chandra Bose

(c) Prafulla Chandra Roy

46. Low temperatures (Cryogenics) find application in

(1999)

(a) space travel, surgery and magnetic levitation

(b) surgery, magnetic levitation and telemetry

(c) space travel, surgery and telemetry

(d) space travel, magnetic levitation and telemetry

47. The satellites of which one of the following countries have helped in the preparation of a detailed and com-plete map of Antarctica? (1998)

(a) Canada (b) France

(c) Russia (d) USA

48. The damage to the Spektr Module of the Russia Space station Mir was due to (1998)

(a) Collision with a Soyuz cargo ship

(b) Faulty material design of the Spektr Module

(c) Explosion inside the space station

(d) Collision with an asteroid

Main Questions



22. What does APPLE stands for? (About 25 words) (1996)

23. Why is PSLV? Describe its significance for India’s space programme. (About 150 words) (1995)

24. What are VSATs? What are they used for? (About 20 words) (1995)

25. What does APPLE stands for? (About 20 words) (1995)

26. What does SROSS stands for? (About 20 words) (1994)

27. What is VIKAS engine? What is it being used for? (About 20 words) (1993)

28. Discuss briefly the importance of the cryogenic engine for India’s space programme. (About 150 words) (1992)

29. What is the advantage of putting a satellite in the geo-synchronous orbit? (About 20 words) (1992)

30. What does VHRR stands for? (About 20 words) (1992)

31. Trace the progress of India’s Space Research Pro-gramme. What are its significant achievements? (About 150 words) (1991)

pRaCTICe exeRCISe

1. In the context of the New Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, which of the following statements are correct?

1. It was formally released at the 100th session of Indian Science Congress at Benares.

2. It called for a science led innovation ecosystem. 3. It aims at increasing private investment in R&D

by creating suitable policy ambience. 4. It believes in establishing linkages between dis-

covery process of science and developmental pri-orities of the country in manufacturing.


(a) Only 2 and 3 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. In the context of the new modes of R&D funding which of the following statements are correct?

1. National Science and Engineering Board (SERB) has been in charge of sanctions since 2005–06.

2. Fast Track Scheme is used for giving research grants to industries.

3. PM’s Doctoral Research Fellowship is in collab-oration between GoI and CII.

4. SERB has started two special projects, one of them being in the area of food processing.


(a) Only 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 2, 3 and 4 (c) Only 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

3. In the process of development of convergent tech-nology solutions, which of the following areas are in focus?

1. Water 2. Solar energy 3. Affordable health 4. Homeland security 5. Bamboo based construction

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (b) Only 1, 2, 3 and 5 (c) Only 2, 3, 4 and 5 (d) Only 1, 2, 3 and 4

4. Consider the following statements: 1. Technology Information, Forecasting and

Assessment Council under the DST is set up to assess the state-of-art technology and help set directions and priorities for future technological developments in India in key socio economic sectors.

2. Mission REACH (Relevance and Excellence in Achieving new heights in educational institu-tions) seeks to address industry-oriented prob-lems of technical manpower.

3. National Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) Com-pliance Monitoring Authority has been set up to help Indian industries obtain GLP-Compliance status for their R&D facilities.

4. TIFAC supports Core Advisory Group on Auto-motive R&D.

Identify the correct statements from above and choose the correct answer from the codes given below:



(a) All of the above (b) only 1, 2 and 3

(c) only 3 and 4 (d) only 1 and 2

5. Consider the following the following functions of National Research Development Corporation:

1. It is established in 1953.

2. Its objective is to promote, develop and com-mercialize technologies emanating from various R&D units in India.

3. It helps in patent filing.

4. It helps in technology licensing.

Identify the correct functions and choose the correct answer from the codes given below:


(c) only 1, 2 and 4 (d) only 2 and 4


Technology Source/Process/Use (a) Risorine Treatment of tuberculosis

(b) Recombinant Clot bluster from E. coli

Streptokinase

(c) Bacosides Enriched Natural memory enhancer Bacopa

(d) Indibacter bacterial genus isolated from tea leaves

7. Which of the following innovations are made under the CSIR-800 programme?

1. TERAFIL water filter

2. Potable Instant Water Filter which serves as a disaster management tool

3. Supplementary and complementary food

4. Green technology for the production of stevioside


(a) Only 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 2, 3 and 4

(c) Only 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

8. The following innovations are made under which project?

1. Anti-psoriatic formulation

2. Anti-TB molecule

3. Development and demonstration of 4 Fuel Cell Prototypes

4. Hand held Micro PCR platform technology for diagnostic applications

Select the correct answer using the codes below:

(a) New Millennium Technology Leadership Initiative

(b) CSIR-800

(c) Sustainable Technology Initiative

(d) A joint effort of (b) and (c)

9. Which of the following statements is true in the con-text of India Nuclear Power Programme?

1. Stage I is in the commercial domain.

2. Stage II is in the technology demonstration stage.

3. Stage III is in the technology development stage.

4. Fast Breeder Reactor is closely associated with Stage III.





Plant Location Nuclear Reactor Technology (a) Kumharia Indigenous PHWR (b) Mithi Virdhi European Pressurized Reactor

(c) Rawatbatta 220W PHWR

(d) Koodamkulam Pressurized Water Reactor

11. In the context of Nuclear Fuel Cycle in India, which of the following statements are correct?

1. BARC undertakes fuel fabrication for research reactor

2. Nuclear Fuel Complex undertakes fuel fabrica-tion for power reactors

3. R&D on uranium ore processing is done at Tarapur

4. Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility is set up at Trombay




12. In the context of Nuclear Waste Management, which of the following statements are correct?

1. Vitrification is a process used to immobilize nuclear waste

2. India is one of the five countries to have Joule Heated Ceramic Mixer

3. Vitrified waste is stored for 60 years before it is disposed in deep geological formations



4. At Kalpakkam there is a facility to immobilize nuclear waste in a cement matrix





Reactor Fuel (a) Apsara Uranium-Aluminium

alloy

(b) Zerlina Natural Uranium

(c) Kamini Enriched Thorium

(d) Fast Breeder Test Uranium-Plutonium

Reactor Carbide

14. In the context of Indian Space Programme, which of the following statements are correct?

1. Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services

2. India Remote-Sensing (IRS) satellite system is for natural resource monitoring and management

3. Chandrayan-I was launched by a PSLV

4. PSLV’s are used for launching communication satellites only



(c) only 3 and 4 (d) only 1 and 2


Space Laboratory Location (a) Physical research Hyderabad

Laboratories

(b) Space Physics Thiruvananthapuram

Laboratory

(c) National Atmospheric Gadanki

Research Laboratory

(d) ISRP Satellite Centre Bengaluru


1. Management of diseases of important crop plants.

2. Conferring attributes to the plant to combat biotic and abiotic stresses.

3. Management of various diseases, pests, shelf life extension of fruits and vegetables.

4. As smart food packaging material with anti-bacterial properties.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) only 1 and 2

(c) only 1, 2 and 4 (d) only 1, 2 and 3

17. In relation to the Centres of excellence in Biotechnol-ogy, which of the following centre(s) is/are not part of the bio-cluster of NCR region?

1. National Centre for Biological Sciences

2. Translational Health Science and Technology Institute

3. National Institute for Plant Genome Research

4. Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine


(a) None of the above (b) only 1

(c) only 2 (d) only 1 and 4

18. Which of the following is/are correct about launching vehicle technology of India?

1. India has evolved a four-stage development pro-gramme.

2. India’s first satellite launch vehicle was the SlV-3.

3. PSLV was the first launch vehicle in India, which used liquid propellant along with solid propel-lants.

4. GSLV being developed to work on cryogenic engines.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

19. Match the following names of Satellite launched by ISRO with their purpose missions.

A. KALAPANA-1 1. Earth Observation and Remote-Sensing satellite.

B. RESOURCE SAT-1 2. Weather monitoring satellite.

C. CARTO SAT-2 3. Meteorological Satellite.

D. Mega Tropiques 4. Advanced remote-sensing satellite.



1. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of India. It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages. GSLV’s primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites. GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with two solid motor strap-ons (S200), a liquid propellant core stage (L110) and a cryogenic stage (C25).GSLV-Mk III is capable launching 4 ton class of satellites to Geosynchronous Transfer orbit (GTO).

2. The IRNSS is being developed parallel to the GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Satellite Navigation) program, the ISRO SBAS (Satellite Based Augmentation System) version of an overlay system for GNSS signal corrections.

The IRNSS system consists of a constellation of seven satellites and a supporting ground segment. Three of the satellites in the constellation will be placed in a geostationary orbit and the remaining four in a geosynchronous inclined orbit of 29º relative

to the equatorial plane. Such an arrangement would mean all seven satellites would have continuous radio visibility with Indian control stations. It will cover the entire country and an area extending about 1,500 sq. km beyond its border, with a position accuracy better than 20m in all weather conditions.

3. GPS is the Global Positioning System. It s a global navigation satellite system that uses at least 24 sat-ellites, a receiver and algorithms to provide location, velocity and time synchronization for air, sea and land travel.GPS works at all times and in almost all weather conditions.

5 basic uses of GPS are: Location — Determining a position. Navigation — Getting from one location to another. Tracking — Monitoring object or personal

movement. Mapping — Creating maps of the world Timing — Making it possible to take precise

time measurements.

Codes:

A B C D

(a) 3 4 1 2

(b) 2 3 4 1

(c) 4 3 1 2

(d) 4 1 2 3

20. Which of the following is/are incorrectly matched?

1. Mariner: Study of Mars

2. Rosetta: Study of the comet 67P

3. Astrosat: Study of the Big Bang event

4. New Horizon: Study of Pluto


(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 , 3 and 4

aNSWeR keyS

prelims Questions

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (d) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a)

practice exercise

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (c)

HINTS aND expLaNaTIONS

prelims Questions



Some examples of GPS applications include: Agri-culture, Astronomy, Automated vehicle, Cellular tele-phony, Clock synchronization, Disaster relief/emer-gency services, Radio occultation for weather and atmospheric science applications, Geofencing, GPS aircraft tracking, for mining, or for data mining, for navigation and surveying.

Who Uses GPS? Some of the applications that GPS systems are currently being used for around the world include mining, aviation, surveying, agriculture, marine, recreation, and military. These days doctors, scientists, farmers, soldiers, pilots, hikers, delivery drivers, sailors, fishermen, dispatchers, athletes, and people from many other walks of life are using GPS systems in ways that make their work more produc-tive, safer, and easier.

4. General relativity’s light-bending effect proved valu-able for much more than affirming Einstein’s theory. By bending light, masses act like a lens; such “gravi-tational lensing” alters the apparent position of a dis-tant object, creating multiple images of it, or (if the images overlap) appearing to brighten it.

Einstein succeeded in showing that matter and space-time mutually interact to mimic Newton’s naïve idea that masses attract each other. Gravity, said Einstein, actually moved matter along the curving pathways embodied in spacetime — paths imprinted by mass and energy themselves.

6. The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also called Mangalyaan is a space probe orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 Novem-ber 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). It is India’s first interplanetary mission and ISRO has become the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space programme, NASA, and the European Space Agency. It is the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation in the world to do so in its first attempt. Hence, the correct option is (a).

7. Data from Indian Remote Sensing satellites are used for various applications of resources survey and man-agement under the National Natural Resources Man-agement System (NNRMS). Following is the list of those applications:

· Space-Based Inputs for Decentralized Planning (SIS-DP)

· National Urban Information System (NUIS) · ISRO Disaster Management Support Programme

(ISRO-DMSP)

· Biodiversity Characterizations at landscape level

· Preharvest crop area and production estimation of major crops

· Drought monitoring and assessment based on veg-etation condition

· Flood risk zone mapping and flood damage assess-ment

· Hydro-geomorphological maps for locating under-ground water resources for drilling well

· Irrigation command area status monitoring

· Snow-melt run-off estimates for planning water use in downstream projects

· Land use and land cover mapping

· Urban planning

· Forest survey

· Wetland mapping

· Environmental impact analysis

· Mineral prospecting

· Coastal studies

· Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (initiated in 1992) for generating locale-specific prescriptions for integrated land and water resources development in 174 districts.

Hence, the correct option is (a)

8. Cassini Huygensisan unmanned spacecraft sent to the planet Saturn. It is a flagship class NASA-ESA-Aslrobo tacisspacecraftesnttothe. Hence, the correct option is (b).

9. Plutonium is a radioactive waste. Heptachlor is used as an insecticide. Hence, the correct option is (b).

10. There is strong evidence for the transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, and syphilis by tattooing. Tattooing may also transmit the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), although convincing evidence is still lacking. Hence, the correct option is (b).

11. Recombinant DNA technology is joining together of DNA molecules from two different species that are inserted into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that are of value of science, medi-cine, agriculture, and industry. It involves transfer of gene from plant to plant, from bacteria to plant or animals, from plant to animals. Hence, the correct option is (b).

12. In cold chambers, the relative humidity remains more than 95% and the temperature is reduced by 6 to 100°C than the ambient temperature. These cool



chambers retard the ripening process by reducing the rate of respiration and thus, increases the shelf life of both fruits and vegetables. Hence, the correct option is (c).

13. It reduces the rotational friction between the vehicle and the surface it runs on, such as cemented roads. Friction force is independent of area of contact and proportional to normal force. Hence, the correct option is (d).

15. Roots are the organ of absorption of water and min-erals required for growth and development of the plants. During transplantation, most of the root and root hairs are damaged so transplanted seedlings do not grow well. Hence, the correct option is (c).

16. Gravity, the weakest of the four forces, is about 10 to 36 times the strength of the strong force. This weak-ness is easily demonstrable on a dry day, rub a comb across your shirt to give it static electricity, then hold it over a piece of paper on a desk. If you were suc-cessful, the piece of paper lifts off the desk. It takes an entire planet to keep the paper on the desk, but this force is easily overcome with everyday materials employing the electromagnetic force. Hence, the cor-rect option is (a).

18. A mycorrihiza is symbiotic (generally mutualistic, but occasionally weakly pathogenic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant. Plant roots alone may be incapable of taking up phos-phate ions that are demineralized in soils with a basic pH. The mycelium of the mycorrhizal fungus can, however, access these phosphorus sources, and make them available to the plants they colonize. Mycorrhi-zal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as those caused by microbial soil-borne pathogens and are also more resistant to the effects of drought. Hence, the correct option is (c).

19. Hubble discovered that there is a simple relationship between the distance to a remote galaxy and the red-shift in the spectral lines from the galaxy. Hence, the correct option is (b).

20. The Sun continually emits a flux of electrically charged particles into space. The earth’s magnetic field prevents these charged particles from reaching earth’s surface. Hence, the correct option is (a).

21. Earth’s gravity provides required centripetal acceler-ation for the satellite to keep moving in a curved path. Hence, the correct option is (d).

22. Comets are basically extra-planetary elements that come as intruders into any solar system. Hence, the correct option is (b).

23. Only waves with longer wavelength, like AM and Radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere. Visi-ble light, television and FM wavelengths are all too short to be reflected by the ionosphere. So TV sta-tions are made possible by satellite transmissions. Ionosphere facilitates radio communication because of the presence of electrically charged ions in it and not ozone. Hence, the correct option is (b).

24. The Oceansat-2 carrying two payloads, namely, Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) and Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) or Micro-wave Scatterometer, were flown on board IRS-P4. While the OCM detects the chlorophyll content, sus-pended sediment and yellow substance (degraded biomass), the MSMR measures sea surface tempera-ture, wind magnitude, water vapour and liquid water content in the atmosphere which are used to compute geophysical parameters of the ocean and weather forecasting and climate studies. MSMR helps track the onset of the monsoon by measuring the wind speed on the ocean surface. The OCM data is being used in ‘true’ operational sense for identification of Potential Fishery Zones (PFZ) in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal on a daily basis. It will also help track the movement of cyclones, predict the onset of mon-soons and monitor coastal water pollution. Hence, the correct option is (d).

25. ISRO launched the beta version of its web-based 3-D satellite imagery tool, Bhuvan, in 2009. Bhuvan offers superior imagery of Indian locations compared to other Virtual Globe softwares. Bhuvan is a satellite mapping tool similar to Google Earth. It offers res-olution up to 10 metres and is considered as a rival to Google Earth and Wikimapia. Hence, the correct option is (c).

30. Rocket carries oxygen in the form of liquid. Hence, the correct option is (a).

32. A multi-satellite navigation project being developed by the EU.

The Galileo positioning system, referred to simply as Galileo, is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the European Satellite Navi-gation Industries for the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA) as an alternative to



the United States operated Global Positioning Sys-tem (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS. Hence, the correct option is (d).

33. Space Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis is one of the fleet of spac2e shuttles belonging to the U.S. It was the fourth operational shuttle built. Following the destruction of Challenger and Columbia, it is one of the three fully operational shuttles remaining in the fleet. The other two are Discovery and Endeavour. Hence, the correct option is (d).

34. Warkemousl formerly known as Larminsk, is a city in Kazakhstan administered by Russia. It was con-structed to service the Baikonour Cosmodrome and was officially renamed Baikonour by Boris Yeltsin on December 20, 1995. Hence, the correct option is (a).

35. ISRO’s latest satellite ‘ HNSAT-4A, was successfully launched on December 22, 2005 by the European Ariane-5G launch vehicle of Arianespace from the spaceport of Kourou in French Guyana.

Tata Sky has signed an agreement with the Indian Space research Organization (ISRO) to lease all 12 Ku-band transponders on the INSAT 4A satellite. Hence, the correct option is (c).

36. Vigyan Rail is a joint venture by Ministry of Rail-ways and Science & Technology Dept. Vigyan Prasar is an autonomous body under ministry of Science and Technology set up in 1989. EDUSAT was launched from Sriharikota. Hence, the correct option is (d).

37. The geosynchronous (geostationary) satellite is placed in a circular equatorial orbit at a fixed altitude of about 36,000 km (35,786 km to be exact) and goes around the earth once in about 24 hours. As the earth takes the same time to rotate on its axis, the satellite appears stationary. INSAT class of satellites come under this category. The geostationary satellite ser-vices in India mere commissioned in 1983 with the launch of INSAT-B. Hence, the correct option is (d).

38. ISRO’s latest communication satellites INSAT-3E was successfully launched early morning on Sep-tember 28, 2003 by the Ariane-5 launch vehicle of Arinane space. It is the youth satellite in the INSA-3 series. INSAT-3A, INSAT-3B and INSAT-3C were launched on April 10, 2003, March 22, 2000 and January 24, 2002, respectively. The 162nd flight of Ariane (Ariane-5) with ISRO’s 2,775 kg INSAT-3E, e-Bird of EUTELSAT and SMART-I of European Space Agency lifted off from Kouroa, French Guy-

ana. INSAT-3E was injected into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit. INSAT-3E is being tracked, moni-tored and controlled from the Master Control Facility (MCF) at Hassan in Karnataka. Hence, the correct option is (a).

39. METSAT was named as KALPANA-1, which was launched by ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle -PSLV) on September 12, 2002 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR, Sriharikota. Kalpana-1 is the first exclusive meteorological satellite built by ISRO. So far, meteorological services have been combined with telecommunication and television services in the INSAT system. Kalpana-1 is a precursor to the future INSAT system that will have separate satel-lites for meteorology and telecommunications and broadcasting services. This will enable larger capac-ity to be built into INSAT satellites, both in terms of transponders and their radiated power, without the design constrains imposed by meteorological instruments. Kalpana-1 carries a VHRR capable of imaging the earth in the visible, thermal infrared and water vapour bounds. It also carries a data relay tran-sponder (DRT) for collecting data from unattended meteorological platforms and relay the data to the meteorological data utilization centre at New Delhi. The weight of METSAR is 1060 kg.

PSLV-C4 is the seventh flight of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and its first flight to place a satellite of 1060 kg METSAT in a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit. Initially PSLV was designed for launching 900 kg Indian Remote-Sensing Satellites (IRS) into a 900 km polar sun synchronous orbit. Since its first launch in 1993 from Sriharikota, the four stage PSLV has been successfully improved to enhance its capability.Hence, the correct option is (c).

40. The Mars Climate Orbiter (formerly the Mars Sur-veyor 98 Orbiter) was one of the two space crafts in the Mars Surveyor 98 programme, the other being Mars Polar Lander. The two missions were to study the Martian Weather, climate and water and carbon dioxide budget, in order to understand the reservoirs, behaviour and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic cli-mate changes. The Mars climate orbiter was intended to outer orbit at an altitude of 140 to 150 km above Mars. However, a navigation error caused the space-craft to reach as low as 57 km. The spacecraft was



destroyed by atmospheric stresses and friction at this low altitude. The orbiter’s primary objectives were:

(i) Monitor the daily weather and atmospheric con-ditions.

(ii) Record changes on the Martian surface due to wind and other atmospheric effects.

(iii) Determine temperature profiles of the atmosphere.

(iv) Monitor the water vapour and dust content of the atmosphere.

(v) Look for evidence of past climate change.

The Mars Global Surveyor was the US spacecraft developed by NASA and the Jet propulsion labora-tory and launched on 7 November 1996. It began the United States return to Mars after a 20 year absence. It complete its primary mission in January 2001 and as in its third extended mission phase when it lost contact with NASA in November 2006. On Novem-ber 2, 2006, the spacecraft failed to respond to mes-sages and commands. A faint signal was detected 3 days later which indicated that the craft had gone into the safe mode. All attempts to recontact the Mars Global Surveyor and resolve the problem failed. In January 2007, NASA officially ended the mission. The spacecraft was fabricated at the Lockheed Martin Astronautics plants in Denver.

2001 Mars odyssey is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the plant Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. It is hoped that the

data odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars. It also acts as a relay for communications between the Mars Explo-rations Rovers and Earth. The mission was named after the movie 2001: ‘A space odyssey’ and refers to differences between the movie and real life by the year 2001. Odyssey was launched on 7’ April 2001 on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida and reached Mars on 24 October, 2001. The Odyssey used a technique called ‘aerobraking’ that gradually brought the spacecraft closer to Mars with each orbit.

The Mars Polar Lander was part of the NASAs Mars Surveyor 98 programme, which consisted of two spacecraft launched separately, the Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander. Mars Polar Lander also conveyed the Deep Space to Space-penetrator mission to Mars. Communication with the lander was lost prior to atmospheric entry. Hence, the correct option is (c).

41. Indian cryogenic engine was yet to be used for launching satellites. We used imported engines from Russia. Hence, the correct option is (c).

42. Maximum velocity attained is 10.2 to 10.3 km/sec Hence, the correct option is (c).

43. It is set up in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir Hence, the correct option is (b).

46. Cryogenic engine is used for rocket propulsion par-ticularly GSLV of space programme and ballistic missiles. Cryogenics-technology is used in produc-tion of very high magnetic field and remote sensing.Hence, the correct option is (a).


IntroductIon

Nuclear technology deals with the processes of changes in the nucleus of an atom. The changes result in releasing of energy from the nuclei which can be trapped for societal development. Nuclear technology is of the utmost importance due to multifarious application associated with it. It is mainly used for atomic energy, in preparing several medicines, agricultural devel-opment, other industry usage, in defence sector, etc. All these, someway or other, influence the humanity and its societal advancement. It was Henri Becquerel, in 1896, who was inves-tigating phosphorescence in uranium salts and discovered a new phenomenon, which came to be called radioactivity. Then it was Marie Curie and Pierre Curie who isolated the radioac-tive element called radium. They also discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of several distinct sorts, which they called alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays. Some of these radiations could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could cause damage to alarge extent.

In India, the commendable contribution of Homi J. Bhabha gave way to the three-stage nuclear energy programme, which gave the vision for our energy security. As India is resolute about nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, the advancement in this technology in India will help all the Third World nations as well.

nuclear Power In IndIa

India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power programme and expects to have 14,600 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020 and 27, 500 MWe by 2024 and 63,000 MWe in 2032. It aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050. India has 22 nuclear


❍ Discuss nuclear energy programme and various policies of India.

❍ Understand the benefits of nuclear energy.

❍ Learn about the production and utility of nuclear energy.

Learning Objectives

2Chapter

Indian Nuclear Programme and Technology


section a: unit II – Progression of science and technology1.128

power reactors with an installed capacity of 6780 MW and productive total of 30,292.91 GWN of electricity. Due to earlier trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium.

• As of 2016, India ranks 13 in terms of production of nuclear energy, the list with top ten countries is as follows:

1. USA 6. Canada

2. France 7. Ukraine

3. China 8. Germany

4. Russia 9. UK

5. South Korea 10. Sweden

atomic energy regulatory Board

The President of India constituted the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in 15 November 1903.

The mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health and the environment. Currently, the Board consists of full-time members and a secretary.

The administrative and regulatory mechanisms, which are in place, ensure multi-tier review by experts available nationwide. These experts come from reputed academic institutions and governmental agencies.

AERB secretariat has eight divisions. The heads and directors of divisions constitute the Executive Committee which meets periodically with Chairman, AERB and Vice Chairman, AERB to take decisions on important policy matters related to the management of the Secre-tariat of the Board.

AERB has a mechanism to check its effectiveness and quality assurance in its activities and a process by which it improves its systems through its own experience feedback and interna-tional regulatory practices.

department of atomic energy

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is a broad, multidisciplinary organization engaged in the development of nuclear power technology—applications of the radiation and basic research.

The programmes of the Department are geared towards the following:

• Enhancing the share of nuclear power through deployment of indigenous and other proven technologies and also develop fast, breeder reactors and thorium reactors with associated fuel cycle facilities.

• Building and operation of research reactors for production of radioisotopes, building other sources of radiation, such as accelerators and lasers, and developing and deploying radiation technology applications in the fi eld of medicine, agriculture and industry.

• Developing advanced technologies, such as accelerators, lasers, supercomputers, stra-tegic materials and instrumentation, and encouraging transfer of technology to the industry.

• Carrying out and supporting to basic research in nuclear energy and related frontier areas of science, interaction with universities and academic institutions.

InFo

As India was outside the nuclear non-proliferation treaty due to its weapons pro-gramme, So it was largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials for 34 years. This had hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.

There are now 449 nuclear reac-tors in operation around the World in over 31 countries, providing almost 16% of the World’s electricity and 60 new nuclear plants all under conduction in 15 countries.

connect


Chapter 2 – Indian Nuclear Programme and Technology 1.129

• Support to research and development projects having a bearing on DAE’s programmes and international cooperation in related advanced areas of research.

• Contribution to national security.

need for nuclear energy

As the developing world tries to meet the energy needs of its growing population to sup-port its development aspirations, the global energy consumption would double over the next three decades and will rise further subsequently. Only power of the atom can, in principle, realize this. Without a central role of nuclear power, this could lead to a catastrophe both in terms of sustainability of energy resources with enhanced level of conflicts to grab the residual resources and, even more importantly, in terms of global climate. As we move forward in time, the crucial importance of nuclear power would be increasingly felt not only for supporting eco-nomic growth but also for some basic human needs, such as availability of clean at and water. In fact, the day is not far off when we would need to view nuclear energy as not just a sources of electricity but a primary energy sources, which could assure our sustainable future. Looking from India’s perspective, development of nuclear energy—based on a closed cycle approach, enabling fuller use of uranium and thorium—is inevitable for development aspirations of over a billion people.

With the domestic oil production, barely meeting one-third of the country’s requirement so India’s energy security strategy should include alternative fuels and technologies, let us exam-ine the fuel and technologies. Let us examine the fuel resource situation in India. Estimates by us in the DAE and also by other agencies in the country indicate that we will have difficulties with regard to availability of coal by the middle of the present century. In addition, coal-based stations are likely to pose serious problems in the future arising out of transport of large quanti-ties of coal across the country and environmental problems related to disposal of ash and emis-sion of greenhouse and acid gases. Our oil and natural gas reserves are very modest, and we are importing very substantial quantities of our requirements. A major part of our overall hydel resources is handicapped by issues like displacement of people. Non- conventional sources like solar, biomass and wind will no doubt play their useful roles. But at the present level of tech-nology development, they can only complement electricity generation by base-load stations dependent on fossil, hydro or nuclear plants.

From a long-term perspective, nuclear energy and solar energy can play an important role in addressing our energy security needs. The spiralling oil import bill will put unbearable burden on the nation’s economy, and all energy resources—coal, gas, oil, hydro and nuclear plants along with renewables—need to be developed. Energy security was of critical importance when the nation was aiming for a 10% growth rate. India’s energy needs, which will increase the pace of economic development, cannot be met with oil and gas for long.

nuclear Processes

nuclear Fission

The nucleus of uranium-235 atom is unstable. So, when a neutron from outside is made to collide with a uranium-235 nucleus, then this nucleus ‘breaks up’ or ‘gets fissioned’ to form smaller atoms with the liberation of a large amount of energy. This splitting up of the nucleus is called nuclear fission, which can be defined as follows:



Incidentneutron

Fission product

Chainreaction

Fission productSplitting of nucleus

Release ofenergy

Fissionablenucleus

Incidentneutron

Figure 2.1: Nuclear fission

The process in which an unstable nucleus of a heavy atom (like uranium-235) splits up into two medium-weight nuclei with the liberation of an enormous amount of energy is called nuclear fission. The nuclear fission is carried out by bombarding the heavy nuclei with neutrons. There is a small loss of mass in the fission process, which appears as a great amount of energy.

nuclear Fusion

The world fusion means to join or to combine; so, nuclear fusion means joining together of nuclei of atoms. Just as we split a big nucleus into smaller nuclei during fission, we combine together smaller nuclei to form a big nucleus in fusion. Thus, a fusion process is just the reverse of fission. We can now say that The process in which two nuclei of light atoms (like that of hydrogen) combine to form a heavy, more stable nucleus (like that of helium), with the liberation of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion. The nuclear fusion is carried out by heating the light atoms to an extremely high temperature. There is some loss of mass during the fusion process, which produces a tremendous amount of energy. The energy produced in nuclear fusion reaction is much more than that produced in a nuclear fission reaction.

++

+

+

+

++Series of nuclear

reactions

+ Otherparticles

Gamma rays(transfer energy)

Heliumnucleus4 Hydrogen nuclei

(protons)

Figure 2.2: Conversion of hydrogen to helium



radioactivity

The heavy elements like uranium, thorium, radium and polonium emit some invisible rays (or radiations) spontaneously which affect a photographic plate just like ordinary light rays. These substances which emit such invisible rays are radioactive, and the property of emitting the invisible radiations, is called radioactivity. The phenomenon of emission of invisible radiations by certain heavy elements (viz., uranium, thorium, radium and polonium) is called radioactiv-ity and the elements which emit such radiations are called radioactive elements.

The invisible rays emitted by the radioactive elements consist of three different types of radiations. These are:

1. Alpha particles (α-particles): (Positively charged)

2. Beta particles (β-particles): (Negatively charged)

3. Gamma rays (γ- rays): (No charge, neutral)

chain reaction

A reaction in which the particle which initiates (starts) the reaction, is also produced during the reaction to carry on the reaction further and further, is called chain reaction. Once started, a chain reaction will go on propagating by itself, until one of the reactants is all used up. Thus, a chain reaction is a self-sustaining process or self-propagating process. The fission of uranium-235 by means of slow-moving neutrons is a chain reaction, because this reaction is started by neutrons, and neutrons are also produced during this reaction. The neutrons pro-duced during the fission of a uranium atom initiate the fission of more uranium atoms, and this process goes on like an unending chain, with the liberation of a large amount of energy at each step.

nuclear reactor

The nuclear reactor (or atomic reactor) is a kind of furnace for carrying out the controlled fis-sion of a radioactive material like uranium-235 for producing atomic power. It is in the reactor that the heat energy is produced from fission reactions, which is then taken out and converted into electricity.

critical MassCritical mass is the minimum amount of radioactive substance required to start a chain reac-tion.

ModeratorThe fission of uranium-235 takes place easily only if the bombarding neutron is slow and not fast. Because only when the neutron is slow that it has more time to react with the nucleus and cause its fission. Now, the neutrons emitted by the uranium-235 atoms have a fairly high speed, so they cannot cause the fission of other uranium-235 atoms effectively. In such a case, the fission reaction will not become a self-propagating chain reaction, and the nuclear fire will die down. So, in order to carry out the fission of uranium-235 nuclei more effectively, the speed of neutrons must be slowed down. A substance which slows down the speed of neutrons in the nuclear reactor, to a level appropriate to cause the fission of uranium-235 effectively, is called moderator. The commonly used moderators in the nuclear reactors are graphite and heavy water.



controlling rods An ordinary fission reaction produces a lot of neutrons at every step which cause further fission, and ultimately the chain reaction of fission goes out of control. In such a case of uncontrolled fission, the nuclear reactor will become a nuclear bomb (or atom bomb) and may cause an explosion. So, in order that the nuclear fission reaction of uranium-235 may go on smoothly in a controlled manner, an arrangement or mechanism must be made to remove the excess neu-trons as they are being produced in the reactor because it is these excess neutrons which make the fission reaction go out of control. The excess neutrons present in the reactor are removed by using cadmium or boron rods. This is because the elements cadmium and boron have the ability to absorb neutrons and hence make them ineffective to cause further fission. Thus, in a nuclear reactor, the chain reaction of nuclear fission is controlled (or made critical) by using

Control rodscontrol the speed of thenuclear reaction.

Uranium fuel rod

Hot gas

Steam

Cold water

The steam isused to turnturbines in thesame way as ina fossil fuelledpower station.

Heatexchanger

Graphite core

Thick concreteshielding tomake sure noradioactivityescapes

Coldgas

Figure 2.4: Nuclear reactor

Daughternucleus

Daughternucleus

Barium

Uranium-235

Uranium-235Uranium-235

Neutron

Uranium-235Krypton

Three new fission reactions

Neuron

Fiss

ion

3 Released neutrons Neuron

Neuron

Figure 2.3: Decay of Uranium-235 leading to chain reaction



controlling rods made of cadmium or boron. The cadmium or boron rods absorb excess neu-trons being emitted by uranium-235 atoms, so that the fission takes place at a steady rate and the energy which is produced in the form of heat can be utilized to generate electricity as in other thermal power stations.

coolantThe substance, which is circulated through the nuclear reactor to take out the heat energy pro-duced in it, is called coolant. In general, some pipes are embedded in the reactor through which some coolant is circulated to take out the heat produced in the reactor. In most successful reac-tors, liquid sodium metal is used as the coolant, which removes the heat energy produced, in a short time. In some reactors, however, carbon dioxide gas and even water are used as coolants to transfer the heat generated in reactor to the heat exchanger.

Table 2.1 Nuclear energy chronology

Year Discovery/Concept Description

1905 Special theory of Relativity

German-born physicist Albert Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity, which states that the laws of nature are the same for all observers and that the speed of light is not dependent on the motion of its source.

1932 Neutron is discovered English physicist and Nobel Laureate James Chadwick exposed the metal beryllium to alpha particles and discovered neutron, an uncharged particle.

1932 Cockcroft teams Walton to split the atom

British physicist John Cockcroft teams with Ernest Walton of Ireland to split the atom with protons accelerated to high speed. Their work wins them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951.

1937 5-MV Van de Graaff generator built

The Westinghouse Corporation built the 5-MV Van de Graaff generator. Named for its inventor, Physicist Robert Van de Graaff, the generator gathers and stores electrostatic charges.

1939 Uranium atoms are split

Physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann of Germany, along with Lise Meitner of Austria and her nephew Otto Frisch, split uranium atoms in a process known as fission.

1939–1945

Manhattan Project The US Army’s top-secret atomic energy programme, known as the Manhattan Project, employed scientists in Los Alamos, New Mexico, under the direction of the Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, to develop the first transportable atomic bomb.

1942 First controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction

Italian-born physicist and Nobel winner Enrico Fermi and his colleagues at the Univer-sity of Chicago achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in which neutrons released during the splitting of the atom continue splitting atoms and releasing more neutrons.

1945 Hiroshima and Nagasaki

To force the Japanese to surrender and end World War II, the USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima, an important army depot and port of embarkation, and Nagasaki, a coastal city where the Mitsubishi torpedoes used in the attack on Pearl Harbor were made.

1946 First nuclear- reactor-produced radioisotopes for peacetime civilian use

The US Army’s Oak Ridge facility in Tennessee ships the first nuclear-reactor- produced radioisotopes for peacetime civilian use to Brainard Cancer Hospital in St. Louis.

1946 Atomic Energy Commission

The US Congress passes the Atomic Energy Act to establish the Atomic Energy Commission, which replaces the Manhattan Project.

(continued)




1948 Plans to commercial-ize nuclear power

The US government’s Argonne National Laboratory, operated in Illinois by the University of Chicago, and the Westinghouse Corporation’s Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory in Pittsburgh, announced plans to commercialize nuclear power to produce electricity for consumer use.

1951 Experimental Breeder Reactor 1

Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) produced the world’s first usable amount of electricity from nuclear energy.

1953 First of a series of boiling reactor experiment reactors

BORAX-I, the first of a series of Boiling Reactor Experiment reactors, was built at IN-EEL. The series was designed to test the theory that the formation of steam bubbles in the reactor core does not cause an instability problem.

1954 Atomic Energy Act of 1954

The US Congress passed the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, amending the 1946 act to allow the Atomic Energy Commission to license private companies to use nuclear mate-rials and also to build and operate nuclear power plants.

1955 BORAX-III provided an entire town with electricity

In July, BORAX-III became the first nuclear power plant in the world to provide an entire town with all of its electricity. When power from the reactor was cut in, utility lines supplying conventional power to the town of Arco, Idaho (population 1200), were disconnected. The community depended solely on nuclear power for more than an hour.

1955 First nuclear- powered submarine

The USS Nautilus SSN 571, the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine, got under way on sea trials. The result of the efforts of 300 engineers and technicians working under the direction of Admiral Hyman Rickover, ‘father of the nuclear navy.’ It was designed and built by the Electric Boat Company of Groton, Connecticut, and outfit-ted with a pressurized-water reactor built by the Westinghouse Corporation’s Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory.

1957 International Atomic Energy Agency

The International Atomic Energy Agency was formed with 18 member countries to pro-mote peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Today it has 160 members states.

1962 First advanced gas-cooled reactor

The first advanced gas-cooled reactor was built at Calder Hall in England. Intended originally to power a naval vessel, the reactor is too big to be installed aboard ship and is instead successfully used to supply electricity to British consumers.

1966 Advanced Testing Reactor

The Advanced Testing Reactor at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory began operation for materials testing and isotope generation.

1969 Zero Power Physics Reactor

The Zero Power Physics Reactor (ZPPR), a specially designed facility for building and testing a variety of types of reactors, went operational at Argonne National Laborato-ry-West in Idaho.

1974 Energy Reorganiza-tion Act of 1974

The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 split the Atomic Energy Commission into the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).

1979 Three Mile Island The nuclear facility at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, experienced a major failure when a water pump in the secondary cooling system of the Unit 2 pressurized— water reactor malfunctioned.

Table 2.1 Nuclear energy chronology (Continued)

(continued)




1986 Chernobyl The Chernobyl nuclear disaster occured in Ukraine during unauthorized experiments when four pressurized-water reactors overheat, releasing their water coolant as steam.

1990s US Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme

The U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme pioneered new materials and developed improved material fabrication techniques, radiological control, and quality-control standards.

2000 World-record reliabil-ity benchmarks

The fleet of more than 100 nuclear power plants in the USA achieved world-record reli-ability benchmarks, operating annually at more than 90% capacity for the last decade—the equivalent of building 10 GW nuclear power plants in that period.

nuclear reactor/ atoMIc reactor

All nuclear reactors are devices designed to maintain a chain reaction, producing a steady flow of neutrons generated by the fission of heavy nuclei. In terms of purpose, they are either research reactors or power reactors.

Parts of nuclear reactors

Formation of nuclear energy takes place through nuclear reactors which have five different parts discussed in the table given below.

Table 2.2 Major parts of a nuclear reactor

Part Role

Fuel It is the most important part of reactor. Uranium 235 or plutonium 239 are used as fuel.

Moderator A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. Material in the core which slow down the neutrons re-leased from fission so that they causes they causes more fission.

Coolant Often the neutron moderator and the coolant are the same, usually purified water.

Shield of protector

Most nuclear reactors use thick, concrete shield to create a bioshield with a thin water-cooled layer of lead on the inside to protect the porous concrete from the coolant inside. This shield is needed to stop different types of rays emerging during nuclear fission.

Controller Speed of nuclear fission controlled by controlling rods, which are made of boron and cadmium.

nuclear chain reactions

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in a fission produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons. and the process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons). A Uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new neutrons and a large amount of binding energy. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of U-238 and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron leaves the system without being absorbed. Both of these neutrons collide with U-235 atoms each of which fissions and release a few neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.




Mechanism of nuclear Power generation

• In nuclear power plants, uranium fuel undergoes nuclear fi ssion and generates an enor-mous amount of heat. The heat makes high-temperature and high-pressure steam that rotates turbines to generate electricity.

• LWRs use light water (normal water) as coolant and moderator. Coolant removes heat produced during nuclear fi ssion from a reactor core. Moderator reduces the speed of neutrons produced in nuclear fi ssion to facilitate further fi ssion reaction and sustain a chain reaction.

• A control rod controls the power of a nuclear reactor. By inserting control rods, exces-sive fi ssion is prevented. A reactor containment vessel, made of steel, accommodates a reactor pressure vessel. The primary water loop transmits heat through the tube walls to the surrounding water of the secondary cooling system to generate steam and rotate turbines.

develoPMent oF nuclear energy In IndIa

• With the enactment of the Atomic Energy Bill in 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission was established on 10th August, 1948.

• Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) (1954).

• Firm ground for nuclear energy production.

India’s three-stage nuclear Power Programme

The three-stage Indian Nuclear Programme, charted by Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, aimed at establishing nuclear power with domestic resources comprises the following guidelines.

Pressurised Heavy water reactor • In the fi rst stage of the programme, natural uranium-fuelled pressurised heavy- water

reactors (PHWRs) produce electricity, while generating plutonium-239 as a by-product.

Fast-Breeder reactor • A breeder reactor (FBR) is a reactor that produces more fi ssile material than it con-

sumes.

• Doubling time: amount of time required to extract as output double the amount of fi ssile material that was fed as input.

• In the second stage, FBRs would use a mixed oxide fuel made from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the fi rst stage and natural uranium.

• In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fi ssion to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Boiling water reactor (BWR) was not adopted by India because the uranium was to be imported from the USA on higher cost. The raw material used in it is enriched uranium and heavy water (D

2O). This technique can also be used in PHWRs.

thorium-based reactorsA stage-III reactor or an advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232- and uranium-233-fuelled reactors.

InFo

Dr. Homi J. Bhabha was its fi rst Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission was entrusted with the formulation and implementation of the policy of the government in all matters concern-ing atomic energy. Subsequently, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up on 3 August 1954, under the direct charge of the Prime Minister through a Presidential order.


chapter 2 – Indian nuclear Programme and technology 1.137

nuclear research reactor in India

• Apsara (oldest), designed by BARC and built with the assistance of United Kingdom. It is at Trombay.• Cirus: It is at Trombay and was built with assistance of Canada.• Zerlina is India’s third research reactor. This zero-energy experimental reactor was indigenously built. It is

at Purnima, Trombay.• Kamini: It is a research reactor at IGCAR in Kalpakkam and India. It is the fi rst reactor in the world designed

specifi cally to use U-233 as fuel.• Dhruva: The Dhruva reactor is India’s largest research reactor and the primary source of weapons-grade plutonium.• Fast-Breeder Test Reactor: It is jointly designed by BARC and IGCAR. The FBTR is a liquid metal (liquid

sodium) FBR based on the French Rapsodie design.

nuclear research reactor in India

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Table 2.3 Milestones in Indian atomic energy programme

Year Event1948 Establishment of Atomic Energy Commission

1954 Department of Atomic Energy created

3 January 1954 Set up of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)

1957 APSARA was commissioned

1960 CIRUS was commissioned

1961 ZERLINA was commissioned

1968 Nuclear Fuel Complex

1969 Tarapur Power Station

1971 The Reactor Research Centre, Kalpakkam

1973 Rajasthan Atomic Power Station

18 May 1974 Pokhran I

1982 Reprocessing Plant at Tarapur

1984 Mixed fuel for FBTR

1984 Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

1985 Waste Immobilization Plant at Tarapur

1985 DHRUVA Reactor

1987 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)

1996 Reprocessing Plant at Kalpakkam

1996 KAMINI Reactor

11 and 13 May 1998 Pokhran II

September 2003 500 MWe prototype fast-breeder reactor’s site excavation work commenced at Kalpakkam.

6 March 2005 India’s fi rst 540 MWe nuclear power plant achieved ‘criticality’ at Tarapur.

2005 India is admitted to the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) venture. Other parties in this venture are China. European Union, Japan, South Korea and the USA.

(continued)



Table 2.4 Types of nuclear power reactors

Reactor Type Coolant Moderator Fuel

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Light water Light water Enriched Uranium

Boiling water Reactor (BWR) Light water Light water Enriched Uranium

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) Heavy water Heavy water Natural Uranium

Gas Cooled Reactors CO2

Graphite Natural or Enriched Uranium

Light Water Graphite Reactors Pressurized boiling Graphite Enriched Uranium

2005 Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) Indore, dedicated in the memory of Dr. Raja Ramanna. The centre renamed as Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology ((RRCAT).

2006 The 540 MVe, Unit 3 of Tarapaur Atomic power Project (TAPP-3) attains criticality.

2006 APSARA, the first nuclear research reactor in the whole of Asia completes 50 years.

2007 Unit-3 of the 220 MWe Kaiga Atomic Power Project in North Karnataka attains criticality. The critically was achieved in less than 5 years, the first pour of concrete done in March 2002.

2008 Low-power critical facility at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) attained first critically.

30 September 2008 India and France signed agreement on cooperation for peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

11 November 2009 Unit 5 of RAPS archived first criticality.

22 December 2009 Unit 5 of Raps synchronised to grid.

23 January 2010 Unit 6 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Station achieveed first criticality.

11 February 2010 India and UK signed joint declaration on nuclear cooperation.

12 March 2010 India and Russia agreed on a roadmap for construction of reactors of Russian design in India.

28 March 2010 Unit 6 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Station synchronized to grid.

29 March 2010 India and the USA completed negotiations on ‘arrangements and procedures’ for reprocessing US- obligated spent nuclear fuel.

31 March 2010 Unit 6 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Station commenced commercial operations.

27 November 2010 Unit 4 of Kaiga achieved first criticality.

7 December 2010 India and France signed agreement for fuel supply.

19 January 2011 Unit 4 of Kaiga synchronized to grid.

25 April 2011 Agreement between GOI and Republic of Korea for cooperation in peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

13 November 2015 Agreement was signed between UK of Great Britain and Northern Ireland for peaceful use of nuclear energy.

9 December 2016 Agreement between the government of India and Republic of Vietnam for peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

8 April 2017 Signed the agreement with Bangladesh for peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

March 2018 India has 22 nuclear reactors in operations in 7 nuclear power plants, having a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW.

Table 2.3 Milestones in Indian atomic energy programme (Continued)



India’s atomic energy reactors (at present)

Plant Units Type Capacity (MWe)Total Capacity

Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS), Maharashtra 4 2 BWR, 2 PHWR

1,60, 160, 5,40, 540 1400

Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS), Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)

6 PHWR 1,00, 200, 2,20 220 2,20, 220,

1180

Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS), Tamil Nadu (Kalpakkam)

2 PHWR 2,20, 220 440

Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS), Uttar Pradesh 2 PHWR 2,20, 220 440

Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS), Gujarat 2 PHWR 2,20, 220 440

Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), Karnataka 4 PHWR 2,20, 220, 2,20, 220 880

Kudan kulam, Tamil Nadu 1 VVER 1,000 × 2 2000

6780 (MW)

Under-construction projects (5300 MW)

Name Operator State Type Total Unit Capacity (in MW)

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER 1,000 × 2 = 2000

Kalpakkam BHAVINI Tamil Nadu PFBR 500 × 1 = 500

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 700 × 2 = 1,400

Rawatbhata N PCIL Rajasthan PHWR 700 × 2 = 1,400

Power station

Operator State Projects Type Units Total Capacity (MW)

Gorakhpur Haryana NPCIL PHWR 700 × 4 2800

Chutka Madhya Pradesh NPCIL PHWR 700 × 2 1400

Mahi Rajasthan Banswara NPCIL PHWR 700 × 4 2800

Kaiga Karnataka NPCIL PHWR 700 × 2 1400

Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu NPCIL FBR 600 × 2 1200

Site to be decided AHWR 300 × 1 300

Kudankulam Tamil Nadu VVER- 1000 × 2 2000

1000

Jaitapur Maharashtra EP R 1650 × 6 9900

Kovvada Andhra Pradesh ESBWR 1594 × 6 9564

Mithi Virdi Gujarat AP 1100 × 6 6600

(Viradi) 1000

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atomic energy centres in India

• Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT), Mumbai • Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Trombay, Mumbai • Indian Rare Earths Limited, Mumbai • Atomic Mineral Directorate, Hyderabad • Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam • Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Kolkata • Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore • Heavy Water Board Mumbai NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited),

Mumbai • Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai • Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad • Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata • Institute of Plasma Research, Gondhinapal, Gujarat. • Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics • Kolkata Institute of Plasma Research • Kakrapar Atomic Power Station, Gujarat

advanced Heavy water reactor (aHwr)

The AHWR will use thorium-based mixed oxide fuel with a small feedstock of plutonium to generate power. This research includes the devel-opment of indig-enous equipment for the production of thorium dioxide powder and trials with uranium dioxide. It will be particularly rele-vant for the future construction of 500 MW PHWRs.

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Figure 2.5: Important atomic energy centres in India

Haryana4 × 700 MW

Narora, Uttar Pradesh2 × 220 MW

Haripur,West Bengal6 × 1000 MW

Kovvada,Andhra Pradesh6 × 1000 MW

Seismic zones

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Zone 5

Least prone Proposed projects

Under operation—4560 MW

Ongoing project—2220 MW

Most prone

Tarapur,Maharashtra2 × 160 MW2 × 540 MW

Madhya Pradesh

2 × 700 MW

Kalpakkam,Tamil Nadu2 × 220 MW

Kudankulam,Tamil Nadu2 × 1000 MW4 × 1000 MW

Kaiga,Karnataka

3 × 220 MW1 × 220 MW

Jaitapur,Maharashtra

6 × 1650 MW

Mithi Virdi,Gujarat

6 × 1000 MW

Kakrapar,Gujarat

2 × 220 MW

Rawatbhata,Rajasthan

1 × 100 MW1 × 200 MW4 × 220 MW



research reactors in India

These are operated at universities and research centres in many countries. These reactors could have multiple purposes, including producing radio-pharmaceuticals for medical diagnosis and therapy, testing materials and conducting basic research.

1. Apsara (Bombay, Mumbai, India Commissional in 1957): Apsara is the oldest of India’s research reactors. The reactor was designed by the Bhabha Atomic research Centre (BARC) and built with assistance from the United Kingdom (which also pro-vided the initial fuel supply consisting of 80% enriched uranium). Apsara first went critical on 4 August 1956. Apsara is a light water swimming pool-type reactor with a maximum power output of one megawatt thermal (MWt). The reactor burns enriched uranium in the form of aluminium alloyed curved plates. Fuel for the reactor is supplied under contract from the United Kingdom, provided that the fuel is safeguarded. The Apsara reactor is utilized for various experiments, including neutron activation analysis, radiation damage studies, forensic research, neutron radiography, and shielding exper-iments. The reactor is also used for research and the production of radioisotopes. After nearly half a century of operation, BARC plans to refurbish and modify the aging reactor to test a new indigenous design of a 5–10 MWt research reactor.

2. CIRUS (Bombay, Mumbai, India Commissional in 1960): The CIRUS research reactor at Trombay went critical on 10 July 1960, making it the second oldest reactor in India. It is modelled on the Canadian Chalk River National Research Xperimental (NRX) reactor. The 40 MWt reactor burns natural uranium fuel, while using heavy water (deuterium) as a moderator. The reactor, which can be fuelled online, is capable of pro-ducing about 9–10 kg of weapons-grade plutonium annually. The reactor was built with Canadian assistance while the United States provided the initial supply of heavy water.

3. Zerlina (Mumbai, India, Commissional in 1961): India’s third research reactor, Zerlina, reached criticality on 14 January 1961. This zero-energy experimental reactor was indigenously built but used US- supplied heavy water as a moderator and coolant. Zerlina was used for studies of the spatial arrangement of fissionable and nonfissionable materials in uranium heavy-water reactors. The tank-type reactor was the first of a series of critical assemblies built by BARC. The reactor burned natural uranium fuel rods to produce a nominal power output of 100 W. The reactor was decommissioned and dis-mantled in 1983. BARC scientists applied lessons learned from Zerlina in the design, construction and operation of future reactors.

4. Purnima (Trombay, Mumbai, India): The Purnima reactor is a series of critical assem-blies built to study neutron behaviour in fission and the use of U-233 as a fuel. The Atomic Energy Commission approved the Purnima project in 1969. Construction began in 1970 and Purnima-I obtained criticality on the 18 May 1972. This small, tank-type, fast neu-tron reactor used 21.6 kg of PU-239 in the form of plutonium-oxide pellets to produce a nominal power output of 1 W. As a pulsed fast reactor, Purnima-I operated on much the same principles as a rudimentary fission bomb. This gave BARC scientists bench-mark calculations on the behaviour of a chain-reacting plutonium system and the kinetic behaviour of the system just above criticality. These calculations were used to determine the optimum explosive power and the neutron trigger of future bombs. This gave BARC scientists benchmark calculations on the behaviour of a chain-reacting plutonium system and the kinetic behaviour of the system just above criticality. These calculations were used to determine the optimum explosive power and the neutron trigger of future bombs. Purnima-I operated until 1974 when it was decommissioned and renovated to produce Purnima-II, a homogenous tank-type critical assembly. This critical assembly burned a



400 g, uranium-233-nitrate solution as fuel, producing a nominal power of 10 W. Purni-ma-II first reached criticality on 10 May 1984. The critical assembly was used to study the use of U-233 as a fuel for future reactor designs. It was decommissioned and renovated to produce Purnima-III, which first obtained criticality on 9 November 1990. The critical assembly is fuelled by uranium-233 plates clad in aluminium weighing a total of 600 g. It produced a maximum power output of 1 W. Light water served as the coolant and moder-ator while the control rods consisted of cadmium. Purnima-III was used as a mock-up for the Kamini reactor at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).

5. Dhruva (Bombay): The Dhruva reactor is India’s largest research reactor and primary source of weapons-grade plutonium. Originally named the R-5, this Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) first went critical on 8 August 1985 after 10 years of construction. Designed as a larger version of the CIRUS reactor, Dhruva was an indig-enous project built to provide an independent source of weapons-grade plutonium free from safeguards. The reactor uses heavy water (deuterium) as a moderator and coolant. Aluminium clad fuel rods containing natural uranium are burned to obtain a maximum power output of 100MW. After obtaining criticality, BARC had technical problems with the operation of Dhruva. On 17 January 1988, Dhruva finally attained its full power of 100 MW. Today, Dhruva serves as the primary source of spent fuel, which is reprocessed to obtain weapons-grade plutonium. It is estimated that the Dhruva reactor is capable of producing about 20–25 kg of plutonium annually.

types of nuclear Power reactors

Following are the types of nuclear power reactors.

• PressurizedHeavyWaterReactor(PHWR) Fuel: Natural uranium Moderator: Heavy water (D

2O)

Coolant: Heavy water Uses natural enriched uranium, lower fuel costs, needs large quantities of fuel.

• PressurizedWaterReactor(PWR) Fuel: Enriched uranium Moderator: Light water (demineralized water) Coolant: Light water PWR is the oldest, most widely used reactor for power generation. In PWR, the water

is maintained at high pressure such that it does not boil even at high temperatures.

• BoilingWaterReactor(BWR) Fuel: Enriched uranium Moderator: Light water Coolant: Light water Uncomplicated design, lower risk, longer lifetime than PWR.

• FastBreederReactor(BWR) Fuel: Enriched uranium, plutonium Coolant: Liquid metal (liquid Sodium) Breeds fuel by producing more fissile material than it consumes reactor core consists

of plutonium and uranium. Reactor core is surrounded by non-fissile uranium-238 which gets converted into

fissile Pu-239 by capturing fast neutrons Since fast neutrons are specifically desired to bombard the U-238, no moderator is required.



• AdvancedHeavyWaterReactor(AHWR) Fuel: Thorium Moderator: Heavy-water amorphous carbon Coolant: Boiling water Currently under development at BARC, designed to use thorium as fuel.

dePartMent oF atoMIc energy

The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up on 3 August 1954 under the direct charge of the Prime Minister through a Presidential Order.

nuclear Power corporation of India limited (nPcIl)

• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Govern-ment of India.

• The Company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act, 1956 in September 1987 with the objective of operating atomic power stations and imple-menting the atomic power projects for generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.

• NPCIL also has equity participation in BHAVINI, another PSU of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) which implements fast breeder reactors programme in the country.

• NPCIL is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors

Functions of nuclear Power corporation of India limited (nPcIl)

the nuclear Fuel cycle (nFc) • Ancillary operations of the Nuclear Power Programme

• Divided into two: 1. Front-end fuel cycle administered by: ¡ Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration (AMD), Hyderabad ¡ Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. (UCIL), Jaduguda ¡ Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), Hyderabad ¡ Heavy Water Board (HWD), Mumbai

2. Back-end Fuel Cycle administered by: ¡ Baba Atomic Research Centre (BARC) ¡ Indira Gandhi Centre of Atomic Research (IGCAR)

Mining and ore Processing

• Mines are operated by UCIL • New open cast mine was commissioned at Banduhurang in 2007 • UCIL’s works underway include: ¡ Development of mines at Lambapur and Domiasiat ¡ Construction of Mohuldih Uranium Mining Project in Jharkhand

¡ Uranium Mining and Milling Projects at

¡ Tummalapalle

¡ Gogi • R&D on ore hyphen processing is done at Trombay.

Functions of department of atomic energy

◗ Increase the share of nuclear power

◗ Build and operate nuclear reactors

◗ Develop advanced technologies

◗ Provide broad-based research to support the Atomic Energy Programme

◗ Contribute towards national security

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techtalk

nuclear Power ProgrammeIt is a three-stage programme:

◗ Stage-I is in com-mercial domain

◗ Stage-II is in the technology demon-stration stage

◗ Stage-III is in the technology develop-ment stage



nuclear Fuel Fabrication

• Taken up by NFC for power reactors and BARC for research reactors

• NFC produces fuel for:

¡ PHWRs

¡ BWRs

¡ FBRs

• It also produces stainless steel tubes, hexcans and other structurals for reactor assem-blies and LCAs

• BARC produces a wide variety of fuels for indigenous mixed oxide fuel assemblies for boiling water reactors at Tarapur

• BARC has set up advanced fuel fabrication facility at Tarapur

Heavy water Production and upgrading

• HWB is responsible for building and operating heavy water plants in the country

• HWB operates seven heavy water plants in the country

• To achieve national goal in energy conservation, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency has assigned to HWB a lead role to carry out energy management and conservation for industries in three sectors:

¡ Fertilizer

¡ Petroleum

¡ Chlor alkali

Fuel reprocessing

• One pilot plant for fuel reprocessing in Trombay for processing fuel from research reactors

• Industrial scale fuel reprocessing plants at Tarapur and Kalpakkam to process spent fuel from power reactors

• The second power reactor reprocessing plant by BSRC at Tarapur

nuclear waste Management

• Vitrification is the technology used to immobilize nuclear waste

• This technology has been successfully developed by India in Trombay

• Waste Immobilization Plants have been operational at Tarapur and Trombay

• Waste Immobilization Plants have been operational at Tarapur and Trombay

• A facility to immobilize waste in cement matrix has been commissioned at Kalpakkam

• Work on setting up Nuclear Recycle Plant commenced at Kalpakkam

• BARC has constructed a advanced vitrification system at Tarapur

• India is one of the six countries to develop the Joule Heated Ceramic Mixer and set up such facility for vitrification of high-level nuclear waste

• Vitrified waste is stored in solid storage surveillance facility for 30 years prior to its disposal in deep geological formation



Fast Breeder reactor Programme (FBrs)

• The second stage of the nuclear programme envisages setting up of fast breeder reactors backed by reprocessing plants and plutonium-based fuel fabrication plants

• FBRs can increase fuel utilization by 60 times of what is possible by PHWRs.

• IGCAR started the breeder programme by setting up of a fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam in 1985.

• The reactor uses mixed uranium-plutonium carbide fuel; its capacity is 17.4 MW

• Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. is constructing a 500 MW prototype fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam

• PFBR uses mixed uranium-plutonium oxide as fuel, the design and technology of which is developed by IGCA

thorium-Based reactors

• The Stage-III is based on thorium-uranium-233 cycle.

• KAMINI, a research reactor at Kalpakkam, uses uranium-233 derived from thorium as its fuel.

• This fuel is bred, reprocessed and fabricated indigenously.

• BARC is engaged in developing 300 MWe advanced heavy water reactor.

• Mixed Thoria-Urania and Thoria-Plutonia are the candidate fuels for AHWR.

• Development of a high temperature reactor system is also underway in Trombay.

• A Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR), with 100 kW thermal power rating will be used for electricity generation in remote places.

• Development of Accelerator Driven Sub-Critical Systems (ADS) for nuclear reactor is the latest addition to the Indian nuclear programme

• As a part of ADS, an electron Cyclotron Resonance Microwave Ion Source is also under development at BARC

• A uranium-thorium separation facility is in operation at Trombay

atoMIc energy regulatory Board (aerB)

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board monitors safety in nuclear endeavours. The safety standards formulated by AERB are at par with those recommended by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. is a member of World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO).

• India’s nuclear reactors have achieved about 260 years of safe operation.

• BARC and the laboratories credited by it conduct countrywide personnel monitoring.

• DAE conducts environmental radiation monitoring and environmental surveillance.

• SODAR systems, which are sophisticated weather monitoring systems, are operational at Kaiga, Kalpakkam, Tarapur and Trombay.

• IREMON, a nationwide network of environmental radiation monitoring stations detects radiation releases.



• A GPS based Compact Aerial Radiation Monitoring System (CARMS) is in operation in Trombay. CARMS uses unmanned aerial vehicle.

• Steps after Fukushima

¡ Particular attention given to emergency cooling of reactor core.

¡ Focus is now on redundancy in power supply and pumping equipment.

¡ Ensuring availability of large quantity of water.

• New mobile electricity generator sets have been introduced in addition to the existing 4-tier power supply.

radiation technologies and applications

In addition to the nuclear energy programme, DAE is also involved in the following:

• Building and operation of research reactors for production of

¡ radioisotopes

¡ accelerators

¡ lasers

• Developing and deploying radiation technology applications in the field of:

¡ medicine

¡ agriculture

¡ industry

radioisotope Production and Processing

• Radioisotopes are produced in research reactors and cyclotron in Kolkata.

• They are processed by BRIT (Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology).

application of radioisotopes

nuclear agricultureRadiation technology is used for:

• development of high yielding crop seeds

• radiation processing of food items

• fertilizer and pesticide related studies

• used as a tracers in he effectiveness of fertilingers using Nitrgen-15 and phosphorous 32.

crop ImprovementBARC has developed 41 varieties of high-yielding crops which include:

• Rice • Sunflower

• Jute • Mungbean(GreenGram)

• Groundnut • Tur(PigeonPea)

• Mustard • UradBean(BlackGram)

• Soybean • Chavali

BARC has developed green manure crop—Sesbania rostrata BARC has developed a tissue culture-based protocol for rapid multiplication of some commercial cultivars of banana.



Micro-propagation technology has been standardized for pineapple and three varieties of sugarcane. Several insect pheromones have been standardized. Two patents were granted for bio-fertilizer formulations.

Food Processing

• Two plants are set up for demonstration of applications of radiation:

¡ Radiation Processing Plant set up at Navi Mumbai by BRIT for high dose radiation processing of spices

¡ Krishi Utpadan Sanrakshan Kendra set up at Lasalgaon near Nashik by BARC for low dose application of radiation for food preservation

• Considerable progress has been achieved in the setting up of radiation processing plants in private sector

• Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) not only supplies Cobalt-60 to new plants but also provides technical guidance and facilitation services to enable entrepre-neurs to commission the plants in a time-bound manner.

• Radiation Processing Plant for Innova Agri Bio Park Ltd., Bangalore was commissioned with initial 100 kCi of Co-60 activity.

• In 2007, KRUSHAK Radiation Processing Facility became the first Co-60 gamma radiation facility in the world to be certified by the United States Department of Agriculture-Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS) for phyto-sanitary treatment of mangoes, enabling export of mangoes from India to USA.

• An MoU has been signed between BARC and National Centre for Electron and Beam Food Research, USA for cooperation in the advancement of electron and X-ray irradia-tion technologies.

• A 10 MeV/10 kW Linear Particle Accelerator (LINAC) for food irradiation has been commissioned at Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT).

• RRCAT and National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources carried out seed irradiation studies using the 750 keV DC accelerator, to explore the potential of electron beam irradiation as quarantine disinfection treatment against insects and pests in seed

Medicine

• Diagnose of thyroid disease using iodine-123. • Treat overactive thyroid glond and cerlain kinds of thyroid cancer using sodium iodide. • Detect position of blood clots or thrombosis using sodium-24. • Detect and treat brain tumor using phosphorus-32 • Study the circulation of iron in the blood using iron-59

Industry usage

• The thickness of paper, plastic clothes and metal sheets need to be standardized and this is done by placing a radioactive source at one side of the material.

• For sheets of metal, gamma ray is used, for plastics, clothes and paper, beta particles are used.

• Radioisotopes added to engine oil so its level of wear and fear can be determined. • In order to kill germs that causes food to spoil quickly, gamma rays are used. • To it exposed to gomma ray, later became harder without the need for adding sulphur.



archaeology • To determine the ape of artifacts, the carbon cloting method is used.

• To measure geological time.

nuclear MedIcIne and HealtHcare

• BARC and BRIT are the main centres of nuclear medicine and healthcare • At BARC the following are produced: ¡ Cesium-137-based brachy therapy sources ¡ Iodine-125-based radiation source for treatment of eye cancer ¡ Digital medical imaging system based on charge-coupled device ¡ Radiation-processed hydrogel for treating burns, wounds and leprosy ¡ Radiopharmaceuticals for treatment of arthritis ¡ Sero-diagnostic test-kit with X-ray imaging using a three dimensional cone-beam

tomography ¡ BARC’s Radiation Medicine Centre (RMC) is a major provider of radioimmunoas-

says (RIA) services in the country • Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre’s Regional RMC at Kolkata caters to the radiodiagno-

sis needs in the eastern part of the country • BRIT undertakes the following activities: ¡ Processes and formulates radioisotopes produced in various research and power

reactors ¡ Manufactures radiation technology based equipment ¡ Provides radiation processing services to medical sector ¡ Working on development of Samarium 32P Phosphate colloid injection for the

treatment of the disease of joints • Homi Bhabha Block of Tata Memorial Hospital, Navi Mumbai, is equipped with

state-of-the-art radiation therapy equipment.

• Advanced centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer at Navi Mumbai has evolved as the apex national referral centre for comprehensive clinical and laboratory genetic services and research into the genetics of the major cancer predisposition syndromes.

• A new automated remote liquid-dispensing system for dispensing radioactive consign-ment into vials has been developed and deployed.

• Technology for the production of hydrogel has been transferred to a private firm in Hyderabad.

• The newly developed T3/T4 magnetic particle-based kits have been introduced in the market for thyroid hormone investigations.

• BARC developed a telecobalt machine named, Bhabhatron. The technology of Bhabhatron is now transferred to a private entrepreneur for mass production and commercialization.

• Through the Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT), of IAEA, India has donated one Bhabhatron to Vietnam. India also committed to donate one Bhabhatron each to Sri Lanka and to an African country under PACT.

• BRIT supplied and installed Gamma Chamber GC-5000 at the Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology, Warsaw, Poland.

• BRIT also supplied GC-5000 and Blood Irradiators to some national institutions



new radiation sterilization of Medical Products

• BRIT has been operating radiation sterilization plant ISOMED at Trombay

• Over 2 million midwifery kits and delivery packs have been radiation sterilized and distributed in rural areas

• There are other plants similar to ISOMED. They are at:

¡ Sriram Centre for Industrial Research, Delhi

¡ Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Bangalore

¡ Defence Research Development Organization, Jodhpur

Industrial applications of radioisotopes

Studies conducted by BARC:

• have immensely contributed to the detection and recharge conditions of ground water bodies.

• have resulted in increasing the intervals between de-silting campaigns at major ports saving huge cost of de-silting operations.

• have helped in port expansion at Kolkata and Karwar ports.

A nucleonic suspended sediment concentration gauge developed at Trombay has proved useful in dredging operations of ports. Using radioisotope tracer technique, a major study on the dilution and dispersion of the sewage disposed of into sea at the Colaba outfall in Mumba, was conducted by BARC. Radioisotopes are used by petrochemical industry for troubleshoot-ing in process equipment, detecting leaks in buried pipelines, industrial process control, etc. BRIT remotely operated radiography cameras (ROLI-I) for industrial applications.

Beam technologies

• India is a front runner in laser systems and electron beam accelerators.

• RRCAT in Indore and BARC in Mumbai are engaged in the development of applica-tions in the areas of Laser systems, Electronic Beam processes and devices and Plasma devices

• Sriram Institute of Chemical Research, New Delhi and BARC in collaboration have developed a special formulation of Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) based material which on radiation cross-linking, leads to a product that can withstand temperatures up to 105C.

¡ BARC has developed 500keV DC Accelerator housed at BRIT, Navi Mumbai

¡ BARC is designing and developing

¡ 3 MeV, 30 kW DC accelerator

¡ 10 MeV, 10 kW RF electron Linac

develoPMent oF HIgHer tecHnology

accelerator

With the help of atomic accelerators, the speed is provided to the atomic particles, which reach the state of excitation and can be utilized in radio isotopy and formation of isotopes.

Pulse electron accelerator

These type of accelerators are used for X-ray and high frequency microwave, e.g., KALI-500.



radio-telescopy

The research and development of radio-telescopy is studied at National Centre for Radio Astrophysics in Pune. It works under Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).

agricultural nuclear technology

Nuclear isotopes are present in soil, plants, animals, air and subsequently in the food we eat. Scientists use them in a number of ways in the food and agriculture sector.

Exposing plants to small dose of radiation helps change the genetic make-up of plants and leads to improved varieties.

radioactivity

The process of spontaneous disintegration of nucleus is called radioactivity. It was discovered by Henry Becquerel, but the term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie. It is measured by Geiger counter. Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon, which remains unaffected by external factors like temperatures, pressure, etc. It involves emission of α, β and γ-rays/Particles.

radioisotopes

In an unstable atom, the nucleus changes by giving off a neutron to get back to a balanced state. As the unstable nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and is said to be radioactive. Radioactive isotopes are often called radioisotopes. All elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioisotopes meaning that these elements have unstable nuclei and are radioactive.

Elements with atomic numbers 83 and less, have isotopes (stable nucleus) and most have at least one radioisotope (unstable nucleus). As a radioisotope tries to stabilize, it may transform into a new element in a process called transmutation. Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unsta-ble and release radiation. All isotopes are not radioisotopes.

applications of radioisotopes

• Medicine: Diagnosis and treatment of diseases, sterilization of products frequently used in clinical and surgical environment, etc.

• IndustryandTechnology:Review of materials and welding in construction, control of productive processes, research, etc.

• Agriculture:Plague control, food conservation, etc.

• Archaeology:Art restoration of art objects, verification of historic or artistic objects, geological event dating, research universe, industry, medicine, etc.

• Pharmacology:The study of the metabolism of drugs before they are authorised for public use.

Important terminology

• RadiocarbonDating:It is a method of estimating the age of organic material. Some examples of the types of material that radiocarbon can determine the ages of, are wood, charcoal, marim and freshwater shell, bone and antler and peat and organic bearing sediments.

• AgeDeterminations:It can also be done by using carbonate deposits, such as calcumte, dissolved CO, and carbonates in ocean, lake and groundwater sources.



• Radiation Counters:These are used to detect the electrons given off by decaying carbon-14 as it turns into nitrogen. In order to date the artefact, the amount of carbon-14 is compared to the amount of carbon-12 to determine how much radiocarbon has decayed.

tokamak

A tokamak is a device which is used in a magnetic field to confine a plasma in the shape of a torus. Achieving a stable plasma equilibrium requires magnetic field lines that move around the torus in a helical shape. Such a helical field can be generated by adding a toroidal field and a poloidal field.

In a tokamak, the toroidal field is produced by electromagnets that surround the torus and the poloidal field is the result of a toroidal electric current that flows inside the plasma. Tokamaks were invented in the 1950s by Soviet Physicists Igor Tamm and Andrei Sakharov. It is the short form of Toroidal Chamber Magnetic in Russian language.

radiometric dating/radioactive dating

• Radiometric dating is a technique used to date materials based on a knowledge of the decay rates of naturally occurring isotopes, and the current abundances.

• One of the best-known is the carbon-14 (14C) radiometric technique.

• In other radiometric dating methods, the heavy parent isotopes were synthesized in the explosions of massive stars that scattered materials through the Galaxy, to be formed into planets and other stars.

• The uranium-lead radiometric dating scheme is one of the oldest available, as well as one of the most highly respected.

• Two other radiometric techniques are used for long-term dating. Potassium- argon dating involves electron capture or positron decay of potassium-40 to argon-40.

• Rubidium-strontium dating is based on the beta decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87, with a half-life of 50 billion years.

• Archaeologists use tree-ring dating (dendrochronology) to determine the age of old pieces of wood.

• Trees grow rings on a yearly basis, with the spacing of rings being wider in good growth years than in bad growth years.

• These spacings can be used to help pin down the age of old wood samples, and also give some hints to climate change.

• The technique is only useful to about 4000 years in the past, however, because it requires overlapping tree ring series.

radiocarbon dating

• It is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to 60,000 years.

• Within archaeology, it is considered an absolute dating technique. The technique was discovered by Willard Frank Libby and his colleagues in 1949.

• In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for radiocarbon dating. Carbon has two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (12C) and carbon-13 (13C).

• In addition, there are tiny amounts of the unstable isotope carbon-14 (14C) on Earth.



• Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years and would have long ago vanished from Earth were it not for the unremitting cosmic ray impacts on nitrogen in the Earth’s atmosphere, which forms more of the isotope.

• Small quantities of radioactive isotope 14C are formed in the upper atmosphere when nitrogen in the air is bombarded with cosmic rays.

• 14C is distributed throughout the Earth’s atmosphere as CO2 and is taken up by plants

and passed on to the animal kingdom in food.

• Plants also take up 12C as CO2. So, the ratio of 12C to 14C in the atmosphere and in

living beings remains constant.

• However, when the organism dies the supply of 14C is not renewed and the quantity of 14C starts diminishing gradually due to radioactive decay, whereas the amount of 12C remains the same.

• 14C has a half-life of 5760 years. That is, the radioactivity becomes exactly half by the end of 5760 years. Thus the ratio of 12C to 14C also reduces to half by the end of 5760 years.

• In a given situation, it could be any fraction depending upon the age of an object such as a piece of wood or bone by measuring the ratio of 12C to 14C in the object in relation to the ratio of these two isotopes in the atmosphere.

uranium-lead radiometric dating

The uranium-lead radiometric dating scheme is one of the oldest available, as well as one of the most highly respected. It has been refined to the point that the error in dates of rocks about three billion years old is no more than 2 million years.

One of its great advantages is that any sample provides two clocks, one based on uranium-235’s decay to lead-207 with a half-life of about 700 million years, and one based on uranium-238’s decay to lead-206 with a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, providing a built-in crosscheck that allows accurate determination of the age of the sample even if some of the lead has been lost.

Potassium–argon dating

Potassium–argon dating involves electron capture or positron decay of potassium-40 to argon-40. Potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 billion years, and so this method is applicable to the oldest rocks. Radioactive potassium-40 is common in micas, feldspars and hornblendes.

rubidium–strontium dating

Rubidium–strontium dating is based on the beta decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87, with a half-life of 50 billion years. This scheme is used to date old igneous and metamorphic rocks, and has also been used to date lunar samples. Rubidium–strontium dating is not as precise as the uranium-lead method, with errors of 30 to 50 million years for a 3-billion-year-old sample.

InternatIonal tHerMonuclear exPerIMental reactor (Iter)

International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is an international nuclear fusion research and engineering project, which is currently building the world’s largest experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in France.



aims of Iter’s Mission

• ITER’s mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion power and prove that it can work without negative impact.

• Aditya is a medium-sized tokamak installed at the Institute for Plasma Research in India.

• Various diagnostics used in Aditya include electric and magnetic probes, microwave interferometry, Thomson scattering and charge exchange spectroscopy.

nuclear waste ManageMent

Disposal of radioactive waste is a complex issue, not only because of the nature of the waste, but also because of the stringent regulatory structure for dealing with radioactive waste. India has achieved self-reliance in the management of all types of radioactive waste.

Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, populations around pro-posed Indian NPP sites have launched protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu.

stages in nuclear waste Management

PartitioningPartitioning of high-level nuclear waste is the process (chemical or electrochemical) of separation of short life ratio nuclides (mainly the fission products) from the long-life radio nuclides.

Figure 2.6: The JET (Tokamak) device, the world’s largest and most powerful magnetic fusion experiment. Jet, Culham, Oxfordshire, UK, EU

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dn D

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an /

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k Ph

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transmutationTransmutation of high-level nuclear waste is the process of changing long-lived radio nuclides into other, shorter-lived radio nuclides by radioactive bombardment.

conditioningOperations that render nuclear waste suitable for handling, transportation, storage and disposal. Conditioning may include the conversion of the radioactive waste to a solid form, enclosure of the radioactive waste in containers.

types of radioactive wastes • ExemptWasteandVery-levelWaste: It contains radioactive materials at a level which

is not considered harmful to people or the surrounding environment.

• Low-LevelWaste: It is generated from hospitals and industry as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, etc., which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity.

• Intermediate-levelWaste: It contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some requires shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges and metal fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning.

• High-levelWaste: It arises from the burning of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor.

nuclear tests of India

India became the sixth nuclear power in the world having the capability of manufacturing nuclear weapons.

Pokhran IOn 18 May 1974, at Pokhran in Rajasthan, the first nuclear test explosion by India was conducted, which was also the first confirmed test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It was coded as ‘Smiling Buddha.’

Pokhran IIIt is the test explosion of five nuclear devices. It was code named as ‘Operation Shakti.’ The tests conducted were with a fission device, a low-yield device and a thermonuclear device.

regulatIon and saFety autHorIty

International atomic energy agency

IAEA is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy. India also contributes to the IAEA’s Nuclear Security Fund. Yukiya Amano is the Director General of IAEA. The IAEA has 170 (as of April 2018) member states.

the atomic energy regulatory Board

It was formed in 1983 and comes under the Atomic Energy Commission. AERB also set-up an institute at Kalpakkam to promote safety-related research in nuclear establishments becoming only second in the world after France to do so.

48 members of nsg as on 2016

Argentina Australia

Brazil Bulgaria

Cyprus Czech Republic

France Germany

Ireland Italy

Lithuania Luxem-bourg

New Zealand

Norway

Russia Serbia

South Korea

Spain

Ukraine UK

Austria Belarus

Canada China

Denmark Estonia

Greece Hungary

Japan Kazakh-stan

Malta Mexico

Poland Portugal

Slovakia Slovenia

Sweden Switzer-land

USA Belgium

Croatia Nether-lands

Finland Romania

Iceland South Africa

Latvia Turkey

connect



nuclear supplier group

Initially the NSG had seven members—Canada, West Germany, France, Japan, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the USA. In 1976–77, the membership was expanded to fifteen with the admittance of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Germany was reunited in 1990, while Czechoslovakia broke up into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. Twelve more nations joined up in 1990. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, a number of former republics have been given observer status as a stage towards future membership. China became a member in 2004. The European Commission and the Zangger Committee Chair participated as observer, the NSG chair of 2017–2018 is Switzerland.

the nuclear Power corporation of India limited (nPcIl)

It is responsible for design, construction, commissioning and operation of thermal nuclear power plants.

non-proliferation treaty

The treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons is commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Its objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and in general complete disarmament.

The treaty entered into force in 1970. On 11th May, 1995 the treaty was extended indefinitely. The five nuclear weapon states, the United States, Russia, UK, France and China, have joined the treaty. The treaty calls for an implicit balance among non-proliferation disarmament and the right to peaceful use of nuclear technology. India along with Pakistan and Israel have never signed the treaty.

nuclear safety regulatory authority Bill, 2011

• The Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority Bill 2011, was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 7th September, 2011.

• The Bill provides for the dissolution of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board. It estab-lishes the Council of Nuclear Safety and the Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority.

nuclear command authority

• On 4th January, 2003 India revealed a three-tire Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) to manage its nuclear weapons.

• The NCA comprises political council, executive council and strategic forces command.

Political council

• It is the body which authorizes the use of nuclear weapons and it is headed by the prime minister. Executive council is headed by the national security adviser to the Prime Minister. Its function is to provide inputs for decision given to it by the political council.

• The executive council may comprise the chiefs of defence services, the cabinet secretaries, heads of intelligence agencies and secretaries of ministers represented in the Cabinet Committee of Security (CCS). The Strategic Force Command (SFC) would be responsible for the administration of the nuclear forces and will be actually tasked with the firing of nuclear.



India’s Points of objections on ctBt

• The CTBT should prevent horizontal and vertical proliferation and should not perpetuate a division of the world into two categories of nations the nuclear-haves and have-nots.

• No test should be carried out under the pretext of safety purposes and nuclear weapon test sites should be closed.

• India was also concerned about the intrusive nature of the verifi cation regime being developed and expressed early reservations on the use of national technical means, including satellites, for verifi cation.

sIgnIFIcance oF IndIan nuclear exPlosIons

• 1 KT energy means energy equivalent of 1000 tons of TNT explosion.

• It is the energy yield of the device is less than 1 KT.

• This is achieved by controlling the fi ssion chain reaction. It removes certain number of neutrons every time, they are generated.

• This will enable to make warheads that can be fi tted on to missiles, like Agni and Prithvi.

• Even it can be carried by planes, like Jaguar, Mig27, Sukhoi 30MK, etc.

• Sub-kilo-tons warheads can be even fi tted in shells of 155-mm guns.

• These are known as Tactical Nuclear Weapons, because they can be used against enemy without causing widespread damage.

• Tactical nuclear weapons restrict the destruction to combat zone.

thermo-nuclear Bomb

It is a fusion bomb. Power is derived from fusion of light-weight nuclei under intense heat. The product of fusion weighs less than the combined weight of original nuclei. The loss in mass is known as mass defect. But temperature required for fusion is approximately 15 million degree Celsius. To achieve this, a fi ssion explosion is conducted fi rst. Thus, thermo-nuclear bomb is a fi ssion-fusion bomb.

InFo

Major nuclear disasters

◗ 1957 Sellafi eld, UK a fi re at the British Atomic Bomb Project led to an excessive release of radioactive material into the environment.

◗ 2011 Fukushima, Japan failure at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in a meltdown of three of plant’s six nuclear reactors.

◗ There are basic principles of India’s Nuclear Doctrine. ¡ No-First-Use: The nuclear doctrine states that India is committed to a no-fi rst-use of nuclear weapons. ¡ Credible Minimum Deterrent: The concept of minimum nuclear deterrent will include suffi cient survivable

and operationally prepared nuclear forces a robust command and control system, eff ective intelligence and early warning capability and comprehensive planning and training for operations.



neutron Bomb

Enhanced radiation weapon (ERW) is a very small hydrogen bomb that has relatively high radiation but relatively low blast, designed to kill (in up to 6 days) by a brief neutron radiation that leaves buildings and weaponry intact.

nuclear Fallout

The dangers from radioactive material, that settles on the ground, after a nuclear explosion is known as Nuclear Fallout.

• In an atmospheric explosion, it is the thermal radiation, combined with the shock wave, which creates maximum damage immediately.

• But damage due to radiation is more dangerous

Acute

Radioactivity

Latent

Acute: Due to rapid exposure to radioactivity.

• Shows up immediately

Latent: Prolonged exposure to relatively lower levels of radiation. Incidence of cancer, (leukaemia) increased in Japan between 1950 and 1953.

• Radiation affects cells that replete rapidly.

• Children and infants are very sensitive.

• Foetuses are most vulnerable. Those children suffer from mental retardation, physical growth, etc.

nuclear winter

A full-scale global nuclear war can lead to long term global climatic changes caused by soot thrown up by burning cities–a phenomenon referred to as nuclear winter.

nuclear accIdents

windscale Fire

• On 10 October 1957, the graphite core of a British nuclear reactor at Windscale, Cumbria, caught fire releasing substantial amounts of radioactive contamination into the surrounding area.

• The event, known as the Windscale fire, was considered the world’s worst nuclear accident until it was dwarfed by the Chernobyl accident in 1986.

• Of particular concern was the radioactive isotope iodine-131, which has a half-life of only 8 days, but is taken up by the human body and stored in the thyroid. As a result, consumption of iodine-131 often leads to cancer of the thyroid.

three Mile Island

• It is the location of a US nuclear power station that, on 28 March 1979, suffered a partial core meltdown.

• The Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station sits on the island in the Susquehanna River in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania.

The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty by which states agree to ban all nuclear explosions. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th September, 1996, but it has not entered into force due to the non-rat-ification of eight specific states. India, Pakistan and North Korea have not signed the treaty. A further six states, China, Egypt, India, Iran, Israel and the United States, have signed, but not rati-fied the treaty.

connect



• The accident had a number of primary causes, related both to technical malfunction and human error. The accident in the TMI-2 reactor began when the plant’s main feed water pumps in the secondary non-nuclear cooling system failed.

the goiânia accident

• It was an incident of radioactive contamination in central Brazil that killed several individuals and injured many others.

• On September 13, 1987, an old radiation source was scavenged from an abandoned hospital in Goiânia, the capital of the central Brazilian state of Goiás.

• It was subsequently handled by several people, causing serious contamination and resulting in several deaths.

• The incident is considered one of the worst accidents involving the improper disposal and handling of radioactive material.

the chernobyl accident

• It occurred on April 26, 1986, at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine (then part of the Soviet Union).

• It is regarded as the worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power, producing a plume of radioactive debris.

• Large areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of roughly 2,00,000 people. About 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus.

• It is difficult to accurately tally the number of deaths caused by the events at Chernobyl, as most of the expected deaths are from cancer, have not yet actually occurred, and are difficult to attribute specifically to the accident.

• A 2005 UN report attributes 56 deaths until that point—47 accident workers and 9 children with thyroid cancer—and estimates that around 4,000 people will ultimately die from the accident-related illnesses.

tHe IndIa-Based neutrIno oBservatory

The India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) Project is a multi-institutional effort aimed at building a world-class underground laboratory with a rock cover of approximately 1300 (4300 ft) m for non-accelerator-based high energy and nuclear physics research in India.

The project includes:

• Construction of an underground laboratory and associated surface facilities at Pottipuram in Bodi West hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.

• Construction of an Iron Calorimetre (ICAL) detector for studding neutrinos, consisting of 50,000 tons of magnetized iron plates arranged in stacks with gaps in between where Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs) would be inserted as active detectors, the total number of 2 m × 2 m RPCs being around 29,000.

• Setting up of National Centre for High Energy Physics at Madurai, for the operation and maintenance of the underground laboratory, human resource development and detector R&D along with its applications. The underground laboratory, consisting of a large cav-ern of size 132 m × 26 m × 20 m and several smaller caverns, will be accessed by a 2,100 m long and 7.5 m wide tunnel.



The initial goal of INO is to study neutrinos. Neutrinos are fundamental particles belonging to the lepton family. They come in three flavours, one associated with electrons and the others with their heavier cousins the Muon and the Tau. According to standard model of particle physics, they are massless. However, recent experiments indicate that these charge-neutral fundamental particles have finite but small mass which is unknown. They oscillate between flavours as they propagate. Determination of neutrino masses and mixing parametres is one of the most important open problems in physics today. The ICAL detector is designed to address some of these key open problems in a unique way. Over the years, this underground facility is expected to develop into a full-fledged underground science laboratory for other studies in physics, biology, geology, hydrology, etc.

Development of detector technology and its varied applications is an important aspect of the project.

The detector R&D, electronics and control, magnet design as well as physics studies and numerical simulations related to ICAL detector is being done in-house at various participating institutions. On a smaller scale, the development of human resource has already started in the form of the INO Graduate Training Programme (GTP) under the umbrella of Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI), a deemed-to-be University within DAE. A conscious and consistent effort at developing local components and solutions for all the engineering aspects has been undertaken. A key feature of this project is the INO-Industry interface that has developed because of the large scale of activity involved.

dark Matter

In astrophysics, dark matter refers to undetectable matter or particles whose presence explains unexpected gravitational effects on galaxies and stars. Various assumptions were made on the composition of dark matter—molecular gas, dead stars, brown dwarf stars, black holes, etc.

While observing cluster of galaxies, it turns out that there is five times more material in clusters of galaxies than we would expect from the galaxies and hot gas we can see. Most of the stuff in clusters of galaxies are invisible and, since these are the largest structures in the Universe held together by gravity, scientists then conclude that most of the matter in the entire Universe is invisible. This invisible stuff is called ‘dark matter,’ a term initially coined by Fritz Zwicky who discovered evidence for missing mass in galaxies in the 1930s.

More and more astronomers and astrophysicists think that dark matter does not exist. Rather than to search an explanation of the anomalies by an unobserved matter, it would be more judicious to re-examine the physical laws constituting the standard model and which are also questioned by even more fundamental problems. It would then be possible to solve several problems.

tHe strIng tHeory and axIons

Some astrophysicists turn for example to that of the string theory. The string theory adds six new dimensions to the four usual ones (three dimensions of space and one dimension for time) and would place the dark matter in these new dimensions which are inaccessible for us; explaining why it would not be detectable. The electromagnetic and why it would not be detectable. The electromagnetic and nuclear forces (strong and weak) would be confined in our four dimensions and could not leave them. On the other hand, the gravitation could disperse in other dimensions, and the drop in intensity compared to the other forces.

Another theoretical particle, the axion, which would be extra-light (1 µeV), stable and which would not interact much with matter, and then practically undetectable particle, would



make another good candidate for dark matter. This particle would solve problems arising from the antimatter (why matter won over antimatter). Various programmes were launched since 1996 to try to detect axions.

accelerator driven system

A subcritical nuclear reactor, coupled to a high energy particle accelerator is called an ‘ Accelerator Driven System (ADS).’ A subcritical reactor is a nuclear fi ssion reactor that pro-duces fi ssion, without achieving criticality.

• In ADS, high-intensity proton accelerator, directs a proton towards a spallation target (made of liquid lead-bismuth) which is a part of the subcritical reactor case.

• In that way for each proton hitting the target, an average 20 neutrons are to irradiate the surrounding fuel (the mass of which is less than critical mass).

• These neutrons allow the nuclear fi ssion reaction to continue notwithstanding the subcritical mass of nuclear core.

• The main advantage is inherent safety even if the nuclear fuel under consideration, lack Uranium’s nice self-regulating properties.

• Some nuclear fuels like uranium are considered safe whereas others like plutonium, which is a nuclear weapon material and long-lived actinides especially Neptunium, Americium and Curium are considered unsafe.

• With the help of ADS, nuclear reactors can be run safely even with unsafe nuclear fuel as whenever the neutron source is turned off, the reaction ceases.

laser-Induced PlasMa sPectroscoPy

When a powerful laser pulse is focused on a surface, a tiny amount of material is vaporized and through further energy absorption form laser, it is heated up until it ionizes and forms plasma. In simple words, energy of laser is used to convert a small amount of a substance into plasma. This laser induced plasma is a micro-source of light that can be analysed by a spectrometre. Laser commonly used is neodymium garnet (Nd: YAG) type.

the difference Between dark energy and dark MatterDark Energy appears to be, based on the brightness of the most distant type-Ia supernovae, a mysterious force that is accelerating the expansion of the universe. These recent discoveries have provided good evidence that there is such an outward force on the universe (variously called the cosmological constant, ‘quintessence,’ or ‘dark energy’).

Data about the rotation of galaxies shows us that the outer parts rotate as fast as the inner parts. This only makes sense if there is a spherical distribution of matter in each galaxy, which is not what we see. Therefore, we infer that there is a certain amount of dark matter in each galaxy. This could be some exotic particles or just lots of stars too small to have ignited.

Aside from this, there is also the dark matter that we think is there, based on theoretical arguments. This is something we can measure by looking at the cosmic microwave background and distant supernovae. These are the measurements (recently made) that imply the existence of both dark matter and dark energy.

the difference Between dark energy and dark Matter

techtalk



LIPS is mainly used to analyse the chemical composition of various substances, forexam-ple, rocks, polished metals.

advantages of spectroscopy

• As with LIPS, direct analysis of substances can be done, there is no need to prepare sample.

• LIPS is a portable device.

• Its works on solid, liquid and gases.

yellow cake/or urania

Yellow cake is a mixture of different uranium oxides and other uranium compounds. It contains about 80% of uranium and is represented by formula U

3O

8.

Yellow cake is the fi nal product of milling of uranium ore and is an intermediary stage in the production of enriched uranium for use in a nuclear reactor or a nuclear weapon.

Table 2.5 Composition and products of uranium ore

Type of Uranium Process Products

Original uranium ore (0.1% uranium)

Milling Yellow cake(80% uranium 0.7% U-235)

Enriched uranium (3.5–5% U-235)

Nuclear reactor Nuclear weapon

Yellow cake produced by most modern mills is actually brown or black, not yellow. The name comes from the colour and texture of the concentrates produced by early mining opera-tions due to impurities from ammonium diuranate.

Yellow cake forgery refers to a set of false documents that were used in the justifi cation of 2003 invasion of Iraq by the USA. These documents depicted an attempt by Iraq’s Saddam Hussein’s regime to purchase Yellowcake Uranium from the country of Niger during the Iraq disarmament crisis.

cHaPter at a glance

• Atomic energy is energy produced by atoms. It is also referred as nuclear energy. It is created during nuclear reactions.

• It is the process in which a heavy nucleus is broken down into two or more medium heavy fragments. It is used in nuclear reactor and atom bomb.

• The process which involves fusion of two or more lighter nuclei to give a heavier nuclei is called nuclear fusion. It only occurs at extremely high temperatures (>106 K), and hence they are called thermonuclear reactions.

• Hydrogen Bomb contains a mixture of Deuterium Oxide (DO) and Tritium Oxide (TO) in a space surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.



PrevIous years’ QuestIons

Prelims Questions

1. India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor.’ If this exper-iment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India? (2016)

(a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation.

(b) It can attain a global role in satellite navigation.

(c) It can drastically improve the effi ciency of its fi s-sion reactors in power generation.

(d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation.

2. Consider the following countries: (2015) 1. China 2. France

3. India 4. Israel

5. Pakistan

Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5

(c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

3. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and develop-ment on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium? (2012)

1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature than ura-nium.

2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium.

3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium.


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. Recently, there has been a concern over the short sup-ply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals.’ Why? (2012)

1. China, which is the largest producer of these ele-ments, has imposed some restrictions on their export.

2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country.

3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. The function of heavy water in a nuclear reactor is to (2011)

(a) Slow down the speed of neutrons

(b) Increase the speed of neutrons

(c) Cool down the reactor

(d) Stop the nuclear reaction

6. Recently, LASIK (Lasser Assisted in situ Keratomil-eusis) procedure is being made popular for vision correction. Which one of the following statements in this context is not correct? (2010)

(a) LASIK procedure is used to correct refractive errors of the eye.

(b) It is a procedure that permanently changes the shapes of the cornea.

(c) It reduces a person’s dependence on glasses or contact lenses.

(d) It is a procedure that can be done on the person of any age.

7. With reference to the treatment of cancerous tumours, a tool called CyberKnife has been making the news. In this context, which one of the following statements is not correct? (2010)

(a) It is a robotic image guided system.

(b) It delivers an extremely precise dose of radiation.

(c) It has the capability of achieving sub-millimetre accuracy.

(d) It can map the spread of tumour in the body.

cHaPter end exercIse



8. In the year 2008, which one of the following con-ducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light? (2009)

(a) European Space Agency

(b) European Organization for Nuclear Research

(c) International Atomic Energy Agency

(d) National Aeronautics and Space administration

9. In which one of the following locations is the Interna-tional Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project to be built? (2008)

(a) Northern Spain (b) Southern France

(c) Eastern Germany (d) Southern Italy

10. In the context of the Indian defence, what is ‘Dhruv’? (2008)

(a) Aircraft-carrying warship

(b) Missile-carrying submarine

(c) Advance light helicopter

(d) Intercontinental ballistic missile

11. Consider the following statements: (2004) 1. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research uses

fast reactor technology

2. Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration is engaged in heavy water produc-tion.

3. In Rare Earths Limited is engaged in the manu-facture of Zircon for India’s Nuclear Programme beside other rare earth products.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3

12. A radioactive substance has a half-life of four months. Three-fourth of the substance would decay in (2001)

(a) 3 months (b) 4 months

(c) 8 months (d) 12 months

13. Which one of the following is not radioactive? (2001) (a) Astatine (b) Francium (c) Tritium (d) Zirconium

14. Consider the following organizations: (2001) 1. Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and

Exploration 2. Heavy Water Board 3. Indian Rare Earths Limited 4. Uranium Corporation of India

Which of these is/are under the Department of Atomic Energy?

(a) 1 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

15. Cobalt-60 is commonly used in radiation therapy because it emits (1999)

(a) alpha rays (b) beta rays (c) gamma rays (d) X-rays

16. Barium in a suitable form is administered to patients before an X-ray examination of the stomach, bacause. (1999)

(a) barium allow X-rays to pass through the stomach on account of its transparency to X-rays.

(b) barium compound, like magnesium sulphate, helps in cleaning the stomach before X-ray examination.

(c) barium is good absorber of X-rays and this help the stomach to appear clearly in contrast with the other regions in the picture.

(d) barium salts are white in colour and this helps the stomach to appear clearly in contrast with other regions in the picture.

17. Which one of the following elements is essential for the construction of nuclear reactors? (1998)

(a) Cobalt (b) Nickel (c) Zirconium (d) Tungsten

18. Match the names of outstanding Indian scientists given in List-I with area of the specialized work given in List-II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: (1998)

List-I List-II A Dr. Raja Ramana 1. Botany–Chemistry

B Dr. M.S. Swaminathan 2. Nuclear Physics

C Prof. U. R. Rao 3. Thermodynamics and Astro Physics

D Prof. Meghnath Saha 4. Space Research

5. Agriculture

Codes:

A B C D

(a) 2 5 4 3

(b) 4 1 3 2

(c) 2 5 1 4

(d) 4 3 1 2



Main Questions

1. Comment on International year of Chemistry. (2011)

2. Why have ‘OPERA detector at Gran Sasso’ been in

the news recently? (2011)

3. What is fast breeder reactor? Comment on its suit-

ability in the Indian context. 1999(Paper-II)

(About 250 words) Marks 30

4. How has India’s Nuclear Programme contributed

to the economic and defence requirements of the

country? (1997)


5. What is nuclear medicine? Describe briefly its differ-ent uses. (1996)


6. Describe briefly the different phases of India’s nuclear energy programme. (1994)


7. What is a fast breeder reactor? Discuss briefly its role in India’s nuclear energy programme. (1992)


8. What is heavy water? What is it used for? (1992) (About 20 words) Marks 2

PractIce exercIse

1. The radio-isotope used to detect blood clots in the cir-culatory system is :

(a) Arsenic-74 (b) Cobalt-60

(c) I-131 (d) Sodium-24

2. Isotopes are atoms of an element whose:

(a) atomic weight is same, but atomic number is different.

(b) atomic weight different, but atomic number same

(c) atomic number and atomic weight are same.

(d) none of these.

3. Recently in news, Wendelstein 7X is related to

(a) Stream Energy (b) Solar Energy

(c) Thermal Energy (d) Nuclear Energy

4. What is MRI?

(a) Magnetic Record of Intestines

(b) Magnetic Recording of Investigations

(c) Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(d) Magnetic Resonance in Intestines

5. Enriched uranium are

(a) Uranium rods kept under special shield

(b) Natural Uarnium in which the component of radio active isotope U235 is artificially increased

(c) Natural Uranium mixed with thorium

(d) Uranium rods coated with Chromium

6. The atoms, in which the number of protons is same but the number of neutrons is different, are known as

(a) Isotopes (b) Isobars

(c) Isomers (d) Isotones

7. “Radioactive dating” is a technique which can be used to measure

(a) the age of rocks (b) composition of rocks

(c) colour of rocks (d) weight of rocks

8. Among the following radiations, which has the high-est energy?

(a) Visible (b) X-ray

(c) Ultra-violet (d) Infra-red

9. The energy of sun is released due to-

(a) Nuclear Fission (b) Nuclear Fusion

(c) Oxidation Reactions (d) Reduction Reactions

10. What is Nuclear Reactor-

(a) Pace where atomic bomb is built

(b) Heavy water pond

(c) The emitter U238

(d) Molecular furnace

11. The important nuclear fuel available in Indian in abundance is:

(a) Uranium (b) Thorium

(c) Iridium (d) Plutonium



12. Identify the mineral not associated with atomic power

(a) Monazite (b) Thorium

(c) Beryllium (d) Chromium

13. Which is not used as Atomic fuel?

(a) Uranium (b) Thorium

(c) Plutonium (d) Lead

14. Which one of the following in not radioactive?

(a) Astatine (b) Francium

(c) Tritium (d) Zirconium

15. Which one of the following in India’s first nuclear plant?

(a) Narora (b) Kalpakkam

(c) Tarapur (d) Kota

16. What are the links between Dhruva, Purnima and Cirus?

(a) They are Indian research reactors

(b) They are stars

(c) These are names of famous books

(d) They are power plants

17. Kalpakkam is famous-

(a) Due to nuclear power plant

(b) Due to defence laboratory

(c) Due to rocket launching center

(d) Due to space center

18. Consider the following organizations:

1. Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration.

2. Heavy Water Board

3. Indian Rare Earths Limited

4. Uranium Corporation of India

Which of these is/are under the Department of Atomic Energy?

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 4

(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

19. Which one of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) Rajasthan Atomic Power Station - Udaipur

(b) Narora Atomic - Uttar Power Station Pradesh

(c) Madras Atomic power Plant - Kalpakkam

(d) Kaiga Atomic Power Plant - Karnataka

20. What is true for Kalpakkam Fast Breeder Reactor?

1. In it, only natural uranium is used as a fuel.

2. In it, Plutonium carbide and natural uranium carbide mixture are used as a fuel.

3. More than 200 M. Watt atomic electricity would be produced from it.

Choose the correct answer from the following alter-natives.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

answer keys

Prelims Questions

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (c)

Practice exercise

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c)



HInts and exPlanatIons

Prelims Questions

2. NPT recognizes the five countries—USA, Russia, UK, France and China as the official 5 Nuclear Power states. Hence, the correct option is (a).

3. Thorium is three times more abundant in nature than uranium. All but a trace of the world’s thorium exists as the useful isotope, which means it does not required enrichment. Thorium-based reactors are safer because the reaction can easily be stopped and because the oper-ation does not have to take place under extreme pres-sures. Compared to uranium reactors, thorium reactors produce far less waste and the waste that is generated is much less radioactive and much shorter-lived. Hence, the correct option is (d).

4. China presently produces more than 95% of all rare earth materials that are vital in the creation of a big variety of electronic technologies including lithium car batteries, solar panels, wind turbines, flat-screen televisions, compact fluorescent light bulbs, petro-leum-to-gasoline catalytic cracking, and military defence components such as missile guidance systems. Hence, the correct option is (c).

5. Heavy water is used both as a moderator which slows down the neutrons as well as coolant for cooling down the reactor. In India’s context, most of the nuclear reactors are pressurized water reactors. Hence, the correct option is (c).

6. LASIK (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis) is a type of refractive surgery for correcting myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. Evidence on LASIK for the treatment of refractive errors suggests that it is effective in selected patients with mild or moderate short sightedness. Hence, the correct option is (d).

7. The CyberKnife, radiation source is mounted on an industrial robot. The image guidance system is com-posed of the X-ray imaging cameras located on sup-ports around the patient allowing instantaneous X-ray images to be obtained. Mounted on the Robot is a compact X-band that produces 6MV X-ray radiation. Mounting the radiation source on the robot allows complete freedom to position the radiation within a space about the patient. CyberKnife is a non-invasive. Mounting the radiation source on the robot allows complete freedom to position the radiation within a

space about the patient. CyberKnife is a non-invasive, sub-millimetre accurate cancer treatment that can treat most cancers without the need for surgery or nasty drugs and has no side effects. The treatment, which delivers beams of high-dose radiation to tumours with extreme accuracy, offers new hope to patients world-wide. One must have a high-resolution CT scan and a PET scan of your lung so that the computer can use the information to ‘map’ the location of the tumour. Correct mapping is essential to radiosurgery. Hence, the correct option is (d).

8. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) developed by CERN is a gigantic scientific instrument near Geneva, where it spans the border between Switzerland and France about 100 m underground. It is a particle accelerator used by physicists to study the smallest known particles the fundamental building blocks of all things. It will revolutionize our understanding, from the minuscule world deep within atoms to the vastness of the Universe. Hence, the correct option is (b).

11. The Reactor Research Centre set up at Kalpakkam, 80 km south of Chennai, in 1971 under the Department of Atomic Energy was named Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research in 1985. The centre is primarily research based besides being a nuclear power plant aiding in meeting a percentage of electricity demand of the country. There are two reactors at IGCAR. FBTR is a liquid metal cooled fast breeder reactor. There is another reactor called ‘Kamini’ (Kamini Mini) which is a light water reactor with U-233 as fuel meant for neutron radiography and activation analysis experiments. These reactors are operated and maintained by Reactor Operation and Maintenance Group (ROMA). It has mastered the technology of reprocessing highly irradiated mixed carbide fuel for the first time in the world. Hence, the correct option is (c).

12. Substance have half-life of 4 months. To decay 3/4 of substance, it takes 8 months. It means only one fourth of the substance reis left. Hence, the correct option is (c).

13. Radioactivity: The property of spontaneous disinte-gration of certain isotopes, accompanied by the emis-sion of radiation. Hence, the correct option is (d).



Astatine: Atomic Number 85. It is a radioactive ele-ment and belongs to halogens.

Francium: Atomic Number 87. It is an alkali metal and its chemistry is dominated by its radioactivity.

Tritium: A radioactive isotope of hydrogen with a half-life of 12.33 years.

15. ‘Cobalt-60’ is a nuclear medicine which is used in the treatment of cancer as it produces mainly which has more energy than the X-rays. Hence, the correct option is (b).

17. Zirconium is used to slowdown fast moving neutrons in Nuclear reactors. Hence, the correct option is (c).


intRoduction

Biotechnology is the set of techniques that are used to make or modify the products of living organisms, to improve plants and animals lives, and to develop useful microorganisms.

Although the term sounds contemporary, biotechnology is not new. Over 9000 years ago, people discovered that microorganisms could be used to make bread, brew alcohol and pro-duce cheese. Although this process of fermentation was not thoroughly understood at the time, its use still constitutes a traditional application of biotechnology.

In modem terms, biotechnology has come to mean the use of cell and tissue culture, cell fusion, molecular biology, and in particular, recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) tech-nology (RDT) to generate unique organisms with new trait/s or organisms that have the poten-tial to produce specifi c products.

The origin of biotechnology can be traced back to pre-historic times, when microorganisms were already used for processes, like fermentation. Although a molecular biologist may con-sider cloning of DNA to be the most important event in the history of biotechnology, the latter has actually been rediscovered in 1970s for the third time during the last century.

In 1920s, Clostridium acetobutylicum was used by Chaim Weizmann for converting starch into butanol and acetone; the latter was an essential component of explosives during World War I. This raised hopes for commercial production of useful chemicals through biological processes, and may be considered as the fi rst rediscovery of biotechnology in the last century.

The most remarkable discovery of biotechnology in recent times is its reincarnation in the form of RDT, which led to the development of a variety of gene technologies and is thus con-sidered to be the greatest scientifi c evolution of the last century.


❍ Understand the role of biotechnology in present time.

❍ Discuss the new concepts and applications of biotechnology along with progress of India.

❍ Discuss the initiatives and effects of other socio-economical aspects of biotechnology.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

inFo

During World War II (in 1940s), the production of pen-icillin, as an antibi-otic, (discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929) was done on a large scale from cultures of Penicil-lium notatum. This was the beginning of an era of antibiotic research.

3CHAPTER

Biotechnology and Genetics


section a: unit ii – progression of science and technology1.170

impoRtance oF Biotechnology

At large, biotechnology has signifi cantly impacted and improved the quality of life for people on this planet. Complementing the creative endeavours of researchers and engineers are the efforts to commercialize biotechnology products with the input of business in the fi eld of medicine which have resulted in new antibiotics, management and marketing personnel. The expertise of intellectual property and patent lawyers are also a necessary component in the process. New career opportunities in the area of bioinformatics are on the increase.

Table 3.1 Biotechnology timeline

Year Important Events

8000 bce Evidence that Mesopotamian people used selective breeding (artifi cial selection) practices to improve livestock.

6000 bce Brewing beer, fermenting wine, baking bread with the help of yeast.

4000 bce Chinese-made yoghurt and cheese with lactic acid-producing bacteria.

1590 ce Invention of microscope by Zacharias Janssen.

1675 ce Discovery of microorganisms (using fi rst microscope).

1856 ce Discovery of Laws of Inheritance by Gregor Mendel.

1919 ce First usage of the term ‘biotechnology’ by Károly Ereky (a Hungarian agricultural engineer)

1953 ce James D. Watson, Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin, and Francis Crick described the structure of DNA.

1975 ce Method for producing monoclonal antibodies developed by Kohler and Milstein.

1980 ce Modern biotechnology is characterized by RDT.

1994 ce Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves of the fi rst genetically modifi ed food from Calgene: ‘Flavr savr’ tomato.

1997 ce British scientists from the Roslin Institute report cloning a sheep called Dolly.

2000 ce Completion of a ‘rough draft’ of the genome in Human Genome Project (HGP).

2002 ce Researchers sequence the DNA of rice, the fi rst crop to have its genome decoded.

2003 ce The Human Genome Project (HGP) is fi nalized.

2004 ceThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the fi rst monoclonal antibody that is an antiangio-genic, inhibiting the growth of blood vessels—or angiogenesis—for cancer therapy.

2006 ceThe FDA approved a recombinant vaccine against human papillomavirus, which causes genital warts and can cause cervical cancer.

2007 ce Scientists discovered how to use human skin cells to create embryonic stem cells.

2008 ceChemists in Japan created the fi rst DNA molecule made almost entirely of artifi cial parts. The discovery can be used in the fi elds of gene therapy.

2009 ceUS President Barack Obama signed executive order freeing up federal funding for broader research on embryonic stem cells.

2010 ceHarvard researchers reported building lung-on-a-chip technology. Dr. J. Craig Venter announced ‘com-pletion of synthetic life’ by transplanting synthetic genome capable of self-replication into a recipient bacterial cell.

2011 ce Trachea derived from stem cells transplanted into human recipient.

2012 ce FDA issued draft rules for biosimilar drugs.

inFo

Monoclonal antibod-ies are antibodies that are made by identical immune cells and are clones of a unique parent cell.


chapter 3 – Biotechnology and genetics 1.171

There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living organisms. Examples are DNA microarrays used in genetics and radioactive tracers used in medicine.

Branches of Biotechnology

Following are the various disciplines and branches of biotechnology.

Red Biotechnology: Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through gene manipulation.

White Biotechnology: White biotechnology, also known as grey biotechnology, is the biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less resources than tradi-tional processes used to produce industrial goods.

Green Biotechnology: Green biotechnology is the biotechnology applied to agricul-tural processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specifi c environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environment-friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.

Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary fi eld which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The fi eld is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

Blue Biotechnology: The term ‘blue biotechnology’ has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

techtalk

Deep Brain Stimulator (DBS)

◗ Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology have together developed DBS

◗ It involves implanting electrodes within certain areas of brain and the regulator electrical impulses generated by a pacemaker-like device placed under the skin in upper chest regulates the abnormal impulses of the brain.

Mesentery ◗ Irish Scientist identifi ed new human organ that existed in the digestive system . This organ connects the intestine

to the abdomen.

Food Irradiation ◗ It is a technology in which food products are subjected to a low dosage of radiation to treat them for germs and

insects increasing their shelf life. ◗ It does not reduce the nutritional value of food product.◗ India and Russia signed an agreement for co-operation in the development of a network of 25 integrated

infrastructure Agro irradiation centres.

techtalk

immunotherapyIt involves drugs that have immune cells to fi ght cancer by blocking-mechanisms, called CHECKPOINTS. These drugs have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration to treat advanced melanoma.



Biotechnology ReseaRch and development in india

department of Biotechnology (dBt)

The setting up of a separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT), under the Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of modern biology and biotechnology in India. It has established 14 autonomous institutions to conduct research in various relevant fields. The biotech industry has consistently maintained a growth rate of 28% over the last decade. A total of 46 products have been commercialized in the country.

• British Consortium of India Ltd. (BCIL) is implementing schemes in the north-east region for students from that region to get research assistant fellowships and Biotech Industrial Training Programmes.

• The department is in the process of implementing the Shahid Jameel Committee’s recommendations for supporting projects in biotechnology related areas.

Highlights of the recent work of the department:

• Established seven new institutions designed to do both basic science and affordable technology research.

• Established three new bioscience clusters in Faridabad, Bangalore and Mohali.

• Fully operationalized two schemes for supporting industry partnership.

• The Department launched the scheme Small Business Innovative Research Initiative in 2005 to boost Public-Private- Partnership (PPP) efforts in the country.

• Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme–Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIPP–BIRAC) is a government partnership with Industries for support on a cost sharing basis for path-breaking research in frontier futuristic tech-nology areas having major economic potential and making the Indian industry globally competitive

• Acquired cabinet approval for establishing a science-based totally autonomous biotech-nology regulatory authority

human Resource development

The department is implementing an integrated human resource development programme. The department initiated post graduate programs in six universities in 1985–86 to ensure high standards of teaching and to generate critical mass of trained man power. The programmes have been extended to 70 universities now.

Other initiatives by the department include:

• Star college scheme for improvement of science education at undergraduate level.

• In the North-East region, the department is supporting the Entrepreneurship Develop-ment Programme in Biotechnology for setting up of new viable biotech enterprises.

centres of excellence and Biotech FacilitiesThe department supports a total of 15 centres of excellence covering diverse areas. Cell therapy facility has been established for ocular surface diseases at LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad.

DBT has signed MoU with the part-ner institutions for creating Bio-Cluster Board, a legal entity for its management and to synergize their intellectual strength and facilities to create seamless campus.

connect


Chapter 3 – Biotechnology and Genetics 1.173

contribution of india in various Branches of Biotechnology

In this section, we shall look at the contribution of India in various branches of biotechnology discipline.

agriculture BiotechnologyCrop Biotechnology programme has shown good progress on development of suitable transgenic crops resistant/tolerant to various biotic/abiotic stresses and crop improvement trust colony through marker-aided selection. Crop Biofortification has been improved. Projects on application of RNAi technology in gene silencing for developing superior cultivars have been supported.

Two new rice varieties released are improved Pusa Basmati, improved Samba Mahsuri. A major project on Next Generation Challenge Programme on Chickpea Genomics is being pursued. A new programme on Phenomics and Genomics of Ragi has been taken up.

Other crops developed in the Phase II of Programme Support for Agricultural Biotechnology include:

• Heat stress tolerant wheat

• Bunchy top virus resistant banana

• Charcoal-resistant sorghum

• Fusarium wilt resistant pigeonpea

• Low-phytate maize

The National Plant Gene Repository facility has been strengthened for collecting important plant genes and promoters collected by our various institutes, their safe storage and redistri-bution.

plant Biotechnology

• India contributed towards the sequence of chromosome-5 of tomato and provided sup-port to generate five-fold sequence coverage of the entire genomes by Next Generation Sequencing technology.

• Molecular marker based breeding programme was initiated in Eucalyptus to develop linkage maps and identify Quantitative Trait Loci and their applications in breeding.

• A network programme on Saffron has been initiated.

• An ex-situ germ plasm bank for conservation of important medicinal and aromatic plants of Manipur hills has been established.

• Agronomical practices have been standardized for cultivation of patchouli in Brahmaputra valley and Tripura.

• DBT–Ranbaxy project found a potential dengue virus inhibitor from herbal sources.

animal Biotechnology

• The department is taking up various programmes for enhancing the productivity and reproductive efficiency of livestock animals since its inception using molecular tools.

• The department has successfully demonstrated embryo transfer technology and its role in productivity enhancement in cattle.

• The department has now initiated programmes for production of cloned buffalo embryos using somatic cell nuclear transfer technique and also for production of transgenic animals.



Basic Research in modern Biology

Noteworthy research highlights include: • Role of anti-ant sigma factor in conferring resistance to several cell wall active antibiotics.

• Generation of full length channel rhodopsin in yeast expression system.

infectious disease Biology

• Programmes were supported to develop preventive, therapeutic and diagnostic tools for infectious diseases.

Table 3.2 Branches of biotechnology and their productsName of the Branch Production

Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology • Projects were supported on: ¡ aquaculture feed.

¡ development of therapeutic feed.

¡ identification of novel bioactive molecules.

¡ marine extremophiles.

¡ molecular characterization.

¡ induced maturation of shrimp.

¡ production of male ornamental fish.

¡ development of molecular markers for disease resistance, diagnostics and vaccines.

Environmental Biotechnology • Development and use of biotechnological tools for environment as well as biodiversity conservation.

• Development of mitigation technologies for climate change.

• Development of microbial technologies for environmental improvement.

• Development of treatment process for industrial effluent.

• Dioremediation of xenobiotic compounds.

• Characterization of biodiversity.

Nanoscience Biotechnology • A process was developed for delivery of active molecules to nucleus and brain.

• Nano ZnO film was used as smart food packaging material with anti-bacterial properties.

Seri-biotechnology • A Consortium Programme on Mulberry Genomics has been ini-tiated during the year involving four institutions.

Medicinal Biotechnology Support is extended to research on: • infectious disease biology.

• chronic disease biology.

• vaccine.

• human genetics and genomics.



chronic disease Biology • Priority areas include path-biological aspects of cancer, pathway discovery,

drug- interventions, biomarkers, etc.

• DRT has set up a Curcumin Clinical Pharmacology Lab at ATREC, Mumbai for pharmacological assessment of curcumin.

vaccine Research and development • Phase III trials of oral rotavirus vaccine 16E is being carried out.

• Research on vaccine delivery vectors is also underway.

stem cell Research • An institute for stem cell biology and regenerative medicine has been established at

Bangalore.

• Three young scientists are being trained in top laboratories in the United States through a DBT overseas scheme.

Bioengineering • Several projects have been implemented in niche areas, like biomaterials for various

biomedical applications, biosensors, biomedical devices, bioinstrumentation and tissue engineering.

human genetics and genome analysis • Major programmes initiated involving clinicians, molecular geneticists and anthropolo-

gists in human genetics and genome analysis.

Rnai technology platformThis platform is used in:

• themanagementofdiseasesofimportantcropplants.

• conferringattributestotheplanttocombatbioticandabioticstresses.

• themanagementofvariousdiseases,pests,shelflifeextensionoffruitsandvegetables.

energy Bioscience programme • Bio-ethanol and bio-diesel are being focussed for scale-up.

• Bio-butanol and bio-hydrogen are alternatives in the experimental stage.

Biotech product and process development

industry schemesSmall Business Innovation Research Initiative

• Supports R&D, process and product development in industry.

• Currently 52 projects are under operation.



Biotechnology industry partnership programme and Biotechnology industry Research assistance programme • BIRAP has initiated an electronic journal consortium to facilitate access to over 900

journals to the scientific community and the industry.

• The cabinet has given approval to set up BIRAC under the BIPP scheme to support high-risk futuristic technology and process development.

Research and development schemeFocus is on:

• the creation of process analytical technology-based control for downstream biotech processes.

• the use of subcritical CO2 for precipitation and stabilization of ultra-fine particles of

active pharmaceutical ingredients for pharmaceutical applications.

Biotechnological approaches for Food and nutritional securityA major scheme was initiated to address rehabilitation of children suffering from severe acute malnutrition.

miscellaneous issues

Bio-safety Research and RegulationThe programme envisages and ensures safety from the use of Genetically Modified Organisms and products thereof in research and in application to the user as well as the environment. It has three-tier structure consisting of: Institutional Biosafety Committee, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation in the DBT, and Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee in the MoEF. The Biosafety regulatory system in the country is governed by Rules 1989 of Environment Protection Act, 1986. RCGM has been reconstituted in August 2012 to evaluate, approve and monitor the safety related aspects of new and ongoing rDNA research activities.

Biotechnology for societal developmentGovt has taken several initiatives and the funding has been provided for:

◗ programmes for SC/ST and rural population

◗ demonstration and training activities.

◗ diffusion of technology for target groups.

◗ creating awareness on various income and employment opportunities.

◗ promotion of agro-technologies with introduction of hybrids, new crops, disease-stress-resistant varieties.

◗ popularization of commercial crops of industrial and pharmaceutical importance.

programme for WomenWomen are encouraged to enter the biotechnology field and are given special training, taken to field demonstrations, given opportunities to extension activities, and supported for enterprise development.

connect



patent Facilitation and policy issuesPatent facilitation cell assists researchers in filing patent applications.

Biotechnology information system networkIt consists of 165 institutions in its network. A compendium of Research Publications in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology from India was released. NEBI net comprises more than 25 bioinformatics centres in the North-East states. Three major consortium projects on bioinformatics in TB, rice and mango have shown excellent progress.

Biotechnology parks and incubatorsEstablished to facilitate product enhancement and innovation through the development of a biotechnological industry cluster and to produce biotechnologists and entrepreneurs having strong foundation in research and innovation.

international collaborationThe department has bilateral and multilateral cooperation with Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Japan, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, EU and the USA.

Bio-clustersThe bio-cluster of NCR comprises the following:

• National Institute of Immunology.

• Regional Centre for Biotechnology.

• Translational Health Science and Technology Institute.

• National Institute for Plant Genome Research.

The Bangalore bio-cluster comprises the following:

• National Centre for Biological Sciences.

• Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine.

• Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms.

hoW does modeRn Biotechnology WoRk?

All organisms are made up of cells that are programmed by the same basic genetic material, called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each unit of DNA is made up of a combination of the following nucleotides—adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)—as well as a sugar and a phosphate. These nucleotides pair up into strands that twist together into a spiral structure called ‘double helix.’ This double helix is DNA. Segments of the DNA tell individual cells how to produce specific proteins. These segments are genes. It is the presence or absence of the specific proteins that gives an organism a trait or characteristic. More than 10,000 differ-ent genes are found in most plant and animal species. This total set of genes for an organism is organized into chromosomes within the cell nucleus. The process by which a multicellular organism develops from a single cell through an embryo stage into an adult is ultimately con-trolled by the genetic information of the cell, as well as interaction of genes and gene products with environmental factors.



Biotechnological Methods Restriction Enzymes Gel Electrophoresis Sequencing

Definition The basic tools used in biotechnology are restriction enzymes. In natural circumstances, one of the main roles of these enzymes is to break foreign DNA entering the cell. A restriction enzyme breaks the phosphodiester bones of both strands of a DNA upon appearance of a certain cleavage sequence. Each such enzyme is characterized by a different cleavage sequence.

Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate a mixture of digested DNA fragments. An electrical field is used to move the negatively charged DNA molecules through porous agarose gel. Fragments of the same size and shape move at the same speed, and because smaller molecules travel faster than larger molecules, the mixture is separated into bands, each containing DNA fragments of the same size.

Sequencing is the operation of determining the nucleotide sequence of a given molecule. There are several approaches to sequencing, but generally, the most successful is based on gel electrophoresis.

Table 3.3 Biotechnological methods

When cells reproduce, the DNA strands of the double helix separate. Because nucleotide A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C, each DNA strand serves as a precise blue-print for a specific set of proteins. Except for mutations or mistakes in the replication pro-cess, a single cell is equipped with the information to replicate into millions of identical cells. Because all organisms are made up of the same type of genetic material (nucleotides A, T, G, and C), biotechnologists use enzymes to cut and remove DNA segments from one organism and recombine it with DNA in another organism. This is called recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology, and it is one of the basic tools of modern biotechnology. rDNA technology is the laboratory manipulation of DNA in which DNA, or fragments of DNA from different sources, are cut and recombined using enzymes. This recombinant DNA is then inserted into a living organism. rDNA technology is usually used synonymously with genetic engineering. rDNA technology allows researchers to move genetic information between unrelated organisms to produce desired products or characteristics or to eliminate undesirable characteristics.

Scientists have the ability to insert genes that give biological defence against diseases and insects, thus reducing the need for chemical pesticides, and they will soon be able to convey genetic traits that enable crops to better withstand harsh conditions, such as drought. With improved technology and knowledge about agricultural organisms, processes, and ecosystems, opportunities will emerge to produce new and improved agricultural products in an environ-mentally sound manner.

In summary, modem biotechnology offers opportunities to improve product quality, nutri-tional content, and economic benefits. The genetic makeup of plants and animals can be mod-ified by either insertion of new useful genes or removal of unwanted ones. Biotechnology is changing the way plants and animals are grown, boosting their value to growers, processors and consumers.

(continued)



Biotechnological Methods Restriction Enzymes Gel Electrophoresis Sequencing

Application There are more than 150 known different cleavage sites, namely different nucleotide configurations that known enzymes can digest.Application of restriction enzymes to a sequence is called digestion.

The amount of exposure the DNA receives to restriction enzymes determines the portion of possible sites that were actually cleaved. Therefore, by applying different exposures to the same DNA sequence, we can measure all possible lengths of DNA fragments, that one can obtain using a particular enzyme. From this information we can attempt to find out where are the sites located in the original molecules.

Biotechnology enables synthesis of nucleotides which cause the strand to terminate. For instance, A * denotes an Adenine molecule which does not allow other molecules to extend the strand beyond the A * itself. By catalyzing DNA replication in an environment containing mixtures of normal bases and synthesized A* bases instead of only Adenine, it is possible to create DNA strands of different lengths. By applying gel electrophoresis to these molecules, it is possible to determine the lengths of all the strands and from it to conclude the location of all.


Figure 3.2: Gel electrophoresis separation Figure 3.3: DNA sequencing principle

dna vaccine

Instead of stimulating the body’s immune system using the pathogen itself, DNA vaccines use its genetics. One or more genes from a pathogen are copied and multiplied using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The copied DNA is then injected into a muscle of the organism to be vaccinated. Some of the muscle cells take up the genes and make the protein product that it describes usually a protein from the surface of the virus that you are wanting protection against. While only a few muscle cells take up the gene and make the protein, the organism’s immune system recognizes the gene product as foreign and remembers it, just as it does in ‘traditional’ vaccination. In the year 2016, Andhra Pradesh became the first state of the country to launch DNA Index System (DIS) to control crime. Some advantages of DNA vaccination are as follows:

Figure 3.1: Working of a restriction enzyme

5’

5’ 5’G

GG

G

5’3’

3’ 3’C

CA A T T

A A T T

T T A A

T T A A

EcoRICleavage

Sticky ends

EcoRI

C

C

3’



• Purity: Because it is artificially made, the vaccine is much purer than if made directly from pathogens.

• Specificity: The vaccine contains only one of the many genes necessary for the patho-gen to reproduce. The small amount of DNA is enough for the immune system to recog-nize it as foreign, but not enough to cause illness.

• The fact that different genes can be mixed and injected at the same time, making it possi-ble to vaccinate against variants of a pathogen or several different pathogens at one time.

• CostandEaseofStorage: Unlike ‘traditional’ protein vaccines, DNA is inexpensive to produce, does not require refrigeration and can be stored for a long time.

DNA vaccination is still an experimental procedure as no results demonstrating an immune response strong enough to protect against diseases have been obtained.

human applications

Biotechnological methods are now used to produce many proteins for pharmaceutical and other specialized purposes. A harmless strain of Escherichia coli bacteria, given a copy of the gene for human insulin, can make insulin. As these genetically modified (GM) bacterial cells age, they produce human insulin, which can be purified and used to treat diabetes in humans. Microorganisms can also be modified to produce digestive enzymes. In future, these microor-ganisms could be colonized in the intestinal tract of people with digestive enzyme insufficien-cies. Products of modem biotechnology include artificial blood vessels from collagen tubes coated with a layer of the anticoagulant heparin.

What is new, however, is the extent of applications and sophistication of biotechnology techniques currently employed. Researchers can manipulate living organisms and trans-fer genetic material between organisms. Genetic engineering, the specific modification or transfer of genetic material, underlies modern biotechnological innovations. These current applications of biotechnology are predominantly practised in the fields of agriculture and medicine. Modem techniques allow for the production of new and improved foods. Virus-re-sistant crop plants and animals have been developed, and advances in insect resistance have been made. Biotechnology applications have developed vaccines for malaria, and improved ways of producing insulin. Diagnostic tests for detecting serious diseases, such as heredi-tary cancers and Huntington’s chorea have been developed as well as ways of detecting and treating AIDS. Biotechnology is also being applied in the areas of pollution control, mining and energy production. Genetically, engineered microorganisms and plants are used to clean up toxic wastes from industrial effluents and oil spills. Biotechnology applications have also been introduced into the forestry and aquaculture industries. These strategies offer hope for conservation biologists. Genetic methods can be used to identify particular populations of endangered species.

industrial Biotechnology

Industrial biotechnology applies the techniques of modern molecular biology to improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impacts of industrial processes, like textile, paper and pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example, industrial biotechnology companies develop biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to synthesize chemicals. Enzymes are proteins produced by all organisms. Using biotechnology, the desired enzyme can be manufactured in commercial quantities.



Biopharming This is an experimental application of biotechnology in which organisms are genetically mod-ified to produce pharmaceutical proteins and chemicals they do not produce naturally. A few examples include a contraceptive, a potent growth hormone, a blood clotting agent, blood thinners, industrial enzymes and vaccines.

Pharming with animals: Some animals have been genetically modified to produce human proteins in their milk. The animals are like living pharmaceutical ‘factories’ and the technique is often referred to as ‘pharming.’ Animals which may be used include cows, sheep, pigs, goats, rabbits and mice.

The section of human DNA containing the ‘genes for the specific protein required is injected into the host animal embryo. The embryo is then placed into the uterus of a surrogate mother where it develops to full term. As an adult, the animal produces the human protein in its milk. The protein is purified from the milk for therapeutic uses.

Pharming with plants: Researchers know a lot about the molecular make-up of plants, such as proteins, minerals, sugars and fibres, as well as the genes responsible for these components. Plants can be bred to emphasize certain traits and to overproduce compounds that are known to have a therapeutic benefit.

Plants also have the potential to be used as biological ‘factories’ in a process called molecu-lar pharming. The plants are genetically modified to produce different proteins, bioplastics and other products rather than traditional foods or fibres in their leaves, stems and roots.

Commodity chemicals (e.g., polymer-grade acrylamide) and speciality chemicals can be produced using biotech applications. Traditional chemical synthesis involves large amounts of energy and often undesirable products, such as HCl. Using biocatalysts, the same chemicals can be produced more economically and in a more environment friendly way. An example would be the substitution of protease in detergents for other cleaning compounds. Detergent proteases, which remove protein impurities, are essential components of modern detergents. They are used to break down protein, starch, and fatty acids present on items being washed. Protease production results in a biomass that in turn yields a useful by-product and organic fertilizer. Biotechnology is also used in the textile industry for the finishing of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces biotech-derived cotton that is warmer, stronger, has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle and shrink-resistance.

environmental Biotechnology

Environmental biotechnology is used in waste treatment and pollution prevention. Environ-mental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods for land-based disposal.

Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result. Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use bioremediation, the broadest application of envi-ronmental biotechnology, in two basic ways. They introduce nutrients to stimulate the activity of bacteria already present in the soil at a waste site, or add new bacteria to the soil. The bacteria digest the waste at the site and turn it into harmless by products. After the bacteria consume the waste materials, they die off or return to their normal population levels in the environment.

Bioremediation is an area of increasing interest. Through the application of biotechno-logical methods, enzyme bioreactors are being developed that will pre-treat some industrial waste and food waste component and allow their removal through the sewage system rather than through solid waste disposal mechanism. Waste can also be converted into biofuel to run generators.



Fighting infectious diseases

Biotechnology is used extensively in the study of emerging infectious diseases. These are diseases as follows:

• New and previously unrecognized, such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), or

• Known diseases that have increased in number and spread over the past two decades, such as foot-and-mouth disease, or

• Diseases that threaten to increase in occurrence and severity in the near future, such as influenza.

Infectious diseases pose a threat to humans as they can pass quickly from person to person and affect a large number of people in a very short time.

Biotechnology is used to study the genetic material of viruses, bacteria and other organ-isms like prions, and can work out whether a disease is caused by a totally new pathogen, or a new type (strain) of a known pathogen. This information can be used to develop rapid diag-nostic tests which enable specific detection and identification of a disease. This is important, as speedy detection of a pathogen can allow for a quick response to eradicate the disease, or develop vaccines and effective drugs for treating infections.

antibiotics

Antibiotics are natural substances that can be used to fight bacterial infections. They are pro-duced and secreted naturally by bacteria and fungi. Biotechnology is used to produce them in forms and quantities that allow safe administration to people suffering from microbial infections.

Reproductive technologies

Reproductive technologies have undergone a rapid evolution from simple procedures like the first insemination of fresh donor semen to a point where we now have the ability to collect epididymis sperm for microinjection into oocytes—freeze, thaw, and transfer donor gametes and embryos—create pregnancies in menopausal women, and in the near future may be able to harvest and store eggs from ovarian biopsies.

In Vitro Fertilization: In vitro fertilization (IVF) involves collection of healthy ovum and sperms from healthy mother and father, respectively, and their fusion under appropriate conditions in vitro. If fertilization occurs, the resulting embryo is transferred into the woman’s uterus, where it will implant in the lining of the uterus and develop.

Embryo Transfer Technology: Embryo transfer is a procedure by which fertilized egg or young embryo is transferred from donor mother to recipient mother or from test tube (IVF) to the recipient mother. The best stage for transfer is 2- to 4-cell stage. Embryo transfer technology is used for repaid multiplication of genetically superior genotype.

Cloning: Cloning is the production of identical animals, plants or microorganisms from a single individual. A clone means exact copy or copies of a single parent. Clones, owing to their identical genetic makeup exhibit little, if any genetic variation. Monozygotic identical twins are clones. ‘Dolly,’ the sheep, was a clone. Dolly was produced from a single cell from her mother. She had exactly the same genetic characteristics as her mother, the single parent.

First mule clonedScientists have cloned a mule, an animal otherwise unable to reproduce. While researchers have cloned a variety of other animals, they have been unable to clone horses or their ‘equine’ relatives until now. The new research published in Science may thus offer insights into cloning other species that have difficulty in reproducing on their own, including many endangered species. Mules are created by breeding a male donkey with a female horse, producing an animal with 63 chro-mosomes (donkeys have 62 and horses have 64).

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ArtificialWombs: Artifi cial wombs technique could be used to help premature or ‘sick’ human babies to survive and help foetuses in the fi nal stages of multiple pregnancies when the womb becomes so cramped. In this technique, a foetus of about 17 weeks is placed in a tank fi lled with liquid to stimulate amniotic fl uid. The temperature is kept at constant. A machine pumps nutrients and oxygen into the baby’s blood.

Artificial Insemination: Artifi cial insemination is the artifi cial introduction of semen into the reproductive tract of a female. Semen collected from a male with desirable hereditary characters can be frozen and transported through long distances to fertilize females.

The method is used for those females who wish to conceive when normal conception is not possible.

Gamete Intra-transfer (GIFT): GIFT begins with ovulation induction as in IVF followed by egg retrieval, insemination and gamete transfer. Sperms and eggs are mixed and injected into the fallopian tubes. The fertilization takes place there as it does naturally.

importance of new Reproductive technologies in human

Enhanced Fertility: New reproductive technologies are used to correct both male and female hormonal disorder leading to infertility. For example, pulsatile gonadotropin releasing hormone administered by a computerized pump may be used to correct hypothalamic, hypogonadism and infertility, both in males and females. Exogenous gonadotropins are used both to induce ovulation in an ovulatory women and to enhance the number of ovulated eggs in women undergoing superovulation.

Superior Genotype: Embryo transfer technology is used for rapid multiplication of genetically superior genotype.

To Maintain Future Fertility: The availability of this technology has allowed men to bank sperms prior to undergoing chemo- or radiotherapy that might affect gametogenesis. The recent ability to harvest immature eggs from ovarian biopsies suggests that similar procedures may be possible for women who must undergo radiation or chemotherapy.

RestoreFertilitybyInvolvementofCouple: Procedures that involve the infertile couples include reconstructive tubal surgery, IVF, GIFT, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICS). All these procedures rely on ultrasound guided oocyte aspiration and assisted reproductive technologies for placement of gametes or embryos.

Restore Fertility by Involvement of a Third Party: Donor sperms, eggs and embryos are all being offered when one partner of the affected couple is unable to provide healthy gametes.

In Premature Loss of Ovarian Function: The ability to do hormonal priming of a recipient uterus in a woman who has undergone premature ovarian failure, and to transfer and embryo resulting from IVF of a donor egg, has been a major breakthrough for couples in whom there has been premature loss of ovarian function.

Minimize Serious Maternal and Foetal Risks: Donor sperms, eggs, and embryos have been employed to avoid’ transmission of serious genetic disorders. Sex preselection may be useful to avoid certain types of sex-linked genetic disorders, such as muscular dystrophy and haemophilia

The past two decades have seen a dramatic evolution and revolution in availability, access to and utilization of new reproductive technologies. Physicians, public, and society are now faced with diffi cult decisions about what ethical boundaries should apply to the available

inFo

Basic technique of ivF

◗ First of all, ovaries are stimulated by using fertility drugs to produce several mature eggs rather than a single egg.

◗ Then ultrasound probe is inserted through vagina and mature follicles are identifi ed.

◗ Then a needle is guided through the vagina into the follicles.

◗ The eggs are removed from the follicles through the needle by a suction device.

◗ At last, in the labo-ratory, the sperms are separated from the seminal plasma, and the motile sperms are placed together with each retrieved egg in a separate dish con-taining NF culture medium, where fertilization occurs.

◗ The embryos are drawn into a tube and deposited in the uterine cavity.



technologies. Ethical principles are not static rather evolve as society evolves. Continuing evaluation and re-evaluation of the individual and social benefits of new and emerging technol-ogies will be essential, coupled with vigilance to monitor and avoid potential abuses of these, new reproductive technologies.

cloning

Cloning is the process of recreating an ‘identical copy of an original organism or thing. A cloning in the biological sense, therefore is a single cell (e.g., bacteria, lymphocytes) or multicellular organism that has been directly copied from and is therefore genetically identical to another living organism. Sometimes this term can refer to ‘natural’ clones made either when an organism reproduces asexually or when two genetically identical individuals are produced by chance (as with identical twins), but in common parlance, a clone is an identical copy cre-ated intentionally.

Recombinant dna technology or dna cloning

The terms ‘recombinant DNA technology,’ ‘DNA cloning,’ ‘molecular cloning,’ or ‘gene clon-ing’ all refer to the same process: the transfer of a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element, such as a bacterial plasmid. The DNA of interest can then be propagated in a foreign host cell. This technology has been around since the 1970s, and it has become a common practice in molecular biology labs today.

Scientists studying a particular gene often use bacterial plasmids to generate multiple copies of the same gene. Plasmids are self-replicating extra-chromosomal circular DNA molecules, distinct from the normal bacterial genome. Plasmids and other types of cloning vectors are used by HGP researchers to copy genes and other pieces of chromosomes to generate enough identical material for further study.

To ‘clone a gene,’ a DNA fragment containing the gene of interest is isolated from chro-mosomal DNA using restriction enzymes and then united with a plasmid that has been cut with the same restriction enzyme. When the fragment of chromosomal DNA is joined with its cloning vector in the lab, it is called ‘recombinant DNA molecule.’ Following introduction into suitable host cells, the recombinant DNA can then be reproduced along with the host-cell DNA.

Reproductive cloning

Reproductive cloning is a technology used to generate an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another currently or previously existing animal. Dolly was created by reproductive cloning technology. In a process called ‘somatic cell nuclear transfer’ (SCNT), scientists trans-fer genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus, and thus its genetic material, has been removed. The reconstructed egg containing the DNA from a donor cell must be treated with chemicals or electric current in order to stimulate cell division. Once the cloned embryo reaches a suitable stage, it is transferred to the uterus of a female host where it continues to develop until birth.

Dolly or any other animal created using nuclear transfer technology is not truly an identical clone of the donor animal. Only the clone’s chromosomal or nuclear DNA is the same as the donor. Some of the clone’s genetic materials come from the mitochondria in the cytoplasm of the enucleated egg. Mitochondria, which are organelles that serve as power sources to the cell, contain their own short segments of DNA. Acquired mutations in mitochondrial DNA are believed to play an important role in the aging process.



therapeutic cloning

Therapeutic cloning, also called ‘embryo cloning;’ is the production of human embryos for use in research. The goal of this process is not to create cloned human beings, but rather to harvest stem cells that can be used to study human development and to treat disease. Stem cells are important to biomedical researchers because they can be used to generate virtually any type of specialized cell in the human body. Stem cells are extracted from the egg after it has divided for 5 days. The egg at this stage of development is called blastocyst. The extraction process destroys the embryo, which raises a variety of ethical concern. Many researchers hope that one day stem cells can be used to serve as replacement cells to treat heart disease, Alzheimer’s, cancer and other diseases.

how can cloning technologies be used?

Recombinant DNA technology is important for learning about other related technologies, such as gene therapy, genetic engineering of organisms and sequencing genome. Gene therapy can be used to treat certain genetic conditions by introducing virus vectors that carry corrected copies of faulty genes into the cells of a host organism. Genes from different organisms that improve taste and nutritional value or provide resistance to particular types of disease can be used to genetically engineer food crops. With genome sequencing, fragments of chromosomal DNA must be inserted into different cloning vectors to generate fragments of an appropriate size for sequencing. If the low success rate can be improved (Dolly was only one success out of 276 tries), reproductive cloning can be used to develop effi cient ways to reliably reproduce animals with special qualities. For example, drug-producing animals or animals that have been genetically altered to serve as models for studying human disease could be mass-produced.

Adult Finn Dorset ewe

Nucleusdonor

Micropipette CytoplasmNucleus

DNA

Adult Scottish Blackface ewesFinn Dorset lamb(Dolly)

Unfertilizedegg cell

Egg celldonor

Surrogatemother

Electrical pulsesDonor cell(arrested growth cycle)

CytoplasmDonor cells starved

Donor cells (normal growth cycle)

Donor cells removedfrom mammary gland

Egg cellremoved

Nucleus removed

Enucleatedegg cell

Cellfusion

Fertilization

Celldivision

Embryoimplanted

EmbryoNucleus DNA

Low-nutrient culturemedium

Dolly: The Cloning of a Sheep, 1996

Figure 3.4: The process through which dolly, a female fi nn dorset sheep, became the fi rst successfully cloned mammal in 1996

techtalk

In 2001, the fi rst clone of an endangered wild animal was born, a wild ox called gaur. The young gaur died from an infection about 48 hours after its birth. In 2001, scientists in Italy reported the successful cloning of a healthy baby moulton, an endangered wild sheep. Other endangered species that are potential candidates for cloning include the African bongo antelope, the Sumatran tiger, and the giant panda. Cloning extinct animals presents a much greater challenge to scientists because the egg and the surrogate needed to create the cloned embryo would be of a species diff erent from the clone.



Therapeutic cloning technology may someday be used in humans to produce whole organs from single cell or to produce healthy cells that can replace damaged cells in degenera-tive diseases, such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s. Much work still needs to be done before therapeutic cloning can become a realistic option for the treatment of disorders.

can organs be cloned for use in transplants?

Scientists hope that one day therapeutic cloning can be used to generate tissues and organs for transplants. To do this, DNA would be extracted from the person in need of a transplant and inserted into an enucleated egg. After the egg containing the patient’s DNA starts to divide, embryonic stem cells that can be transformed into any type of tissue would be harvested. The stem cells would be used to generate an organ or tissue that is a genetic match to the recipient. In theory, the cloned organ could then be transplanted into the patient without the risk of tissue rejection. If organs could be generated from cloned human embryos, the need for organ dona-tion could be significantly reduced.

Another potential application of cloning to organ transplants is the creation of genetically modified pigs from which organs suitable for human transplants could be harvested. The trans-plant of organs and tissues from animals to humans is called xenotransplantation.

Primates would be a closer match genetically to humans, but they are more difficult to clone and have a much lower rate of reproduction. Of the animal species that have been cloned successfully, pig tissues and organs are more similar to those of humans. To create a ‘knock-out’ pig, scientists must inactivate the genes that cause the human immune system to reject an implanted pig organ. The genes are knocked out in individual cells, which are then used to create clones from which organs can be harvested. In 2002, a British biotechnology company reported that it was the first to produce ‘double knock-out’ pigs that have been genetically engineered to lack both copies of a gene involved in transplant rejection. More research is needed to study the transplantation of organs from ‘knock-out’ pigs to other animals.

Risks of cloning

Reproductive cloning is expensive and highly inefficient. More than 90 of cloning attempts fail to produce viable offspring. More than 100 nuclear transfer procedures would be required to produce one viable clone. In addition to low success rates, cloned animals tend to have more compromised immune function and higher rates of infection, tumour growth, and other disorders. Japanese studies have shown that cloned mice live in poor health and die early. About a third of the cloned calves born alive have died young, and many of them were abnor-mally large. Many cloned animals have not lived long enough to generate good data about bow clones age. Appearing healthy at a young age unfortunately is not a good indicator of long-term survival. Clones have been known to die mysteriously. For example, Australia’s first cloned sheep appeared healthy and energetic on the day she died, and the results from her autopsy failed to determine a cause of death.

cloning animals

Cloning of animals became a reality when scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland created the famous sheep Dolly in 1997. She aroused worldwide interest and concerns about cloning because of scientific and ethical implications.

Dolly was produced by a method called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). The nucleus from a mammary (udder) cell of an adult sheep was injected into a sheep egg cell. The original nucleus of the egg cell had been removed before the new DNA was injected. The egg was then inserted into the uterus of a different sheep, as though she had been fertiliszd by artificial insemination.



When Dolly was born, she was an exact genetic copy (clone) of the animal from which the nucleus was taken her genetic mother. That is, Dolly was genetically identical to the sheep from which the mammary cell nucleus was taken.

There is an important difference between Dolly and her ‘mother,’ and a pair of identical twins. Identical twins are genetically identical because they developed from the same fertil-iszd egg. Dolly and her ‘mother’ are genetically identical because Dolly’s DNA came from a mature cell other ‘mother.’

Dolly was put down at the age of 6, when it was discovered that she had a chronic lung dis-ease. Her breed of sheep normally lives for between 10 and 12 years. An extensive post-mortem was carried out on Dolly and no evidence was found to suggest that being a clone contributed to her early death.

Since Dolly, many other mammalian species have been cloned including cows, pigs, mice and rats. Monkeys have also been cloned using a similar process to embryo splitting. Tetra, a rhesus monkey, was the first primate to be cloned using a method that splits the original cells in an embryo to make multiple identical animals. However, the cloning process is still inefficient: only around three of cell nuclei that are transferred to donor eggs result in live births.

In India, the success concept of clone was Garima-II derived by advanced band guided technique.

Table 3.4 List of clones in the world

ClonedAnimals Description

Carp In the year 1973, the DNA of Asian Carp was inserted into an Europian Crucian Carp to create the first interspecies clone.

Cat In 2001, the first Copy Cat (cloned cat) was created by scientists at Texas A&M University.

Cattle ‘Samrupa’ was the first buffalo cay was developed through the ‘Hand Guided Cloning Technique and succumbed to a lung infection after five days.

Garim-1 and Garima-2 were buffalo cloned calf was born at NDRI, Karnal India. Garima-2 was inseminated with frozen thawed Semen of a progeny tested bull. Garima-2 gave birth to a female calf ‘Mahima’ on 25 January 2013.

Cloned male buffalo calf born on 26 August 2010, in NDRI, Karnal India.

Deer Dewey was born on 23 May 2003 at Texas A&M University.

Dog Snuppy, Sniffer and Tegon was cloned dog which were clonned by South Korean Scientists ‘Hwang Woo-Suk.’ Tegon had a special feature of glowing when it comes to UV light.

Ferret Clones Libby and Lilly were produced via nuclear transfer by cell fusion.

Frog In 1958, John Gurdon successfully cloned a frog by using intact nuclei from somatic cells from a Xenopus tadpole.

Goat The Downen TX63684 (nicknamed Megan) was clonned from Boer Goat born on 29 March, 2001, then, later on Royana, Hanna and the world’s first Pashmina goat ‘Noori’ born at NDRI, India.

Horse In 2003, the world’s first clonned horse Prometea, and 2006, an extremely successful racing horse was cloned.

Mice The first mouse from adult cells, ‘Cumulina’ was born in 1997.

Mouflon The Mouflon is a subspecies group of the wild sheep, born in 2001.

Sheep Dolly in 1996, Polly and Molly in July 1997, and Oyali and Zarife were cloned November 2007.

Water Buffalo ‘Samrupa’ the world’s cloned Water Buffalo calf but died after seven days.

Wolf The Arctic wolf was cloned by South Korean Scientists. The two female wolf were housed in South Korean Zoo for public view they were called ‘Snuwolf’ and ‘Snuwolffy’.



human cloning

Controversial doctor Panos Zavos has claimed he has implanted a cloned embryo into a woman’s womb.

Zavos’ claim Zavos says he has not only created a cloned human embryo, but also he has implanted it into the womb of a 35-year-old woman. He says he got the embryo by using the nuclear transfer process by using the woman’s own immature egg and DNA from a skin cell from her husband. He then implanted it into the woman’s womb. This claim proved to be wrong later on.

Why cloning?Zavos and others say reproductive human cloning gives infertile couples the chance of having a baby. Other scientists have been looking at animal and plant cloning for a variety of different reasons, such as recreating an animal with a resistance to disease that natural breeding may not produce. Therapeutic cloning, which creates cells, not entire beings, can create perfect-match tissue which could be used to treat patients with diseases, such as leukaemia.

objections It is said that the quest to create a human clone will cause a trail of failures and human suffering. The vast majority of experiments in animal clones have gone very badly. In most of them, the clone has died and in almost all of them the lives of the mother and clone have been put at risk. Dolly (the sheep), the first mammal clone, was the one success in 276 pregnancies. The problem has often been that the clone grows abnormally large, often threatening to tear the womb that can also become swollen with fluid. Almost all clone pregnancies spontaneously abort.

Of the small number (a matter of just a few percent) of animal clones that make it to term, most have severe abnormalities: malfunctioning livers, abnormal blood vessels and heart problems, underdeveloped lungs, diabetes, immune system deficiencies and possibly hidden genetic defects. Several cow clones had head deformities, none survived very long. Recent

Table 3.5 NDRI’s development in animal cloningNameoftheClonedAnimal Born in the Year Position in World

Pratham 1990 First IVF (in vitro fertilization) buffalo

Garima 6 June 2009 More than two years

Garmini (Garima-2) 22 August 2010 NA

Shrestha 26 August 2010 Born from the somatic cell from the ear of an elite bull, producing a good-quality of fertile semen.

Noori 9 March 2012 World’s first pashmina goat

Mahima 25 January 2013 Female calf was born from cloned buffalo Garima-2. It is the first calf born from cloned buffaloes

Swarn 18 March 2013 A clone of male buffalo ‘Swarn.’

Purnima 6 September 2013 A clone of female buffalo ‘Purnima’

Lalima 2 May 2014 Born through NDRI’s ‘hand-guided cloning technique’

Rajat 23 July 2014 A male cloned calf born through NDRI’s ‘hand-guided cloning technique’



attempts to clone monkeys in the United States have failed, leading some scientists to suggest that the biological make-up of primates, including humans, makes cloning them almost impos-sible. We know very little about the long-term health of clones. There is some evidence that they may not live as long as conventional humans and may have health problems. Studies are ongoing.

stem cells

Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body. Serving as a sort of repair system for the body, they can theoretically divide without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell. Stem cells have two important characteristics that distinguish them from other types of cells. First, they are unspecialized cells that renew themselves for long periods through cell division. The second is that under certain physiological or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become cells with special functions such as the beating cells of the heart muscle or the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas.

types of stem cells

There are three main types of stem cells being investigated for their potential use in research and medicine. They differ in their degree of differentiation and ability to self-renew.

1. EmbryonicStemCells:As their name suggests, these cells are derived from embryos. Specifi cally, embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro in an IVF clinic and then donated for research purposes with

Inner cell

Blastocyst

Morula

Fertilization

Culturedundifferentiatedstem cell

Figure 3.5: Stem cell cultivation



informed consent of the donors. They are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body. The embryos from which human embryonic stem cells are derived are typically 4 or 5 days old and are a hollow microscopic ball of cells called blastocyst. The blasto-cyst includes three structures: the trophoblast, which is the layer of cells that surrounds the blastocyst; the blastocoel, which is the hollow cavity inside the blastocyst; and the inner cell mass, which is a group of approximately 30 cells at one end of the blastocoel. Embryonic germ cells are derived from the part of a human embryo or foetus that will ultimately produce eggs or sperms (gametes).

2. AdultStemCells:An adult stem cell is an undifferentiated cell found among differen-tiated cells in a tissue or organ, can renew itself, and can differentiate to yield the major specialized cell types of the tissue or organ. The primary roles of adult stem cells in a living organism are to maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found. Some sci-entists now use the term somatic stem cell instead of adult stem cell. Unlike embryonic stem cells, which are defined by their origin (the inner cell mass of the blastocyst), the origin of adult stem cells in mature tissues is unknown.

In addition, umbilical cord blood stem cells are currently being used to treat a range of blood disorders and immune system conditions. Stem cells that have the potential to develop into any of the cell types found in an adult organism are called pluripotent. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent. Stems cells that only have the potential to make a few cell types in the body are called multipotent. Adult stem cells appear to be multipotent. Cells that are capable of forming a completely new embryo that can develop into a new organism are called totipotent. A fertilized egg is totipotent. None of the stem cells used in research appear to have this capacity.

potential uses of stem cells

Stem cells have potential uses in many different areas of research and medicine.

Replace damaged tissue Human stem cells could be used in the generation of cells and tissues for cell-based therapies (i.e., treating patients by transplanting specialized cells that have been grown from stem cells in the laboratory).

Due to their ability to replace damaged cells in the body, stem cells could be used to treat a range of conditions, including heart failure, spinal injuries, diabetes and Parkinson’s disease. It is hoped that transplantation and growth of appropriate stem cells in damaged tissue will regenerate the various cell types of that tissue.

study human development Stem cells could be used to study early events in human development and how cells differ-entiate and function. This may help researchers find answers as to why some cells become cancerous and how some genetic diseases develop, which may lead to clues as to how they may be prevented.

testing of new drugs Stem cells grown in the laboratory may be useful for testing drugs and chemicals before they are trialled in people. The cells could be directed to differentiate into the cell types that are important for screening that drug. These cells may be more likely to mimic the response of



human tissue to the drug being tested, compared to some of the animal models currently being used. This may make drug testing safer, cheaper and more ethically acceptable to those who oppose the use of animals in pharmaceutical testing.

screening toxins Stem cells may be useful for screening potential toxins in substances, such as pesticides before they are used in the environment.

testing gene therapy methods Stem cells may prove useful during the development of new methods for gene therapy that may help people suffering from genetic illnesses.

These applications are all likely to be 10–20 years away.

Person who needs new tissue

Adult cell from patient

Humanovum

Removenucleus

Empty ovum

New cell containing patient nucleus

Stem cells areproduced, whichmatch thepatient’s tissue.

Transplanted nerve cells may beable to repair cells in spinal cord damaged in an accident.Cells can be transplanted withno rejection problems.

Nerve cells can beproduced andtransplanted toreplace damagedcells.

Figure 3.6: Application of stem cell technology in replacement of damaged cells



stem cells and cloning

The promise of stem cells to generate tissues for cell-based therapies is an exciting one. However, several hurdles need to be overcome before this can be realized.

alternative strategies for overcoming immune RejectionThe current strategy for overcoming tissue rejection is the use of drugs that suppress the immune system. However, this means that the patient may then be more susceptible to infec-tions and researchers are investigating new drugs that have fewer side effects.

An alternative strategy for overcoming immune rejection is to use adult stem cells from patients themselves to derive the transplant tissue.

ethics of stem cell Research The overwhelming objection to stem cell research is that it involves the destruction of an embryo or foetus. For many, this constitutes destruction of a potential human and conflicts with religious and moral views held in our society. For others, the potential for this research to provide treatments and possible cures for debilitating illnesses that have no cure and sig-nificantly impact on our way of life overrides this concern. Central to any argument on this is what actually constitutes the beginning of life for a human. Opinions on this vary from the moment of conception, to a 14-day embryo, to a living baby at birth. This issue is highly emotive and it will always be necessary to consider all opinions and to balance the harm that might be done against the potential good this research may provide for those suffering from debilitating diseases.

The other major ethical issue associated with stem cell research ties in with the combination of embryonic stem cell and cloning technologies, leading to generation of an embryo that is a genetic clone of the donor of the nucleus. What is critically different in this context as opposed to that above is that an embryo is actually created for research or therapeutic purposes, and this raises a wider range of objections, in that a potential life is created for a specific purpose.

Also of concern here is the purpose of this cloning, which would be done purely for the purpose of generating tissue for transplantation. The embryo generated could be allowed to continue development and could potentially lead to the birth of a new human if implanted into a willing mother. There are serious ethical and medical concerns associated with the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer technologies to reproduce humans and it is illegal in Australia, the UK and the USA to conduct any research into reproductive cloning of humans.

Some people speculate that allowing any somatic cell nuclear ‘transfer will be the start of a slippery slope into reproductive cloning.

permission for stem-cell ResearchThere are pluses and minuses associated with the research and use of all types of stem cells. Which ones should research focus on?

The ethical issues surrounding the origin of embryonic stem cells will always be a sensitive issue. There are strict guidelines and legislation regarding any research involving embryos, but for many, research on adult stem cells is the only acceptable alternative.

Embryonic stem and germ cells can give rise to every cell type in the body. Adult stem cells, however, are multipotent, giving rise to a limited range of cell types. This may limit their use in cell-based therapies and many researchers believe research using embryonic cells will be more fruitful. However, recent research has revealed that some adult stem cells may be able to gener-ate different tissues under the right conditions and this may increase their therapeutic potential.



Embryonic stem cells have a greater capacity for self renewal and the cell lines that have been established will be useful for research into the effects of drugs and toxins and also into early human development. Their uncontrolled growth also leads to the development of tumours called teratomas, which may restrict their use in cell-based therapies. Research is continuing into ways to control and regulate the growth of ES cells more effectively. Embryonic germ and adult stem cells do not form these tumours in culture, which may make them better alternatives for transplant tissue sources.

Obviously, there are pros and cons to the use of all three types of stem cells and most scien-tists agree that it is important to pursue research into embryonic stem and germ cells and adult stem cells. All scientists are aware that they must undertake their work ethically and within the bounds of the law and these can vary from country to country.

genetically modiFied oRganism

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques of genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into the one molecule in a test tube. Thus, the abilities or the phenotype of the organism, or the proteins it produces, can be altered through the modification of its genes.

The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by conventional cross breeding or by ‘mutagenesis’ breeding as, these methods predate the dis-covery of the recombinant DNA technique. Technically speaking, however, such techniques are, by definition, genetic modification.

Experts anticipate the world’s population in 2050 to be approximately 8.7 billion persons. The world’s population is growing, but its surface area is not. Compounding the effects of pop-ulation growth is the fact that most of the earth’s ideal farming land is already being utilized. To avoid damaging environmentally sensitive areas, such as rain forests, we need to increase crop yields for land currently in use. By increasing crop yields through the use of biotechnol-ogy, the constant need to clear more land for growing food is reduced.

Countries in Asia, Africa and elsewhere are grappling with how to continue feeding a grow-ing population. They are also trying to benefit more from their existing resources. Biotechnology holds the key to increasing the yield of staple crops by allowing farmers to reap bigger harvests from currently cultivated land, while preserving the land’s ability to support continued farming.

Genetically Modified (GM) Food: Benefits and Controversies

Benefits Crops • Enhanced taste and quality • Reduced maturation time • Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance • Improved resistance to disease, pests and herbicides • New products and growing techniques.

Animals • Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency • Better yields of meat, eggs and milk • Improved animal health and diagnostic methods



Environment • ‘Friendly’ bioherbicides and bioinsecticides • Conservation of soil, water and energy • Bioprocessing for forestry products • Better natural waste management • More efficient processing

Society • Increased food security for growing populations • Potential to refine the lives of millions in the developing regions

controversiesSafety • PotentialHumanHealthImpact: allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance markers,

unknown effects Potential environmental impact: unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity

Access and Intellectual Property • Domination of world food production by a few companies • Increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries • Biopiracy and foreign exploitation of natural resources

Ethics • Violation of natural organisms’ intrinsic values • Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species • Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa • Stress for animal

Labelling • Not mandatory in some countries (e.g., the United States)

• Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labelling attempts

Society • New advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries

Challenges facing Genetically Modified Food

• Genetically engineered crops and foods are controversial. Debate commonly focuses on the long-term health effects for those who consume GM foods, environmental safety, labeling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction, environmental conservation and potential disruption or even possible destruc-tion of food chain. Proponents claims the technology to be a boon for the human race, while critics belive it to be a potential or actual health or ecological disaster.

• Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is a spare farming (flash animation) bacterium that produces crystals protein (cry proteins) which are toxic to many species of insects.

• Giving into intense opposition from NGOs and several states, the government in February 2010, put on hold commercial cultivation of G.M. Brinjal citing lack of clear consensus within the scientific community.

india says no to Bt brinjalBiotech regulator the Genetic Engi-neering Approval Committee (GEAC) had in October 2009 recommended going ahead with commercial culti-vation of BT Brinjal but left a final deci-sion to the minister. The minister noted that a National Biotechnology Regulatory Author-ity has been on the anvil for six years and the moratorium period should be used to operation-alize the body in its entirety as being recommended by many scientists and civil society group. NGO-Centre for science and environ-ment (CSE) backed the Minister on his decision to put a moratorium on the commercial cultiva-tion of BT brinjal.

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human genome

It refers to entire genetic makeup of human beings, The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is composed of 24 distinct chromosomes (22 autosomal + X + Y) with a total of approximately 3 billion DNA base pairs containing an estimated 20,000–25,000 genes. HGP is an international effort to identify and locate all the genes and their variants, understand their functioning and write down the sequence of nucleotides that are contained in the gene. There are an estimated 20,000–25,000 human protein-coding genes. The estimate of the number of human genes has been repeatedly revised down from initial predictions of 100,000 or more as genome sequence quality and gene finding methods have improved, and could continue to drop further.

Better understanding of genome might help in diagnosing many diseases at an early stage or even before birth, gene functions, their metabolism, etc. Knowledge may help in replacing defective genes.

the human genome project

The HGP is an international research programme designed to construct detailed genetic and physical maps of the human genome, to determine the complete nucleotide sequence of human DNA, to localize the estimated 20,000–25,000 genes within the human genome, and to per-form similar analyses on the genomes of several other organisms used extensively in research laboratories as model systems. The scientific products of the HGP will consist of a resource of detailed information about the structure, organization and function of human DNA, infor-mation that constitutes the basic set of inherited ‘instructions’ for the development and func-tioning of a human being. Successfully accomplishing these ambitious goals will demand the development of a variety of new technologies. It will also necessitate advanced means of making the information widely available to scientists, physicians, and others in order that the results may be rapidly used for the public good. Improved technology for biomedical research will thus be another important product of the HGP. From the inception of the HGP, it was clearly recognized that acquisition and use of such genetic knowledge would have momen-tous implications for both individuals and society and would pose a number or policy choices for public and professional deliberation. Analysis of the ethical, legal and social implications of genetic knowledge and the development of policy options for public consideration are, therefore, yet another major component of the human genome research effort.

When did the hgp Begin? The HGP was conceived in the mid-l980s and was widely discussed within the scientific com-munity and public press through the last half of that decade.

In the United States, the Department of Energy (DOE) initially, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) soon thereafter, were the main research agencies within the US government responsible for developing and planning the project. By 1988, the two agencies were working together, a relationship that was formalized by the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding to ‘coordinate research and technical activities related to the human genome.’ The initial plan-ning process culminated in 1990 with the publication of a joint research plan, ‘Understanding Our Genetic Inheritance: The US Human Genome Project. The First Five Years FY 1991–1995.’

What are the goals of the hgp? The initial research plan set out specific goals for the first five years (1990–1995) of what was projected to be a 15 year research project and focused the efforts of the research community



on the most important initial objectives. Because progress was more rapid than anticipated, the 1990 plan was updated in 1993 by extending the initial goals and scope of genome research. The new goals were publicly presented in an article in Science. These goals were also a joint NIH-DOE effort and covered fiscal years 1994–1998.

In 1998, another NIH-DOE 5-year plan was developed to cover completion of tile original objectives of sequencing the human genome and to expand the HGP to the study of genetic variation and functional analysis of the genome. This plan was also published in Science.

how is the hgp managed at nih? The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) supports research projects aimed at accomplishing the goals of the HGP at universities and research institutions across the US. The development and management of these projects is carried out by the NHGRI’s Division of Extramural Research (DER). The DER, with advice from the extramural research community and the National Advisory Council for Human Genome Research, sets the scientific priorities for HGP research and supports and manages the peer reviewed research projects that address these priorities.

dna FingeRpRinting

practical applications of dna Fingerprinting

• PaternityandMaternity:Because a person inherits his or her VNTRs (Variable Num-ber of Tandem Repeats): Tandem repeats are frequent in the human genome. The num-ber of repeats is variable between individuals from his or her parents, VNTR patterns can be used to establish paternity and maternity. Parent-child VNTR pattern analysis has been used to solve standard father-identification cases as well as more complicated cases of confirming legal nationality and, in instances of adoption, biological parenthood.

• CriminalIdentificationandForensics: DNA isolated from blood, hair, skin cells, or other genetic evidence left at the scene of a crime can be compared, through VNTR patterns, with the DNA of a criminal suspect to determine guilt or innocence. VNTR patterns are also useful in establishing the identity of a homicide victim, either from DNA found as evidence or from the body itself

• PersonalIdentification:The notion of using DNA fingerprints as a sort of genetic bar code to identify individuals has been discussed, but this is not likely to happen anytime in the foreseeable future. The technology required to isolate, keep on file, and then anal-yse millions of much specified VNTR patterns is both expensive and impractical. Social security numbers, picture ID, and other more mundane methods are much more likely to remain the prevalent ways to establish personal identification.

problems with dna Fingerprinting

Like nearly everything else in the scientific world, nothing about DNA fingerprinting is 100 assured. The term DNA fingerprint is, in one sense, a misnomer: it implies that, like a finger-print, the VNTR pattern for a given person is utterly and completely unique to that person. Actually, all that a VNTR pattern can do is present a probability that the person in question is indeed the person to whom the VNTR pattern (of the child, the criminal evidence or whatever else) belongs.



• The chemical structure of everyone’s DNA is the same. The only difference between people (or any animal) is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of base pairs in each person’s DNA that every person has a different sequence.

• Using these sequences, every person could be identifi ed solely by the sequence of their base pairs.

• However, because there are so many millions of base pairs, the task would be very time-consuming. Instead, scientists are able to use a shorter method, because of repeat-ing patterns in DNA.

• These patterns do not, however, give an individual ‘fi ngerprint,’ but they are able to determine whether two DNA samples are from the same person, related people, or non-related people. Scientists use a small number of sequences of DNA that are known to vary among individuals a great deal, and analyse those to get a certain probability of a match.

gene theRapy

Genes, which are carried on chromosomes, are the basic physical and functional units of heredity. Genes are specifi c sequences of bases that encode instructions on how to make proteins. Although genes get a lot of attention, it is the proteins that perform most life functions and even make up the majority of cellular structures.

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india gets dna Research centre

◗ A $5m (2.6 m) research centre has been set up recently in India to identify patterns of genetic disorders among Indians by placing the country’s health data on to computer.

◗ The centre, to be located in Hyderabad, will be called the Sun Centre of Excellence.

◗ It will make the data easily available for scientists, which should speed up medical research in the country.

◗ It is partly funded by the US computer company Sun Microsystems.

1. Blood sample DNA extracted from blood cells and cut into fragments by a restriction enzyme

2.

The radioactive DNA probe is prepared

5.

DNA band pattern in gel is transferred to a nylon membrane by a technique known as Southern blotting

4.

DNA probe binds to specific DNA sequences on the membrane

6.

At this stage the radioactive probe isbound to the DNA pattern on the membrane. An X-ray film placed next tothe membrane reveals the pattern of bands known as a DNA fingerprint

7.

DNA fragments are separated into bands during electrophore-sis on an agarose gel

3.

Figure 3.7: Flow diagram showing process of creating DNA fi ngerprint



When genes are altered so that the encoded proteins are unable to carry out their normal functions, genetic disorders can result. Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease development. Researchers may use one of several approaches for correcting faulty genes:

• A normal gene may be inserted into a non-specific location within the genome to replace a non-functional gene. This approach is most common.

• An abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene through homologous recombination.

• The abnormal gene could be repaired through selective reverse mutation, which returns the gene to its normal function.

• The regulation (the degree to which a gene is turned on or off) of a particular gene could be altered.

Working of gene therapy

In most gene therapy studies, a ‘normal’ gene is inserted into the genome to replace an ‘abnormal,’ disease causing gene. A carrier molecule called vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells. Currently, the most common vector is a virus that has been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA. Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists have tried to take advantage of this capability and manipulate the virus genome to remove disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic genes. Target cells, such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the viral vector. The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell. The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal state. Besides virus-mediated gene-delivery systems, there are several non-viral options for gene delivery. The simplest method is the direct introduction of therapeutic DNA into target cells. This approach is limited in its application because it can be used only with certain tissues and requires large amounts of DNA.

Figure 3.8: Process of gene therapy

human cell

The virus ‘infects’ cells with the new gene. This replaces the faulty gene, so the cell starts to work.

The gene that makes a protein needed for blood-clotting is inserted into a special kind of virus

Proteins forblood clotting

The virus is

injected into the

patient.



What is the current status of gene therapy Research?

Current gene therapy is experimental and has not proven very successful in clinical trials. Little progress has been made since the first gene therapy clinical trial began in 1990. In 1999, gene therapy suffered a major setback with the death of 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger. Jesse was participating in a gene therapy trial for ornithine transcarboxylase deficiency (OTCD). He died from multiple organ failures 4 days after starting the treatment. His death is believed to have been triggered by a severe immune response to the adenovirus carrier. Another major blow came in January 2003, when the FDA placed a temporary halt on all gene therapy trials using retroviral vectors in blood stem cells. FDA took this action after it learned that a second child treated in a French gene therapy trial had developed a leukaemia-like condition.

plant tissue cultuRe

It is a technique of growing tissues or cells of multi cellular organisms in an artificial environment.Tissue culture is the process whereby small pieces of living plant tissues (explants) are isolated

from a plant and grown on a semi-defined or defined nutrient medium in controlled environmen-tal conditions. Explants can include from large seedlings to small single cells and protoplasts.

A plant is selectedfor a particularcharacteristic

A large numberof small pieces

are cut

Pieces of plant aregrown in sterile conditions

on growth medium

Pieces of plant growand develop into genetic

copies of parent plant

Figure 3.9: Technique of plant tissue culture



It has vast potential in:

• Clonal propagation in a mass scale especially ornamental and horticulture plant.

• Obtaining disease-free plant material.

• Producing biologically active compounds for pharmaceutical industry.

• Genetic engineering in which foreign genetic materials are introduced to make tailor-made individuals.

• Producing crops which can withstand high salinity aridity and other inhospitable conditions.

• Conservation of endangered plant species and preserving by cryopreservation (freeze-dry method).

• Multiplying trees/crops of a hybrid variety or an endangered species on a mass scale (by the process of clonal propagation) within a short span of time using tissue culture.

BioinFoRmatics

It means the use of computer technology to solve biological problems on the molecular level. It involves creation and advancement of algorithms. Computational and statistical technique theory to solve problems related to analysis and management of huge biological data.

need for Bioinformatics

The greatest challenge molecular biology community is facing today is to make sense of the wealth of data that has been produced by the genome sequencing projects, for example, HGP has determined the sequence of entire human genome, that is, approximately 3 billion base pairs. Thus, sequence generation and its subsequent storage, interpretation and analysis are entirely computer dependent tasks.

Figure 3.10: DNA chip, showing human genome structure

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ock

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In India, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource (ICAR), is the prime organization for freeze-dry preservation.



Bioinformatics methods

Bioinformatics tools are software programmes that are designed to extract the meaningful information from the mass of data, for example, BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) is an algorithm for computing biological sequences.

application of Bioinformatics

Following are the applications of bioinformatics.

• Genome sequence analysis • To trace evolution of organisms by meaning DNA changes • Measuring biodiversity • Analysis of gene expression and regulation • Analysis of protein expression • Analysis of mutations in cancers

BioRemediation

‘Remediate’ means to solve a problem and ‘bio-remediate’ means to use biological organisms to solve an environmental problem, such as contaminated soil or ground water. These biolog-ical organisms can be bacteria, fungi and green plants, for example, clean-up of oil spills by addition of bacteria.

Figure 3.11: Bioremediation pond for soil contaminated with crude oil at an oilfield

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Mor

ley

Read

. Shu

tter

stoc

k

Bioremidiation methods

In a non-polluted environment, microorganisms are constantly at work breaking down organic matter. When an organic pollutant, such as oil, contaminates this environment, some of the microorganisms would die, while others capable of eating the organic pollution would sur-vive. Bioremediation works by providing these pollution-eating organisms with fertilizer, oxy-gen and other conditions that encourage their rapid growth. These organisms would then be



able to break down the organic pollutant at a correspondingly faster rate. Bioremediation of a contaminated site:

• Enhance growth of indigenous pollution-eating bacteria by addition of fertilizers

• Add the specialized exogenous microbe.

BiopRospecting

A total of 30 million species of life on the Earth. Only 1.5 million have been described. It is estimated that 50,000 species are disappearing every year. Genetic wealth of the planet holds the key to solution of our problems of poverty and health.

For example, barley industry was threatened by a virus in California, USA. Scientists scanned through over 6000 varieties of barley and found one (grown in Ethiopia) which is resistant to this virus. So, it is in the genetic stock of the earth that the secret of our well-being lies.

Our habitat, which took millions of years for nature to make, if destroyed by developmental projects, the life on Earth as a whole would be on risk. So, we need sustainable development combined with biodiversity conservation.

Bioprospecting implies using the genetic diversity in the ecosystems of the earth for producing new drugs and new crops.

But of late this has become reckless, unscrupulous hunt for plant and animal genes in devel-oping countries for new products and steal that out of the country.

Bio-piracy

• Though bioprospecting has the potential of putting earth’s bio-assets to human use, this can lead to exploitation of poorer nations, who are rich in bio-assets but poor in resources and expertise to use them.

• Bioprospecting is being equated with a new form of imperialism practiced by multina-tional companies.

Why does this happen? • Rapid advances in biotechnology; hence gene manipulation has become easy.

• Most of the biodiversity is found in Third World countries.

implications There are instances when germplasms having been stolen from bio-rich countries and subse-quent patenting of products based on these genes for commercial gains.

Bio-pesticides

These are cultured microorganisms or organic products that biologically control or destroy the pests that cause damage to plants.

advantages • Non-chemical method.

• Rely on natural enemies of pests.

• Kill or cripple only targeted pests.

• No harm to non-targeted organism and the environment.

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Bioprospecting and Bioresources Programme is being pursued on bioprospecting, inventorization and characterization, value addition and sustainable utiliza-tion of bioresources along with relevant training, capacity building and aware-ness generation.

techtalk

CBD Vs Trips

There are two major concerns:

1. The right of communities over their bio-assets as mentioned in convention of biodiversity.

2. Safeguarding intellectual property based on achievements of S&T as mentioned in trade-related intellectual properties.



disadvantages of chemical pesticidesIndiscriminate use can lead to several environment and health problems (e.g., cotton farmers of AP).

• Development of resistance by insects to insecticides.

• Elimination of a host of friendly insects honey bees, pollinators, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, etc.

• Accumulation of pesticide residue in the food, fodder and feed cause health hazards.

• In the absence of natural enemies certain pests grow with renewed vigour, e.g., snakes killed by pesticides but rodents will increase.

Examples of Bio-pesticides

• Lysinibacillus sphaericus: Kill mosquito vectors • Paenibacillus popilliae: Infect larvae of Japanese beetle • GranulosisVirus: Control hornworms in Cassava plants.

steps by goiDepartment of Biotech established a network of seven centres throughout the country, e.g., Bangalore, Coimbatore, Hisar, etc.

objectivesDeveloping bio-control agents for large scale application in farmers field with special empha-sis on cotton, rice, vegetables.

achievements

1. Technology for mass production of biocontrol agents, like baculovirus, parasites, fungi, bacteria, etc., for economically important crops have been transferred to industries.

2. A total of 55,000 hectares, under various crops have been covered already.

Bio-FeRtiliZeRs

Cultured micro-organisms which enrich the soil with nutrients function as bio-fertlizers. It can be certain strains of bacteria, algae or fungi.

Types

• Rhizobium, a Gram-negative bacteria, helps in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into soil. • Lysinibacillus sphaericus helps providing phosphates into plants. • Thiobacillus, for sulphates.

Advantages

• Do not cause any pollution in environment. • Do not destroy other microorganisms in soil. • Do not turn soil acidic or alkaline. • Do not contribute to soil erosion by breaking of soil structure. • These are renewable and cost effective in long run.

Biofertilizers and BiopesticidesRecently, mycorrhizal biofertilizer technol-ogy has been trans-ferred to a large-scale industry production, where current empha-sis is on:

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◗ development of integrated nutrient management packages for plantation crops.

◗ development of liquid fertilizers.

◗ development of microbial for various uses.



Limitations

• Bio-fertilizers are not developed to a stage, where it can be mass produced. • Can be an alternative to chemical fertilizers not replacement. • Is limited to certain crops under specifi c soil conditions.

Suitability

• Rhizobium is suitable in legume oil seeds such as groundnuts, etc.

• Blue-Green Algae-in wetland rice cultivation.

steps by government of india

• A national project for development and use of BF with HQ at Ghaziabad, UP.

• It has regional centres at Hisar, Jabalpur, Nagpur, Bangalore, Imphal, etc.

achievements

• Several strains of blue green algae have already been identifi ed.

• Field trials revealed that paddy yield increased by 3–27% when BFs used along with chemical fertilizers.

• Rhizobium strains specifi c for chickpea, rajma, mung bean, soya bean, etc., are under production.

• National facility for blue green algae at IARI has developed an inexpensive algae biofertilizer technology for rice.

• Biotech Consortiums India Ltd., New Delhi, is marketing the technology for B-G Algae and Rhizobium.

chapteR at a glance

• Biotechnology means ‘the use of cell and tissue cul-ture, cell fusion, molecular biology, and in particular, recombinant deoxyribonucleic (DNA) technology’ to generate unique organisms with new trait or organ-isms that have the potential to produce specifi c prod-ucts.

• Red biotechnology, white biotechnology, green bio-technology, bioinformatics and blue biotechnology are used for non-living organisms.

• Gel electrophoresis is a technique use to separate a mixture of digested DNA.

• Cloning is the process of recreating an identical copy of an original organism or thing.

• ‘Clone a gene,’ a DNA fragment, containing the gene of interest, is isolated from chromosomal DNA using

restriction enzymes and then united with a plasmid that has been cut with the same restriction enzyme. When it is joined with its cloning vector in the lab, it is called ‘recombinant DNA molecule.’

• Reproductive cloning is used to generate an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another currently or previously existing animal, for example, Dolly was created by this technique.

• The term ‘Stem Cell’ was proposed for scientifi c use by the Russian Histologist Alexander Maksimow in 1908.

• The two broad types of mammalian stem cells are: embryonic stem cells that are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts; and adult stem cells that are found in adult tissues.



chapteR end exeRcise

pRevious yeaRs’ Questions

prelims Questions

1. Consider the following: (2018)

1. Birds 2. Dust blowing

3. Rain 4. Wind blowing

Which of the above spread plant diseases?


(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Why is a plant called Prosopis julifl ora often men-tioned in news? (2018)

(a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.

(b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows.

(c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.

(d) None of the above

3. With reference to the Genetically Modifi ed mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the fol-lowing statements : (2018)

1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.

2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.

3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.



(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. Which of the following leaf modifi cations occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss? (2018)

1. Hard and waxy leaves

2. Tiny leaves

3. Thorns instead of leaves

Select the correct answer using the code given below :


(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. What is the application of Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Technology? (2017)

(a) Production of biolarvicides

(b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics

(c) Reproductive cloning of animals

(d) Production of organisms free of disease

6. The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of (2017)

(a) Observation and understanding of the Universe

(b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth

7. With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of ‘genome sequencing’, often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future? (2017)

1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.

2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.

3. It can be used to decipher the host–pathogen rela-tionships in crops.



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

8. In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome,’ sometimes seen in the news, refers to (2016)

(a) A range of enzymes used in genome editing

(b) The full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

(c) The description of the mechanism of gene expression

(d) A mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells



9. With reference to pre-packaged items in India, it is mandatory to the manufacture to put which of the fol-lowing information on the main label, as per the Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Reg-ulations, 2011? (2016)

1. List of ingredients including additives

2. Nutrition information

3. Recommendations, if any, made by the medical profession about the possibility of any allergic reactions.

4. Vegetarian/non-vegetarian


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 only

10. HINI virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases? (2015)

(a) AIDS

(b) Bird flu

(c) Dengue

(d) Swine flu

11. With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Rail-ways, consider the following statements: (2015)

1. The decomposition of human waste in the bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculums.

2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the atmosphere.


(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

12. Consider the following kinds of organisms: (2012) 1. Bacteria

2. Fungi

3. Flowering Plants

Some species of which of the above kinds of organ-isms are employed as biopesticides?

(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

13. With reference to ‘stem cells,’ frequently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2012)

1. Stem cells can be derived from mammals only.

2. Stem cells can be used for screening new drugs.

3. Stem cells can be used for medical therapies.


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

14. What are the reason for the people’s resistance to the introduction of Bt brinjal in India? (2012)

1. Bt brinjal has been created by inserting a gene from a soil fungus into its genome.

2. The seeds of Bt brinjal are terminator seeds, and therefore, the farmers have to buy the seeds before every season from the seed companies.

3. There is an apprehension that the consumption of Bt brinjal may have adverse impact on health.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

15. Recently, ‘oil zapper’ was in the news. What is it? (2011)

(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remedia-tion of oily sludge and oil spills

(b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration.

(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yield-ing maize variety.

(d) It is the latest technology to control the acciden-tally caused flames from oil wells.

16. A new optical disc format known as the Blue-ray Disc (BD) is becoming popular. In what way is it dif-ferent from the traditional DVD? (2011)

1. DVD supports Standard Definition Video while BD supports High Definition Video.

2. Compared to a DVD, the BD format has several times more storage capacity.

3. Thickness of BD is 2–4 mm while that of DVD is 1–2 mm.


(a) 1 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3



17. At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit use? (2011)

1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock

2. It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases

3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

18. What is the difference between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi devices? (2011)

(a) Bluetooth uses 2–4 GHz radio frequency band, whereas Wi-Fi can use 2–4 GHz or 5 GHz fre-quency band.

(b) Bluetooth is used for Wireless Local Area Net-works (WLAN) only, whereas Wi-Fi is used for Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN) only.

(c) When information is transmitted between two devices using Bluetooth technology, the devices have to be in the line of sight of each other, but when Wi-Fi technology is used the devices need not be in the line of sight of each other.

(d) The statements (a) and (b) given above are cor-rect in this context.

19. A genetically engineered form of brinjal, known as the Bt-brinjal, has been developed. The objective of this is (2011)

(a) to make it pest-resistant

(b) to improve its taste and nutritive qualities

(c) to make it drought-resistant

(d) to make its shelf-life longer

20. Mon 863 is a variety of maize. It was in the news for the following reason (2010)

(a) It is a genetically modified dwarf variety which is resistant to drought

(b) It is a genetically modified variety which is pest-resistant

(c) It is a genetically modified variety with ten times higher protein content than regular maize crop

(d) It is a genetically modified variety used exclu-sively for bio-fuel production

21. Genetically modified ‘golden rice’ has been engi-neered to meet human nutritional requirements. Which one of the following statements best qualifies golden rice? (2010)

(a) The grains have been fortified with genes to pro-vide three times higher grain yield per acre than other high yielding varieties

(b) Its grains contain pro-vitamin A which upon ingestion is converted to vitamin A in the human body.

(c) Its modified genes cause the synthesis of all the nine essential amino acids

(d) Its modified genes cause the fortification of its grains with vitamin D

22. Which bacterial strain, developed from natural iso-lates by genetic manipulations, can be used for treat-ing oil spills? (2010)

(a) Agrobacterium (b) Clostridium

(c) Nitrosomonas (d) Pseudomonas

23. Which feature of some species of blue-green algae helps promote them as bio-fertilizers? (2010)

(a) They convert atmospheric methane into ammo-nia which the crop plants can absorb readily

(b) They induce the crop plants to produce the enzymes which help convert atmospheric nitro-gen to nitrates

(c) They have the mechanism to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that the crop plants can absorb readily

(d) They induce the roots of the crop plants to absorb the soil nitrates in larger quantities

24. Other than Jatropha curcas, why is Pongamia pinnata also considered a good option for the production of bio-diesel in India (2010)

1. Pongamia pinnata grows naturally in most of the arid regions of India

2. The seeds of Pongamia pinnata are rich in lipid content of which nearly half is acid


(a) 1 (b) 2


25. Due to their extensive rice cultivation, some regions may be contributing to global warming. To what pos-sible reason/reasons is this attributable? (2010)



1. The anaerobic conditions associated with rice cultivation cause the emission of methane

2. When nitrogen based fertilizers are used, nitrous oxide is emitted from the cultivated soil


(a) 1 (b) 2


26. Given below are the names of four energy crops. Which one of them can be cultivated for ethanol? (2010)

(a) Jatropha (b) Maize

(c) Pongamia (d) Sunflower


RecentScientificAchievement Country (a) Creating the world’s first United mouse with a full human Kingdom chromosome

(b) Cloning a human embryo Germany for the first time

(c) Guiding a spacecraft for United States

collision with a comet of America

(d) Landing a spacecraft on Japan

an asteroid

28. Which one of the following statements is correct? (2005)

(a) The First Meeting of the Parties (MOP 1) to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was held in Philippines in the year 2004

(b) India is not a signatory to the Biosafety Protocol Convention on Biological Diversity

(c) The Biosafety Protocol deals with genetically modified organisms.

(d) The United States of America is member of the Biosafety Protocol/Convention on Biological Diversity

29. The Genetic Engineering Approval committee, whose permission is required for cultivation of any genetically modified crop such as Bt-Cotton in India is under the Union Ministry of (2003)

(a) Agriculture

(b) Environment & Forests

(c) Commerce and Industry

(d) Rural Development

30. With reference to the latest developments in stem cell research, consider the following statements: (2002)

1. The only source of human stem cells are the embryos at blastocyst stage

2. The stem cells can be derived without causing destruction to blastocysts.

3. The stem cells can regenerate themselves in vitro virtually forever

4. Indian research centres also created a few cell lines which can be developed into many types of tissues

Which of these statements are correct?

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4

31. A: Scientists can cut apart and paste together DNA molecules at will, regardless of the source of the mol-ecules.

R: DNA fragments can be manipulated using restric-tion endonucleases and DNA ligases. (2001)

32. The American multinational company, Monsanto has produced an insect-resistant cotton variety that is undergoing field-trials in India. A toxin gene from which one of the following bacteria has been trans-ferred to this transgenic cotton is (2001)

(a) Bacillus subtilis

(b) Bacillus thurigiensis

(c) Bacillus amyloliquifanciens

(d) Bactillus globilli

33. A: ‘DNA finger printing’ has become a powerful tools to establish paternity and identity of criminals in rape and assault cases.

R: Trace evidences such as hairs, saliva and dried semen are adequate for DNA. (2000)

34. Insect-resistant cotton plants have been genetically engineered by inserting a gene from a/an (2000)

(a) virus (b) bacterium

(c) insect (d) plant

35. Which one of the following organisms can serve as a bio-fertilizer for rice crop? (2000)

(a) Blue-green algae (b) Rhizobium spp.

(c) Mycorrhizal fungi (d) Azobacter spp.

36. A: Dolly was the first cloned mammal. (1999) R: Dolly was produced by in vitro fertilization.



37. Neem tree has acquired industrial importance as a source of (1999)

(a) biopesticide and antifertility compound

(b) antifertility compound, bio-fertlizer and anti- cancer drug

(c) bio-fertlizer, biopesticide and antifertility compound

(d) anti-cancer drug, biopesticide and bio-fertlizer

38. A: Insect-resistant transgenic cotton has been pro-duced by inserting Bt genes. (1999)

R: The Bt gene is derived from a bacterium.

39. Indian farmers are unhappy over the introduction of ‘Terminator Seed Technology’ because the seeds pro-duced by this technology are expected to (1999)

(a) show poor germination

(b) form low-yielding plants despite the high quality

(c) give rise to sexually sterile plants

(d) give rise to plants incapable of forming viable seeds.

main Questions

1. Molecular Breast Imaging (MBI) technology. (in about 50 words) (2011)

2. (a) The scourge of e-waste (in about 50 words)

(b) ‘Designer’ poultry eggs. (in about 50 words) (2011)

3. Answer the following (in about 150 words each): (2009)

(a) What do you understand by ‘Biosignatures?’ Discuss briefly.

(b) Write about Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) and its applications.

(c) Define ‘Bioinformatics.’ How does it work?

4. Explain the following (in about 100 words) (2009) (a) DNA Finger Printing and its utility.

(b) What is ‘Graphene?’ Mention at least three of its applications.

5. In what way ‘Medical Biotechnology’ and ‘Bioengi-neering’ are useful for technological development of India? (About 250 words). Marks 30

(2008) (Paper-II)

6. Gene doping (About 20 words). Marks 2 (2008) (Paper-II)

7. Explain the objectives and the current achievements of human genome project. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2007) (Paper-II)

8. Write a note on ‘Bio-refinery versus Fossil Fuel.’ (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2006) (Paper-II)

9. What is therapeutic cloning? Describe briefly the method and its potential applications. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2005) (Paper-II)

10. What is Biotechnology? Discuss the important applications of Biotechnology. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2004) (Paper-II)

11. Discuss the elements of ‘frozen semen technology.’ What are ‘embryo transfer,’ ‘transgenic animals,’ ‘DNA recombinant technique?’ (About 150 words each). Marks 15 (2003) (Paper-II)

12. ‘Biotechnology boom may pave a golden path for India.’ Discuss. (About 250 words). Marks 30

(2002) (Paper-I)

13. What is Human Cloning? Is it dangerous or benefi-cial? Discuss. (About 150 words). Marks 15

(2002) (Paper-I)

14. What are stem Cells? Why have they been in the news recently? Discuss. (About 250 words). Marks 30

(2001) (Paper-I)

15. How are transgenic plants different from hybrid plants and what is their relevance in modern agricul-ture? Elaborate. (About 150 words). Marks 15

(2000)

16. Discuss the role of modern technological inputs on agricultural development in India. How would it be helpful for food security during 21st century? (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1999)

17. What is the Human Genome Project? Discuss briefly its importance. (About 150 words). Marks 15

(1999)

18. What is carbon dating? Describe its applications in archaeology. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1999)

19. What are biosensors? Describe their uses. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1999)



pRactice exeRcise

20. How do identical twins differ from each other geneti-cally? (About 25 words). Marks 2 (1999)

21. What is genetic engineering? Why is it getting increas-ingly important these days? (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1998)

22. What are enzymes? What is their importance? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1998)

23. Why are transgenic organisms important? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1998)

24. Give the functions of interferons. (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1998)

25. What is Mad Cow disease? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1997)

26. What is tissue culture? (About 20 words). Marks 2 1996 (1997)

27. What are Intellectual Property Rights? Why are Indian scientists concerned about the new patent regimes? (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1997)

28. What are transgenic organisms? What are they used for? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1997)

29. What is DNA fingerprinting? Which research insti-tution in India is working in this area? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1994)

30. What is a gene? Where is it found? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1994)

31. Describe how biotechnology is finding use in med-icine. Give a few current examples. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1993)

32. What are synthetic seeds? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1993)

33. What are biofertilizers? What advantages do they have over chemical fertilizers? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1992)

34. Give a brief account of major achievements in the realm of biotechnology in India. (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1991)

35. What are binary chemical weapons? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1991)

36. What is tissue culture? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1991)

37. What is hepatitis E? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1991)

1. Consider the following:

1. Bats

2. Bears

3. Rodents

The phenomenon of hibernation can be observed in which of the above kinds of animals?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) Hibernation cannot be observed in any of the above

2. When one gene controls two or more different char-acters simultaneously, the phenomenon is called

(a) Apomixis (b) Pleiotropy

(c) Polyploidy (d) Polyteny

3. Match List-I (Scientists) with List-II (Achievements) and select the correct answer:

List-I List-II A. Areber and Smith 1. Developed, transgenic

plants with Agrobacte-rium T-DNA

B. Feldman 2. Discovered endonu-cleases

C. Mullis 3. Discovered reverse transcriptase

D. Temin and Baltimore 4. Discovered poly-merase chain reaction

Codes: A B C D (a) 2 1 4 3

(b) 1 2 4 3

(c) 2 1 3 4

(d) 1 2 3 4

4. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:



List-I (Achievement in genetics) A. Discovery of transduction and conjugation in

bacteria

B. Establishing sex-linked inheritance

C. Isolation of DNA polymerase from E. Coli

D. Establishing the complete genetic code

List-II 1. Khurana 2. Kornberg

3. Morgan 4. Ochoa

Codes: A B C D (a) 4 3 2 1

(b) 3 4 1 5

(c) 4 3 1 5

(d) 3 4 2 1

5. ‘Metastasis’ is the process by which

(a) cells divide rapidly under the influence of drugs

(b) cancer cells spread through the blood or lym-phatic system to other sites of organs

(c) the chromosomes in cell nuclei are attached to the spindle before moving to the anaphase poles

(d) cancer cells are successfully inhibited to divide any further

6. Which of the following features of DNA makes it uniquely suited to store and transmit genetic infor-mation from generation to generation?

(a) Complementary of the two strands

(b) Double helix

(c) Number of base-pairs per turn

(d) Sugar-phosphate backbone

7. The cellular and molecular control of programmed cell death is known as

(a) Apoptosis (b) Ageing

(c) Degeneration (d) Necrosis

8. A: In human beings, the females play a major role in determining the sex of the offspring.

R: Women have two ‘X’ chromosomes.

9. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List-I List-II A. Theory of 1. Beadle and Tatum

Mutation

B. Theory of 2. Jacob and Monod

Evolution

C. One gene one 3. Darwin

enzyme hypothesis

D. Operon concept 4. de Vries

Codes: A B C D (a) 3 4 1 2

(b) 4 3 1 2

(c) 4 3 2 1

(d) 3 4 2 1

10. In the context of genetic disorders, consider the fol-lowing:

A woman suffers from colour blindness while her husband does not suffer from it. They have a son and a daughter. In this context, which one of the fol-lowing statements is most probably correct?

(a) Both children suffer from colour blindness. (b) Daughter suffers from colour blindness while

son does not suffer from it. (c) Both children do not suffer from colour blindness. (d) Son suffers from colour blindness while daughter

does not.

11. Match List-I (Diseases) with List-II (Types of dis-ease) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List-I List-II A. Haemophilia 1. Deficiency disease

B. Diabetes 2. Genetic disease

C. Rickets 3. Hormonal disorder

D. Ringworm 4. Fungal infection

Codes:

A B C D (a) 2 3 4 1

(b) 2 3 1 4

(c) 3 2 1 4

(d) 3 2 4 1



12. Which one of the following genetical disease is sex-linked?

(a) Royal haemophilia

(b) Tay-Sachs disease

(c) Cystic fibrosis

(d) Hypertension

13. Haemophilia is a genetic disorder which leads to

(a) decrease in haemoglobin level

(b) rheumatic heart disease

(c) decrease in haemoglobin

(d) non-clotting of blood

ansWeR keys

prelims Questions

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (d)

practice exercise

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (d)

hints and explanations

prelims Questions

1. According to the general mode of primary infection plant diseases are recognized as:-

1. Soil borne

2. Seed borne, including diseases carried with plant-ing material.

3. Wind borne

4. Insect borne, etc.

Direct transmission: Disease transmission where the pathogen is carried externally or internally on the seed or planting material like cuttings, sets, tubers, bulbs etc.

Indirect transmission: The pathogen spreading itself by way of its persistent growth or certain structures of the pathogen carried independently by natural agen-cies like wind, water, animals, insects, mites, nema-todes, birds etc. are the different methods of indirect transmissions.

2. Prosopis juliflora is a shrub or small tree in the family Fabaceae, a kind of mesquite. It is native to Mexico, South America and the Caribbean. It is a contributing factor to continuing transmission of malaria, espe-cially during dry periods when sugar sources from native plants are largely unavailable to mosquitoes.

This is not only a big threat to the country’s biodi-versity but also has become a burden on the environ-ment. This tree is scattered in around 12 states of the country. It has destroyed about 500 species of native plants. If it has not been eliminated on time, it will destroy the remaining bio-diversity of the country. Its roots are too much deep which absorbs lot water also. It was brought to India in 1870.

Uses-Its uses include forage, wood and environmen-tal management.

3. GM mustard has been developed by a team of scien-tists at Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manip-ulation of Crop Plants led by former vice-chancellor Deepak Pental under a government-funded project.

4. Leaf modifications of Desert Plant to inhibit water loss for adaptations and survival of Desert Plant-

1. Wax coatings on leaves prevent water loss through evaporation, which in the hot desert can cause loss of water from both the surface and the inside of leaves. Leaves are also smaller on desert plants, further reducing the possibility for water loss.

2. Deciduous plants in desert ecosystems have adapted through the activity of their leaves. Leaves



on these plants are typically smaller and coated with wax to prevent evaporation.

3. Plants such as aloes are equipped with fleshy leaves that contain much of their water supply. Because of their moist inner bodies, these plants are called succulents. They typically feel spongy and when cut open are filled with a pulpy flesh, protected by a waxy outer layer.

4. Many plants in the desert conserve water by not having any leaves at all. Cacti are the most prolific of this plant type. Many cacti have spines in place of leaves, which conduct photosynthesis and catch dew when the climate is right. These small struc-tures also reflect light, further reducing water loss. During heavy rains, cacti will grow temporary root systems and absorb water. They will then shed the roots when the ground has dried.

5. Somatic cell cloning is a technique in which the nucleus (DNA) of a somatic cell is transferred for the generation of a new individual, genetically identical to the somatic cell donor. Hence, the correct option is (c).

6. Singularity and event horizons are related to black Holes. Standard model of physics tries to explain uni-versal phenomena. Hence, the correct option is (a).

8. The transcriptome is the set of all messenger RNA molecules in one cell or a population of cells. It dif-fers from the exome in that is includes only those RNA molecules found in a specified cell population, and usually includes the amount or concentration of each RNA molecule in addition to the molecular identifies. Hence, the correct option is (b).

10. Influenza A (H1N1) virus is the most common cause of human influenza (flu). In June 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the new strain of swine-origin H1N1 as a pandemic. This strain is often called swine flu by the public media. Hence, the correct option is (d).

11. The bio-toilets introduced by the Indian Railway with assistance from DRDO uses bacteria. The anaerobic bacteria named ‘inoculum’ are used in the bio-toilets have been collected and analysed by DRDO from Antarctica and the efficiency of this system has been tested in extreme climates and conditions. It will be kept in a container under the lavatories that convert human waste into water and small amounts of gases. Gases will be released into the atmosphere and the water will be discharged after chlorination onto the tracks. Hence, the correct option is (d).

12. Bio-pesticides are biological agents, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, mites, flowering plants and other organisms used to control insect and weed pests in an environmentally and ecologically friendly manner. Species of two bacterial genera–Bacillus and Strepto-myces–when added as biopesticides to soil help con-trol the damping off disease of cucumbers, peas, and lettuce caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Bacillus subti-lis is added to plant tissue also controls stem rot and wilt rot caused by species of the fungus Fusarium. There are several examples of fungi used as biopesti-cides, such as Gliocladium virens. Trichod ermaha-matum, Trichodermaharzianum, Tricho dermaviride, and Talaromyces flavus, Dalmatian and Persian insect powders contain pyrethrins, which are a toxic insec-ticidal compound produced in Chrysanthemum flow-ers. Hence, the correct option is (d).

13. Stem cells are biological cells found in multicellular organisms that can divide (through mitosis) and dif-ferentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells. In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells; embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cell, which are found in tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cell act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells (these are called pluripotent cells), but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissue. Highly plastic adult stem cells are routinely used in medical therapies, for example bone marrow transplantation. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed (differentiated) into specialized cell types with characteristics con-sistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture. Embryonic cell lines and autologous embryonic stem cells generated through therapeutic cloning have also been proposed as promising candidates for future. Hence, the cor-rect option is (d).

14. Bacillus thuringiensis Brinjal, popularly known as Bt brinjal, is at the centre of a major controversy by India’s number one seeds company Mahyco in col-laboration with American multinational Monsanto, claims to improve yields and help the agriculture sec-tor. However, the debate over the safety of Bt brinjal continues with mixed views from scientists working



for the government, farmers and environment activ-ists. Environment activists says the effect of GM (genetically modified) crops on rats have shown to be fatal for lungs and kidneys. It is dangerous to introduce these experimental foods into the market without proper research, they say. A study by French scientist Gilles-Eric Seralini says the tests conducted by Mahyco, the company producing Bt brinjal, were simply not valid and raised serious health concerns. Besides the environment hazard, activists allege that the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) has shown a bias towards companies like the Monsanto. This would be a big threat to India’s agriculture with MNCs charging Indian farmers for their seeds. The supply of seeds will be regulated and thus costlier. Indian farmers would have to depend on MNCs for seeds. Hence, the correct option is (c).

15. The Oil zapper is essentially a cocktail of five different bacterial strains that are immobilized and mixed with a carrier material (powdered corn cob). The Oil zapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil and oily sludge (a hazardous hydrocarbon waste gener-ated by oil refineries) and converts them into harmless CO2 and water. The Oil zapper is neatly packed into sterile polythene bags and sealed for safe transport. The shelf life of the product is three months at ambient temperature. Hence, the correct option is (a).

17. A gene is a distinct portion of a cell’s DNA. Genes are coded instructions for making everything the body needs, especially proteins. Human beings have about 25,000 genes. Same of our genes are associated with disorders (haemophilia, colour-blindness, cystic fibrosis or Huntington’s disease). The same concept is also applicable in livestock and animal breeds. In gene therapy these gene sequences are either mod-ified or replaced to overcome genetic disease both in plants and animals to get disease-resistant indi-viduals. Gene sequencing is also use to know pedi-gree (generation chart) of livestock as well as human beings. Hence, the correct option is (d).

19. The Bt brinjal is a suite of transgenic brinjals (egg-plant) created by inserting a crystal gene (Cry1Ac) from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various brinjal. The insertion of the gene, along with other genetic elements, like promoters, terminators and an antibiotic resistance marker gene into the brinjal plant is accomplished using Agro bac-terium-mediated recombination. The Bt brinjal has been developed to give resistance against legidop-

teron insects, in particular the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) (FSB). Monsanto, a multinational company based in the USA, have devel-oped the Bt brinjal in partnership with India’s Maha-rashtra Hybrid Seeds Company (Mahyco). Hence, the correct option is (a).

20. MON 863 is a genetically modified (GM) variety of maize, which is natural pesticide producing vari-ety (with resistance to corn rootworm) produced by Monsanto Company and approved for human con-sumption in the European Union.

However, when it was tested on rats, it showed signs of being toxic to the liver and kidney. The trans-genic maize affected the two sexes differently, which is often the case for effects due to pesticides that dis-rupt sex hormones. Hence, the correct option is (b).

21. Golden rice is a variety of Oryza sativa rice pro-duced through genetic engineering to biosynthe-size beta-carotene, a precursor of pro-vitamin A in the edible parts of race. The scientific details of the rice were first published in Science in 2000. Golden rice was developed as a fortified food to be used in areas where there is a shortage of dietary vitamin A. In 2005, a new variety called Golden Rice 2 was announced which produces up to 23 times more beta-carotene than the original variety of golden rice. Neither variety is currently available for human con-sumption. Although golden rice was developed as a humanitarian tool, it has met with significant oppo-sition from environmental and anti-globalization activists. Hence, the correct option is (b).

22. Oil eating bacteria (scientific name, Pseudomonas putida) is an aerobic bacteria. The generic name Pseudomonas created for organisms, like oil-eating bacteria was defined as a group of Gram-negative, rod shaped and polar-flagella bacteria. Hence, the correct option is (d).

23. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of bacte-rial that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. They are a significant component of the maring nitro-gen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean, but are also found in habitats other that the marine environment. During the crop growth cycle, the glue green algae grow, multiply, for atmo-spheric nitrogen and make it available to the crop by way of excretion and autolysis. Hence, the correct option is (c).



24. Pongamia pinnata is especially attractive because it grows naturally through much of arid India, having very deep roots to reach water.

Pongamia pinnata has the rare property of produc-ing seeds of 25–40% lipid content of which nearly half is oleic acid. Hence, the correct option is (c).

25. Methane is produced under the anaerobic conditions associated with rice cultivation. It is done by micro-bial processes. Because of the increased use of the nitrogenous fertilizers in rice cultivation, oxides of nitrogen are emitted to the atmosphere especially in the cultivated soil. Hence, the correct option is (c).

26. Production of alcohol apart from molasses and sug-arcane products, the non-molasses products, like maize, starch, corn grain, sweet sorghum, tapioca, sugar beet are also equally getting importance as the climatic conditions for such type of agricultural crops suit India. Hence, the correct option is (b).

27. Japan’s spacecraft which landed on an asteroid is called Hayabusa probe. Deep Impact is the name of the US mission which crashed with comet ‘Tempel 1.’ Ref: Pg 236 of Wizard Current Affairs for Prelim 2006. Hence, the correct option is (b).

28. (c) The first meeting of Cartagena protocol parties was held in Kuala Lumpur. Ref: Manorama Year Book. Hence, the correct option is (c).

30. (d) Stem Cells are undifferentiated cells which are pluripotent in nature with a capacity to differentiate into different kinds of specialized cells. The stem cells are capable of self-renewal and have ability to divide and differentiate through a variety of stage to produce mature issue.

The embryonic stem cells are taken from blasto-cysts, which is an embryo, removed from the womb or brought from the fertility clinic by destroying life of human being. Stem cells may be obtained from monkey, pig, rat and other mammals embryo but it is a matter of acceptance or rejection of patient. Hence, the correct option is (d).

31. Recombinant DNA technology is a process in which reverse engineering of genetic information takes place. Recombination of DNA takes place between different DNA segment and in nature recombination takes place between different DNA. Recombination takes place with the help of several enzymes, like DNA ligase, restriction endonuclease, gyrase, etc. Hence, the correct option is (a).

33. Like our finger print each individual has a unique DNA. This is a process which look for variations in our DNA. In DNA finger printing, it look inside the DNA and obtain the pattern on x-ray film. DNA is obtained from blood stain, semen and root hair. Hence, the correct option is (a).

34. The new gene inserted is BT gene or Bacillus Thuring-iensis. It was developed by Monsanto bacterium. The new variant is called Bollgard cotton resistant to boll-worm pest. Hence, the correct option is (b).

36. Dolly was first cloned mammal by in vitro fertiliza-tion by sheep and Marino in USA. Hence, the correct option is (b).

39. Terminator seeds are incapable of forming reproduc-ing seeds. Hence, the correct option is (d).


INTRODUCTION

It is unlikely to think of any daily practice or job that is not directly or indirectly linked to technology. Information and communication technology (ICT) has been playing a monumental role in boosting economic and business growth, and shifting the society to a digital space. The main goals of ICT encompass societal improvements in various sectors of education, defence, industry, e-governance, etc.

Long-term mission of integrating ICT with conventional organs of the governance would be to empower citizens, to promote inclusive and sustainable growth, to promote Research and Development and innovation, to enhance efficiency through digital services, to develop human resources, to enhance India’s role on a global platform, etc.

INfORmaTION TeChNOlOgy INDUSTRy IN INDIa

National Informatics Centre (NIC)

The IT industry in India has gained its brand identity. All the premier organizations in the field of IT have their existence in India. It provides state-of-the-art solutions to the information management and decision support requirements of the government and corporate sectors.

Biotechnology Information System Network (BTISNeT)

Biotechnology Information System Network was established on the basis of Database and Network Organization by the Department of Biotechnology of Indian Government. The main centre of BTISNET in New Delhi coordinates all these activities.


❍ Study the development of information broadcasting technology.

❍ Discuss the social, economical and political effects of information broadcasting.

❍ Learn about the latest concepts and theories of information broadcasting and their application.

Learning Objectives

4Chapter

Information and Communication Technology


Section a: Unit II – Progression of Science and Technology1.218

NICNeT (NIC Network)

NICNET was designed and implemented by NIC using state-of-the art satellite-based computer communication technology. It ensure extremely cost-effective and reliable implementation. Nixi (National Internet Exchange of India) is the neutral meeting point of the ISPs (Internet Service Providers) in India. Its main purpose is to facilitate exchange of domestic Internet traffi c between the peering ISP members. This enables more effi cient use of International bandwidth, saving foreign exchange.

Software Technology Parks of India (STPI)

It is a government agency in India, established in 1991, under the Ministry of Communications and IT. Its objective is to set-up and manage infrastructure facilities and provide services, like technology assessment and professional training.

National e-governance Plan (NegP)

NeGP is a plan of the government of India to make all government services available to the citizens of India via electronic media. E-Learning includes all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching, including education technology. E-Government is short for electronic government. The provision of government services available on Internet is known as e-Government. E-Parliament is a non-profi t organization that links together the world’s democratic members of parliament and congress into a single forum.

Information and library Network (INflIBNeT)

It is an autonomous Inter-University Centre (IUC) of the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India. It is involved in modernising university libraries in India and connecting them.

INTeRNeT

The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a ‘network of networks’ that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a ‘network of networks’ that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, fi le transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (the Web) interchangeably, but in fact the two terms are not synonymous. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related things. The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any com-puter can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols.

The Web is a way of accessing information over the medium of the Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol,

INfO

Digital Library

It is a library in which collections are stored in digital formats and acces-sible via computers. A digital library is a type of information retrieval system.

INfO

Multimedia is using more than one medium of com-munication where media and content are used in combina-tions. This contrasts with media that uses only rudimentary computer displays, such as text only or traditional forms of printed or hand-pro-duced material.


Chapter 4 – Information and Communication Technology 1.219

only one of the languages spoken over the Internet, to transmit data. Web services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange business logic, use the Web to share information. The Web also utilizes browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Netscape, to access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text and video.

The Web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet, not the Web, is also used for e-mail, which relies on SMTP, Usenet news groups, instant messaging, file sharing (text, image, video, mp3, etc.) and FTP. So, the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.

Some important terms related to use of Internet are given below.

• DigitalRadio: It is a wireless communication in which transceiver can detect which communication channels all in are and which are not.

It optimizes the use of available radio frequency spectrum while minimizing infer-ence to other users.

• RadioFrequencyIdentificationTag(RFID): It is an ID system that uses small radio frequency for the identification of tags.

Jawaharlal Neheru port becomes the first port in the country to implement logistics data lagging containers.

• 3DPrinting: It is also known as Additive Manufacturing (AM), is used to create 3D dimension of objects in which layers of materials are formed under computer control. This technique may be used for surgical implants.

• NASAElectricBandage: NASA developed a new high-tech material that uses electric-ity to significantly promote healing of injured wounds.

• Quantum Communication: China launched 712-km quantum lines which will be world’s longest secure telecommunication network.

• Thubber: It is an electrically insulating composite material used, for creating soft, stretchable machine and electronics.

Scientists developed a novel rubber-like material with high thubber conducting electricity.

• Terahertz(THz)Transmitter:Scientists discovered a next-generation system which transmits digital data over 10 times faster the 5G mobile n/w.

It is expected to be used for future ultra-high speed wireless communication.

Internet in India

The history of Internet in India started with the launch of Internet services by Videsh Sanchaar Nigam Limited (VSNL) on 15 August 1995. In 2004, Government formulated its Broadband Policy, which defined the broadband as an Internet connection with download speed of 256 kbit/s or above. From 2005 onwards, the growth of broadband sector in the country attained acceleration.

Internet Protocol

Internet protocol is a set of rules controlling and regulating the format of data sent over the networks.

Internet users in India reach 503 million by 2017.

Digital India: Approved by Government of India, Digital India is an umbrella pro-gramme that covers multiple Govern-ment Ministries and Departments.

The vision of Digital India is to cover three key areas as follows:

1. Infrastructure 2. Governance and

service 3. Digital empower-

ment of citizens

Date of Launch: 1 July 2015.Website: www.digitalindia.gov.in/,Gov. in Mission statement: ‘Power to Empower’

CONNeCT



Following section discusses some important terms related to Internet Protocol.

• TransmissionControlProtocol/InternetProtocol(TCP/IP): It is the basic communi-cation language or protocol of the Internet.

• HypertextTransferProtocol(HTTP): It is the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.

• GopherProtocol:It is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for distributing, searching and retrieving documents over the Internet.

• Broadband:It commonly refers to high-speed Internet, because it usually has a high rate of data transmission relative to dial-up access over a modem. In general, Internet connecting to the customer of 256 kbps or more is considered broadband Internet.

• Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): It is a technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data wirelessly (using radio waves) over a computer network including high-speed waves) or over a computer network including high-speed Internet connections.

• InternetProtocolVersion6 (IPV6): It is the latest version of Internet protocol, the primary communication protocol upon which the entire Internet built.

• WiMax(WorldWideInteroperabilityforMicrowaveAccess):It is a wireless com-munications standard, designed to provide 30 to 40 Mbps data rates up to 1 Gbps for fixed stations. It is a part of a 4G of wireless communication technology. WiMax far surpasses the 30 m wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi Local Area Network (LAN) offering a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km.

Internet Telephony or VoIP

A category of hardware and software that enables people to use the Internet as the transmission medium for telephone calls. Internet telephony products are sometimes called IP telephony, Voice Over Internet (VOI) or Voice Over IP (VoIP) products.

Wireless (mobile) Internet

Wireless Internet protocols are the suite of wireless protocols after Wireless Application Protocol 2.0 (WAP).

Remote area Business message Network (RaBmN)

It provide instant data communication between computers and data terminals. It is a satellite-based network that provides communication to any remote part of India.

education and Research Network (eRNeT)

It combines the main educational institution and research centres of country.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing means storing and accessing data and programs over the Internet instead of your computer’s hard drive.

Service models of Cloud Computing

• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

• Platform as a Service (PaaS)

• Software as a Service (SaaS)



• Desktop Virtualization

• Storage as a Service (STaaS)

• Data as a Service (DaaS)

ImPORTaNT SeRVICeS Of INTeRNeT

e-mail (electronic mail)

It is a method of exchanging digital messages from one person to another. It is a part of the standard TCP/IP set of protocols.

P-Commerce

Place commerce is a specialized form of mobile commerce that uses mobile Internet access, Global Positioning System (GPS) information and Bluetooth to assist and enhance the retail shopping experience of customer based on their location and individual shopping behaviour.

Video Conferencing or Video Teleconference

This is a system that allows us to conduct meeting or trainings at different places simultaneously. It incorporates audio and video so that we could talk and send data.

Social Networking Sites

A social networking service is an online service, platform or site that focuses on facilitating the building of social networks of social relations among people who share interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections.

Some social networking sites are as follows:

• Facebook: It is a social networking service launched in February 2004, owned and operated by Facebook incorporation. Facebook was established by Mark Zuckerberg.

• LinkedIn:It is a social networking website for people in professional occupations.

• Myspace: It is a social networking that allows its users to create webpages to interact with other users.

• Twitter: It is an online social networking service and micro-blogging service that enables its users to send and read text-based message of up to 140 characters known as tweets.

• Tumbler: It is a microblogging platform and social networking website founded by David Karp.

Cyber Crimes

Cyber Crimes can involve criminal activities that are traditional in nature, such as theft, forgery, defamation and mischief, all of which are subject to the Indian penal code. The computer as a target using a computer to attack other computers, for example, hacking, virus/worm attacks, Denial of Service (DoS) attack, etc. The computer as a weapon using a computer to commit real world crimes, that is, cyber terrorism, IPR recognitions, credit card frauds, electronic fund transfer frauds, pornography, etc.

Project loonProject Loon is a research and devel-opment project being developed by X (formerly Google X) with the mission of providing Internet access to rural and remote areas. The Project uses high-altitude balloons placed in the stratosphere at an altitude of about 18 km to create an aerial wireless network.

CONNeCT



Computer Virus

A computer virus is a malware program that, when executed, replicates by inserting copies of itself into other computer programs, date files or the boot sector of the hard drive. When this replication succeeds, the affected areas are then said to be infected.

famous Computer Viruses

• Stuxnet:It is a Microsoft windows computer worm discovered in June, 2010 that targets industrial control systems.

• Malware: It is a malicious software designed to infiltrate a computer system without the owner’s informed consent. Malware’s most common pathway from criminals to users is through the Internet, primarily by e-mail and World Wide Web.

Important malwares

• Botnets: It is a network of private computers infected with malicious software and con-trolled as a group without the owners’ knowledge, e.g., to send spam.

• Nagware/Begware/Annoyware/Nag scrum: It is a software utility that ‘nags’ users into upgrading or buying a premium version of software by sending constant pop-up messages or notifications. Software developers use Nagware as a marketing tactic to remind users to take advantage of special offers and purchase software.

• TrojanHorse:It is program that appears harmless, but is, in fact, malicious. Unexpected changes to computer settings and unusual activity, even when the computer should be idle, are strong indications that a Trojan is residing on a computer.

• WebCrawler/Spider: It is a program or automated script which browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner.

• Grayware: It includes applications that carry out unwanted actions, such as tracking user’s behaviour on-line.

• Flame/Flamer/sKyWIper: It is modular computer malware discovered in 2012 that attacks computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system. The program is being used for targeted cyber espionage in Middle Eastern countries.

• Rootkit: It is is a program or, more often, a collection of software tools that gives a threat actor remote access to and control over a computer or other system.

• Firewall:The primary objective of a firewall is to control the incoming and outgoing network traffic by analyzing the data packets and determining whether it should be allowed through or not based on a pre-determined rule set.

Security management

Some important terms related to security management are discussed below.

• FacialRecognition: A facial recognition system is a computer application for automat-ically identifying or verifying a person from a digital image or a video frame from a video source.

• BiometricPassport:A biometric passport, also known as an e-passport or a digital passport, is a combined paper and electronic passport that contains biometric informa-tion that can be used to authenticate the identity of travellers.

• IrisRecognition:It is an automated method of biometric identification that uses math-ematical pattern-recognition techniques on video images of the iris of an individual’s eyes, whose complex random patterns are unique and can be seen from distance.



• Smart Card: A smart Card, chip card, on Integrated Circuit Card (ICC) is any pocket-sized card with embedded integrated circuits. Smart cards are made of plastic, generally polyvinyl chloride.

Computer Worm

It is a standalone malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other computers. Often, it uses a computer network to spread itself, relying on security failures on the target computer to access it.

meDIUm Of COmmUNICaTION

3g Technology

3G is a term used to refer to the third generation of standards for mobile phones and mobile telecommunications services. According to standards set by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a 3G system must allow simultaneous use of speech and data services and provide peak data rates of at least 200 kbit/s.

Background (evolution)The first wireless mobile telecommunications technologies are referred to as 1G. These technologies originated in the 1980s. They were predominantly analogue and provided only voice services.

2G refers to the second generation of mobile telecommunications technologies. These have been the most predominant mobile phone technologies of the last two decades. Currently, the vast majority of mobile phones in India use 2G technology.

The most well-known 2G technology is GSM. The first CDMA standard (cdmaOne) was also a 2G technology. Being digital, 2G technologies not only provide voice services, they can also provide data transfer by Short Messaging Service (SMS). 2G technologies also provide greater security to the users as the communications are encrypted.

There are certain intermediate technologies between 2G and 3G that are referred to as 2.5G and 2.75G. The main intermediate technologies are GPRS and EDGE. Both provide high-speed data transfer on existing 2G networks enabling Internet access on mobile phones.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a mobile data service available to all users of GSM technology. GPRS provides data rates from 56 to 114 kbps. It enables use of Internet on mobile phones, and multimedia messaging service (MMS).

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) is also known as Enhanced GPRS or EGPRS. It is a mobile data service available to all users of GSM technology. It is considered a 3G technol-ogy. It is more sophisticated than the earlier GPRS and provides more than three-fold increase in both the capacity and performance of GPRS. It can provide data rates of up to 384 kbps, allowing Internet access at higher speeds. The existing GSM infrastructure is not required to be changed.

3g Standards

The two main 3G standards are as follows.

1. UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service: It is an evolution of the 2G GSM standard. It was introduced in 2001. It is used primarily in Europe, Japan, China and other regions predominated by GSM 2G system infrastructure. The fastest 3G-based standard in the UMTS family is the HSPA + standard, which is commercially available since 2009.

2. CDMA2000: It was introduced in 2002. It is used mainly in North America and South Korea and other regions predominated by CDMA (cdmaOne) infrastructure.



features of 3g • Like 2G, 3G provides voices, SMS and data transfer.

• 3G offers data transfer at speeds much higher than GPRS and EDGE, enabling users to access Internet at broadband speeds, on mobile phones.

• The most well-known 3G feature is video telephony, that is, simultaneous voice and non-voice data transfer.

• 3G’s high speed opens scope for high-data transfer services, such as mobile, TV, video-on-demand, video telephony, video conferencing, all from mobile handsets.

• 3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors.

• Because of 3G’s high speed and the flexibility that it inherits from 2G, the scope of applications is virtually unlimited.

• From a development point of view, 3G can be an immensely important tool. It can be a great booster in areas, such as telemedicine, mobile banking, inclusive banking (viz., taking banking and financial services to remote villages), help provide weather updates and market price information to farmers, it can provide TV and entertainment services for remote villages. It can also be used in disaster management, as a cheap and effective means of coordinating rescue and relief efforts with the use of live images. It can also be put to good use by police, for example, traffic management, riot control, etc.

4g Technology

4G, short for fourth generation, is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G. A 4G system, in addition to the usual voice and other services of 3G, provides mobile broadband Internet access, for example to laptops with wireless modems, to smartphones, and to other mobile devices. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3G television, and cloud computing.

Two 4G systems are commercially deployed are the Mobile WIMAX standard (first used in South Korea in 2007, and the first-release Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standard (in Oslo, Norway and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009). It has however been debated if these first-release versions should be considered to be 4G or not.

Technical SpecificationsIn March 2008, the International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G services at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high-mobility communication (viz., from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low-mobility communication (viz., pedestrians and stationary users).

As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephone service, but all-Internet Protocol (IP)-based communication, such as IP telephony.

Bluejacking does not involve hijacking, despite what the name implies. The bluejacker may send only unsolicited messages. Hijacking does not actually occur because the attacker never has control of the victim’s device. At worst, bluejacking is an annoyance. Bluejacking can be prevented by setting a device to hidden, invisible or non- discoverable mode.

Bluejacking has been used in guerrilla-marketing campaigns to promote advergames (Advertising using games).



Bluetooth and Wireless Technology

Bluetooth technology is a short-range, low-power and low-cost wireless technology that provides strong security, robustness and ease of use in the wireless personal area network space, providing access and applications to single or paired users within a mobile personal environment with ad hoc network connections.

The technology being used for high-speed data transfers, through phones and a host of other applications would soon add a whole new dimension to itself for saving lives. The developer of this technology, Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), is planning to extend the services of this technology to the noble task of saving lives.

The BackgroundThe development of Bluetooth is as fascinating as the technology itself. It is amazing to know that rights to this technology are not held by a company as such but a special interest group consisting of around 6000 companies, hence the name Bluetooth SIG. These 6000 companies use bluetooth technology in various big and small applications.

The Bluetooth logo is a trademark of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The Bluetooth trademarks (word mark, fi gure mark and combination mark) are wholly owned by the Bluetooth SIG.

major applications

• Other such application of this high-range new Bluetooth would be in the fi eld of trans-mitting heavy date content, like video-streaming.

• High-speed Bluetooth technology will enable wireless video-image sharing from mobile phone video clip to PC or TV, or from a handheld camcorder to a TV, printing fi les from a mobile phone; synchronizing all the songs on an MP3 player with a PC; sending a PowerPoint presentation wirelessly from a PC to a projector or from one note book to another or transferring movies from PC to home theatre or stereo surround-sound system, hassle free.

Three Versions of Bluetooth

• The current versions of Bluetooth operates in three different ranges which depends on the device class. Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 m (3 feet), class 2 radios, most commonly found in mobile devices, have a range of 10 m (30 feet) and class 1 radios, used primarily in industrial use cases, have a range of 100 m (300 feet).

• The technology scores in a number of ways when compared to other data transfer technologies, like infra-red. It used the unlicensed industrial, scientifi c and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz and is not directional. It works in three- dimensional space and transfers data in real time, and this is its major advantage over other technologies.

Wi-fi

Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections. It refers to a local area network which uses high-frequency radio signals to send and receive data over short distances, approximately 100 m.

As opposed to LAN (Local Area Network) or computers that are networked together with wires, ULAN or wireless local area networks use Wi-Fi technology for networking. Wi-Fi is

4G technology user and impact is not one defi ned technol-ogy, rather a collec-tion of technologies and protocols to create fully pack-et-switched net-works optimized for data. Whilst internet adoption is growing in India, much of it is coming from mobile. New smart phones are already sold that are 4G enabled and the cost diff erence is very little compared to 3G versions. The impact of this, according to Cyber Media Research, is that the majority of new smart phones sold in India will be 4G devices.

CONNeCT

TechTalk

Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE 802.11x.

The Wi-Fi Alliance owns the Wi-Fi trademark. Manufac-turers may use the trademark to brand certifi ed products that have been tested for interoperability.



used to refer to communicating without cords or cables and refers to using radio frequencies and/or infrared waves.

• Lift transmit more than 100 lines speed of Wi-Fi

• More secure than Wi-Fi

• Non-polluting and consumes less power

Working of Wi-fi • Wi-Fi uses antennas around which Wi-Fi ‘hotspots’ are created. The hotspots are outlets

equipped to receive the radio waves that power wireless networking. Until recently, Wi-Fi has been confined to more than 10,000 hotspots in cafes, bars and airport lounges. But various projects are under way to set up city-wide zones, where a series of antennas are installed in the streets, on lampposts or street signs. The hotspots around them together create a much wider area of coverage.

• The source Internet connection is provided by a PC or server to which the antennas are connected either wirelessly or via a cable.

• Some mobile phones and Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) now have Wi-Fi chips installed. With mobile phones, this means conventional networks can be bypassed and inex-pensive long-distance calls made over the web (Using Voice over Internet Protocol, VOIP).

• Many laptops and handheld computers now come with built-in Wi-Fi connectivity; it is also possible to add Wi-Fi to your computer with a special card that plugs into a port on your laptop.

Wi-Fi has a lot of advantages. Wireless networks are easy to set up and inexpensive. They are also unobtrusive—unless you are on the lookout for a place to use your laptop, you may not even notice when you are a hotspot. Many people refer to Wi-Fi as 802.11 networking. The 802.11 designation comes from the IEEE. The IEEE sets standards for a range of technological protocols, and it uses a numbering system to classify these standards.

Figure 4.1: Functioning of bluetooth technology

Bluetooth Connection

Cell Phone

Access Serverto terminate PPP session

Cellular Networkwith Data

ConnectivityIP Network

End-to-End PPP Session

IP Traffic

BluetoothConnection

Host



The radios used for Wi-Fi communication are very similar to the radios used for walkie-talkies, cell phones and other devices. They can transmit and receive radio waves, and they can convert 1s and 0s into radio waves and convert the radio waves back into 1s and 0s. But Wi-Fi radios have a few notable differences from other radios.

They transmit at frequencies of 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz. This frequency is considerably higher than the frequencies used for cell phones, walkie-talkies and televisions. The higher frequency allows the signal to carry more data.

Wi-Fi radios can transmit on any of three frequency bands. Or, they can ‘frequency ho’ rapidly between the different bands. Frequency hopping helps reduce interference and lets multiple devices use the same wireless connection simultaneously.

As long as they all have wireless adapters, several devices can use one router to connect to the Internet. This connection is convenient, virtually invisible and fairly reliable; however, if the router fails or if too many people try to use high-bandwidth applications at the same time, users can experience interference or lose their connections.

Wi-fi hotspotsWi-Fi hotspots are places where we can fi nd Wi-Fi-free bookstores, cafes, institutes, bars, etc. Travellers with laptops, PDAs, etc., can connect to Internet via Wi-Fi and can fi nd a hotel, check e-mail, download music and everything else with a computer connected to Internet at home. In order to take advantage of public Wi-Fi hotspots or start a wireless network in your home, you need desktop computers come with built-in wireless transmitters. Once you have installed your wireless adapter and the drivers that allow it to operate, your computer should be able to automatically discover existing Wi-Fi hotspots. Being able to connect to the Internet in public hotspots is extremely convenient. Wireless home networks are convenient as well. They allow you to easily connect multiple computers and to move them from place to place without disconnecting and reconnecting wires. Wireless networks are easy and inexpensive to set up, and most routers’ Web interfaces are virtually self-explanatory.

li-fi

Li-Fi, or light fi delity, is a new way to establish wireless communication links using the LED lighting networks. It is a bidirectional, high-speed and fully networked wireless communications similar to Wi-Fi. It uses visible light communication or infra-red and near ultraviolet (instead of radio frequency waves) spectrum. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as a medium to deliver networked, mobile, high-speed communication in a similar manner to Wi-Fi.

The term Li-Fi was coined by Harald Hass from the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom.

li-fi vs. Wi-fi

• Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum; Wi-Fi utilizes radio waves, whereas Li-Fi uses visible light.

• While there is a potential spectrum crisis as Wi-Fi is close to full capacity, Li-Fi has almost no limitations on capacity, because the visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the entire radio-frequency spectrum.

• Li-Fi has the advantage of being useful in electromagnetic-sensitive areas, such as in aircraft cabins, hospitals and nuclear power plants without causing electromagnetic interference.

• Li-Fi is expected to be 10 times cheaper than Wi-Fi.

TechTalk

The LI-Fi Consortium serves following purposes:

◗ Promotes optical wireless commu-nications up to the multi- gigabit range in all their implementations;

◗ Informs potential implementers and investors of the com-panies and resources available to help them achieve their product or investment goals;

◗ Create whole solu-tions in anticipation of customer needs and

◗ Coordinate with stan-dardization groups and other industry organizations to pro-vide OEM customers with a complete ensemble of tech-nical and marketing support.



• Like Wi-Fi, Li-Fi is wireless and uses similar 802.11 protocols.

• Short range, low reliability and high installation costs are the potential downsides of the Li-Fi.

ImaX

IMAX (for Image Maximum) is a film format created by IMAX Corporation that has the capacity to display images of far greater size and resolution than conventional film display. A standard IMAX screen is 22 m wide and 16 m high, but it can be larger than this. Thus, the image we see in IMAX theatre is about twice the size of the image we view in normal theatres. Nor only the image is large, the resolution of image is also extremely high. Much larger film stock is used to dramatically increase the resolution to levels of 10,000 × 7000 pixels. The film stock (or film reels) is run sideways through camera rather than upside down as in academy format.

Current Status of ImaXCurrently, IMAX is the most-widely used system for large format, special venue film presentation (e.g., Cannes Film Festival).

India has around seven IMAX theatres at the following places:

1. Ahmedabad(Gujarat): Science City IMAX 3-D theatre.

2. NewDelhi: Akshardham Nilkantha Darshan Theatre.

3. Mumbai: IMAX Adlabs Multiplex.

4. Hyderabad: Prasad’s IMAX theatre.

5. Pune: Gold Adlabs Multiplex.

Kurukshetra and Ghaziabad also have IMAX theatres.

Variants of ImaXTwo other variants of IMAX are there as follows:

1. IMAX Dome (OMNIMAX) is designed for image projection on titled dome screens.

2. IMAX 3-D in which films can be projected in 3-dimensions (e.g., IMAX theatre in Ahmedabad).

gPRS

GPRS is short form for General Packet Radio Service. GPRS is a standard for wireless communication which runs at speeds up to 115 kB/s (compared with GSM at 9.6 kB/s). GPRS has been developed because of inability of GSM standard to cater to Internet services.

Table 4.1 Characteristic features of Wi-Fi and Li-Fi

Characteristicfeatures Wi-Fi Li-Fi

Standard IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.15

Range 100 meters Base on LED light

Primary application Wireless local area networkingCost—Low Medium high

Wireless local area networking

Data transfer rate 800 kpbs–11 Mbps >1 Gbps

Power consumption Medium Low

Cost Medium High



Second-Generation (GSM) cellular systems combined with GPRS are often described as 2.SG, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.

Services Provided by gPRSGPRS can be utilized for services, such as WAP access, SMS, MMS and Internet communication services, such as e-mail and web access.

GPRS utilizes unused TDMA channels in GSM standard and supports a wide range of bandwidth. That is why it is particularly suited for sending and receiving small bursts of data, such as e-mail and colour web browsing.

IPTV

IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is a system where a digital television service is delivered using Internet Protocol over a network infrastructure, which may include delivery by a broadband connection. A general definition of IPTV is television content that, instead of being delivered through traditional broadcast and cable formats, is received by the viewer through the technologies used for computer networks. Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) is digital television delivered on your television (and not PC) through high-speed Internet (broadband) connection. In this service, channels are encoded in IP format and delivered to the TV through a set-top box. IPTV service also includes video on demand, which is similar to watching video CDs/DVDs using a VCD/DVD player. For residential users, IPTV is often provided in conjunction with Video on Demand and may be bundled with Internet Services, such as Web access and VoIP. The commercial bundling of IPTV, VoIP and Internet access is referred to as ‘Triple Play’ service (when these three are offered with mobility, the service is referred to as ‘Quadruple Play’).

Working of IPTVIPTV converts a television signal into small packets of computer data, like any other form of online traffic, such as email or a web page. There are three main components of IPTV. First, the TV and content head end, where the TV channels are received and encoded and also other

VoD ServerCA/DRM

Network Terminatetingdevice

IRD

CDNStreamZ live (Fail over)

StreamZ live (Primary)

Broadcast manager

Streaming server

Video Routing

MiddlewareEPG/BillingQos ManagementSTB/DHCP ManagementTranscode Manager

Archive/File Delivery &

Storage

Tape

Transcode Engine

VideoNetworkManagement

Satellite Receiver

RF TunerUHF/DVB-T/Atena

Figure 4.2: IPTV system overview



content, like videos which are stored. The second component is the delivery network, which is broadband and landline network provided by a telecom operator, such as MTNL. The third component is the set-top box, which is required at the customer location. The packets are reassembled into programing by software in the set-top box. This box is connected between the operator’s broadband modem and customer’s TV. IPTV covers both live TV as well as stored video (Video on Demand VOD).

The playback of IPTV requires either a personal computer or a set-top box connected to a TV. Video content is typically compressed using either an MPEG-2 or an MPEG-4 codec. The newly released (MPEG-4) H.264 codec is increasingly used to replace the older MPEG-2 codec.

In standard-based IPTV systems, the primary underlying protocols used are as follows:

• Live TV uses IGMP version 2 or IGMP version 3 for IPv4 for connection to a multicast stream (TV channel) and for changing from one multicast stream to another (TV chan-nel change).

• VOD is using the Real Times Streaming Protocol (RTSP).

advantages of IPTVThe IP-based platform offers signification advantages, including the ability to integrate television with other IP-based services, like high-speed Internet access and VoIP. The quality of digital video and audio is much better compared with the traditional analogue TV. With additional features, it can become interactive. For example, viewers may be able to look up a player’s history while watching a game. They also may be able to schedule a recording of their favourite programme when they are not home. With video on demand, they can browse an online movie catalogue and watch the movies instantly. Because IPTV uses standard networking protocols, it promises lower costs for operators and lower prices for users. Using set-top boxes, video can be streamed to households more efficiently (as only the requested channels are transmitted to the user) than cable (where all channels are transmitted to the user and the choice is made at the user’s end).

Another advantage of an IP-based network is the opportunity for integration and convergence. This opportunity is amplified when using IMS-based solutions. Converged services implies interaction of existing services in a seamless manner to create new value added services. One good example is On-Screen Caller ID, getting Caller ID on your TV and the ability to handle it (send it to voice mail, etc.). IP-based services will help to enable efforts to provide consumers anytime-anywhere access to content over their televisions, PCs and cell phones and to integrate services and content to tie them together. Within businesses and institutions, IPTV eliminates the need to run a parallel infrastructure to deliver live and stored video services.

limitations of IPTVBecause IPTV is based on Internet protocol, it is sensitive to packet loss and delays if the IPTV connection is not fast enough. IPTV uses a two-way digital broadcast signal sent through a switched telephone or cable network by way of a broadband connection and a set-top box programed with software (much, like a cable or DSS box) that can handle viewer requests to access to many available media sources. It needs new hardware in the form of set-top box. But this is a one-time investment. Privacy issues need to be resolved as the service provider knows the channels viewed by the end user. Since IPTV is delivered through landline connection, telecom companies, like Hutchison Essar and ldea Cellular will not be able to offer the service right now as they do not have fixed line networks. Public sector operator Mahanagar Telephone Nigam (MTN L) is the first and only Telco in India providing IPTV services. It rolled out IPTV recently in Mumbai and Delhi.



COmPUTeR

history

• The earliest known tool for computation was the Abacus. It was developed in China.

• Blaise Pascal invented the second real mechanical calculator called Pascaline.

• Charles Babbage is considered as the ‘father of computer’ because he invented differ-ence engine in 1822 and then analytical engine.

• Alan Turing is regarded as the father of ‘modern computer’ science.

Characteristics of Computer

Characteristics of computer are as follows:

• Speed:The computer uses the electronic pules, the speed of those pules are virtually instantaneous and process the inputs in micro, nano or picoseconds.

• Storage: It is also called memory. It consists of computer components and recording media used to retain digital data.

• Accuracy: Computers are error free and most of the errors are due to human negligence.

• Versatility: Computers are multi-tasking in nature.

• Automation: It is a field where the computer self-executes all tasks automatically when inputs are provided to it.

limitations of a Computer

• No Self-intelligence: Though a computer is programed to work efficiently, fast and accurately, but it is programmed by human beings to do so.

• DecisionMaking: The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer is the decision maker. But it is still dependent on instructions provided by human being.

• Self-care:A computer cannot take care of itself, like a human. It is dependent on human beings for this purpose.

• RetrievalofMemory: Computer can retrieve data very fast, but this technique is linear. Human mind does not follow this rule.

• Sensation: Computer cannot feel, like a human.

Table 4.2 Generations of computers

Generation Features

First Generation (Vacuum Tube) (1940–1956)

• Technology: Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuit

• Internal Operating Speed (IOS): Milliseconds

• Operating Systems (OS): Batch processing

• Languages: Machine code and electric boards

Examples: UNIVAC-I, IBM-701

Second Generation (Transistor) (1957–1963)

• Technology: Use of transistor and diodes

• IOS: Microseconds

• OS: Batch processing

• Languages: Assembly language, high-level language

Examples: UNIVAC-1004, IBM-1401

(continued)



Third Generation (Integrated Circuits) (1964–1971)

• Technology: Use of integrated circuits

• IOS: Nano seconds

• OS: Time sharing

• Languages: High-level languages (FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC)

• Examples: UNIVAC-1100, IBM-360, PDP-8

Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) (1971–1989)

• Technology: Use of large integrated circuit

• IOS: Picoseconds

• OS: DoS, Windows

• Languages: High-level language (Java, C++, Python, etc.)

• Examples: ALTAIL-8800, IBM-370, PDP-8, etc.

Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) (1989)

• It is the realm of programing where devices are able to think and react to the environment around them, the fields of gaming, robotics, voice recognition and real-life simulation, centre on perfecting the science of artificial intelligence.

• In this period, computing technology has achieved greater superiority and parallel processing, which was until limited to vector processing and pipelining. Thus, hundreds of processors could all work on various parts of a single programe. Quantum computation, nanotechnology and supercomputing are going to enhance the fifth generation of computing.

Table 4.2 Generations of computers (Continued)

Table 4.3 Classification of computers (based on size)

Type Characteristicfeature

Nano Computer It is a computer whose physical dimensions are microscopic.

Micro-computer It is a complete computer and is generally a synonym for personal computer or PC.

Laptop A laptop has most of the components as of a desktop computer, including a display, keyboard, pointing device, such as touch pad and a pointing stick and speakers into a single unit.

Note Book It is a small, lightweight and inexpensive laptop computer suited for general computing and accessing web based application.

Palmtop/PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)

These are very small computers that have been designed to allow people to keep necessary information at hand.

I Pad It is a line of table computers designed and marked by Apple Corporation.

I Pad It is a line of portable media players designed and marked by Apple Corporation.

Simputer It is a low-cost portable alternative to PCs, by which the benefits of IT can reach the common man.

Tablet Computer It is a mobile computer larger than a mobile phone of personal digital assistant, integrated into a flat touch screen and operated by touching the screen rather than using a physical keyboard.

Mini Computer These computer are smaller in size, faster and cost lower than mainframes computer.

Mainframe Computer They are powerful computers used primarily by corporate and governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing, such as census, industry and enterprise resource planning and transaction processing.

(continued)



Classifi cation of Computer Based on Work

• DigitalComputer: It operates on data, including symbols, letters and magnitudes that are expressed in binary form by using only the two digits, that is, O and 1.

• DigitalComputer: An analogue computer is a form of computer that uses continuously variable mechanical, hydraulic or electrical quantities to simulate the problem being solved, rather than symbolic numerical values of digital computers.

• HybridComputer: It is a digital computer that accepts analogue signals and converts and processes them as digital signals.

Type Characteristicfeature

Supercomputer The supercomputers remain at the top of the heap in power and expense. They are used for the tasks that require massive calculations, like engineering design and testing, weather forecasting, economic forecasting, serial decryption, etc. Examples of supercomputers are as follows:

1. SAGA-220: It stands for supercomputer for aerospace with GPU Architecture-220 Terafl ops. It is a supercomputer built by Indian Space and Research Organization (ISRO).

2. Titan: It is the fi rst supercomputer, which is based on GPU (Graphic Processing Unit) system and the working power of this supercomputer is up to 17 peta Flops, that is, Floating-Point Operations Per Seconds.

3. PARAMAnant: It is a low-cost super computing solution based on C-DAC’s unique open-frame architecture.

4. BlueGeneComputer: It is a supercomputer project at IBM for a series of high-performance System-On-a-Chip (SOC) architectures with minimal power demands. It runs on Linux and employs thousands of processors, each of which demands minimal electric power.

TechTalk

Top 10 Supercomputers of the WorldSunway Taihue Light 93.015 Petatlops, China, Rasia Linux

Tianhe-2 33.863 Petatlops, China, Kylin Linux Pig Daint 19.590 Petatlops, Switzerland, CLE Linux

Titon 17.590 Petatlops, USA, CLE, Sles Linux Sequoia 17.173 Petatlops, USA, RHEL, CNK, LinuxCORI 14.015 Petatlops, USA, CLE, LinuxOakforest PACS 13.555 Petatlops, Japan, LinuxK-Computer 10.570 Petatlops, Japan, LinuxMira 8.587 Petatlops, USA, CNK, LinuxTrinity 8.101 Petatlops, USA, CLE, Linux

• CLE – Cray Like Enterprises • CNK – Computer Node Kelnel• SLES – SUSE Linux Enterprise Server • RHEL – Red Hat Enterprises Linux.



Other Kinds of ComputersOther kinds of computer are as follows:

• OpticalofPhotonicComputer: It is a device that uses the photons in visible light or infrared (IR) beams, rather than electric current, to perform digital computations.

• AtomicComputer:It describes a unitary action or object that is essentially indivisible, unchangeable whole, and irreducible.

• VirtualComputer:It allows different OS to run in the same computer at the same time without interfering each other.

• ChemicalComputer:It is an unconventional computer based on semi-solid chemical soup where data is represented by varying concentrations of chemicals.

• DNAComputer:It uses DNA, biochemistry and molecular biology hardware instead of traditional silicon-based computer technologies.

• Neuro Computer: It also known as Wetware computer/Organic computer/Artificial Organic Brain. It is built from living neurons.

• QuantumComputer:It uses the quantum mechanical phenomenon, such as superposi-tion and entanglement to perform operations on data.

• EmbeddedComputerSystem: It is designed for specific control functions within a larger system. It is embedded as a part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts.

Internal Structure of a Computer

hardwareIt is the collection of physical elements, which constitutes a computer.

On the basis of the work, hardware can be divided into the following parts:• Input device • Output device• Memory • Processing unit

Input Device • In computing, an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment)

used to provide data and control signals to a computer. • Keyboard: A keyboard is human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. • Mouse:It is the most commonly used input pointing device.

Output DeviceIn computing, an output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by a computer to the outside world.

• Visual Display Unit (VDU): It is also called monitor. It displays what computer is doing.

• Printer: It is a peripheral which produces a text or graphics of documents or pictures stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media, such as paper or transparencies.

• Plotters: It is a kind of printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on paper. Plotters are used in engineering applications (e.g., drawing maps and technical drawings).

• Graphic Display Device: It is the video terminal capable of displaying graphs and pictorial data.

• Speech Output Unit: It is the one which reads the strings of characters stored in the computer’s memory and converts them into spoken sentences.



memory • It stores all the data and the programes. It receives, holds and delivers data according to

the instruction from the control unit. It is two types:

Primary memoryIt is the computer’s memory which is accessible directly by processing unit. It is basically of two types which are as follows:

1. ReadOnlyMemory(ROM): It is non-volatile and resident memory of the computer. The information and instructions needed to operate a computer is present in it. Types of ROM are as follows:

• ProgrammableROM(PROM): It is a form of digital memory, where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. It is a Programable ROM but not alterable.

• ErasableProgramableROM(EPROM): It is non-volatile memory. It can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light source.

• ElectricallyErasableProgramableROM(EEPROM): The electric pulse is used to erase the ROM instead of ultraviolet (UV) light.

2. RandomAccessMemory (RAM): It is a temporary and volatile memory. Its contents are lost when power is switched off. It is also called temporary memory.

TypesofRAM

1. StaticRAM (SRAM): A bit of data is stored using the state of a fl ip-fl op. It has no need to refresh the memory.

2. DynamicRAM (DRAM): It stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair which together makes up a memory cell. It must be periodically refreshed to access a data.

Secondary memoryIt differs from primary memory in the sense that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary memory is non-volatile and it does not lose the data when the power is switched off.

TypesofSecondaryMemory

Types of secondary memory are as follows:

• MagneticStorage: It refers to any type of data storage using a magnetized medium. Two types of magnetic polarities are used to read the binary information representing either 0 or 1.

Types of magnetic storage are as follows:

• HardDiskDrive(HDD): It is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating discs (plotters) coated with magnetic mate-rial. Generally the capacity of HDD is 512 GB to many TB.

• MicroSD(StorageDisk)Card: It is a non-volatile card format for portable devices, such as mobile phones, digital camera, GPS navigation devices and tablet computers.

• FloppyDisk(FD):It is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and fl exi-ble magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles.

• OpticalStorage: It stores the information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the refl ection, four types of optical storage media which are as follows:

INfO

Cache Memory

It is a RAM that a computer can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. This memory is typically integrated directly with the CPU chip.



1. CompactDisc(CD): It is an optical disc used to store digital data.

2. DigitalVersatileDisc(DVD): It is an optical disc storage format. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact disks while having the same dimensions.

3. Blue-rayDisc (BD): It is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD format. The term Blue-ray is used to refer the blue laser, which is used to read the disc.

4. HolographicVersatileDisc: It is an optical disc technology that can store 1 TB, of data on an optical disc of 10 cm in diametre.

Other types of storage media are as follows:

• USB Flash Drive: it is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface.

• TertiaryStorageorTertiaryMemory: It provides a third level of storage and involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (Insert) and dismount (remove) mass storage media according to the system’s demand.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)It is the brain of the computer. It handles all the instructions given to your computer.

CPU is divided mainly into three parts:

1. Control Unit

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit 3. Memory

Dual Core Technology

It basically consist of two processors running parallel to each other. Multicore is an expansion to the dual core technology which allows for more than two separate processor.

SOfTWaRe

It is a set of instructions that directs the computer to process information. It can be classified into the following four types:

1. System software

2. Utility software 3. Application software 4. General-purpose software

System Software

An Operating System is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer’s memory, processes and all of its software and hardware.

Job of Operating System • Process Management

• Device Management

• Memory Management

• Application Program Interface

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CONNeCT



TechTalk

Membrane Computing

It is an area within computer science that seeks to discover new computational models from the study of biological cells, particularly the cellular membranes. ◗ Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): It is used to read the characters which are written in the mag-

netized ink. ◗ Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): It is used to read the special pre-printed forms designed with boxes

marked by a dark pencil or pen. ◗ Optical Character Recognition (OCR): It is an optical scanner used to read an image, convert it into a set of

0s and 1s and store than in computer’s memory. ◗ Bar Code Reader: In this method, the optical reader recognizes the small bars of varying thickness and spacing

printed on packages, badges, tag and converted into electrical pulses. ◗ Speech Input Unit: It is an input unit to take in the input in the form of spoken words and convert them to a

form which can be understood by a computer. ◗ Touch Screen: The touch screen makes selection by just touching the screen. ◗ Trackball: Instead of moving the whole mouse around, the user rolls the trackball only, which is on the top or

side. It is mainly used in laptops. ◗ Joystick: It gives a more natural feeling of control for motion in games, especially when we are fl ying a plane or

spaceship.

Table 4.4 Important operating systems

OperatingSystems Description

Disk Operating System (DOS)

It is a single-user, single tasking operating system with basic Kernel’s functions and only one program at a time can run on it and only one program at a time can run on it.

Unix It is a multi-tasking, multi-user computer operating system that is widely used in work stations and servers.

GNU It is a Unix-like computer operating system developed by the GNU project and a complete Unix-compatible software system.

Linux It is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution.

Mac OS It is a line of open core graphical operating systems developed marketed and sold by Apple Incorporation. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS is a Unix-based operating system.

Microsoft Windows It is a graphical interface operating systems developed, marketed and sold by Microsoft.

Windows 10 It Released in July 2015, Windows 10 is a computer operating system, having universal application architecture can be run across PCs, tablets, small phones, Xbox One, etc.

Windows Server 2012

Formerly code named Windows Server 8, it is the current release of Windows Server. It is a network operating system.

Android It is an operating system based on Linux kernel and designed primarily for touch screen mobile devices, such as smart phones and tablet computers. Initially, it was developed by Android Inc., which Google bought in 2005.



Types of Operating SystemFollowing are the types of operating systems.

• Real-time operating system

• Multi-tasking and single-tasking operating system

• Distributed operation system

• Network operating systems

language Translator

• Assembler: An assembler translate the symbolic codes of programs of assembly language into machine language.

• Compiler: It is a program that translates whole source program written in some high-level language into machine code at a time.

• Interpreter:A program that executes the instructions written in a high-level language into machine code as line-by-line instructions.

Utility Software

Utility software helps to manage, maintain and control computer resources. Examples of utility software are as follows:

• Antivirus software

• Disk tools

• Backup software

application Software

It is user-defined specific of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform.

general-purpose Software

A general-purpose software would be anything that aids in allowing user to accomplish simple computer-related task.

COmPUTeR NeTWORKS

local area Network (laN)

It is a computer network covering a small physical area (one km or less), like a home, office or small groups of buildings, such as school or an airport.

metropolitan area Network (maN)

It is a larger computer network that usually spans a city or a larger campus (from 5 to 15 km).

Wide area Network (WaN)

It is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communication links cross metropolitan, regional or national boundaries).



Personal area Network (PaN)

It is the interconnection of IT devices or gadgets within the environment of an individual user (typically within 10 metres).

Wireless Personal area Network

It is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies, such as Infrared Data Association (IRDA), Bluetooth, Wireless USB, Z-Wave, ZigBee or even Body Area Network.

Body area Network

It is the application of wearable computing devices. It enables wireless communication between several miniaturized body sensor units, worn on human body.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

It is a technology for using the Internet or another intermediate network to connect computers to isolated remote computer networks that would otherwise be inaccessible.

ethernet Networking

It provides the local area networking technology that has spread the Internet throughout our offices and cities.

e-mail

It comprises non-interactive communication of text, data, image or voice messages between the sender and a particular recipient through systems using telecommunication connections. The messages are from machine to machine, and sender and recipient need not be online with each other—much cheaper than Fax or telex.

Voice Telephony (VoIP)

VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the Instant Messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years, many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on ADSL or DSL Internet connections.

Thus, VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a tradi-tional telephone is available. Simple inexpensive VoIP modems are now available that elimi-nate the need for a PC.

Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.

Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialling and reliability. Currently a few VoIP providers provide some 911 dialling, but it is not universally available. Traditional phones are line powered and operate during a power failure, VoIP does not do so without a backup power source for the electronics.

Most VoIP providers offer unlimited national calling but the direction in VoIP is clearly towards global coverage with unlimited minutes for a low monthly fee.



COmPUTeR SImUlaTION

To simulate a phenomenon, on a computer or otherwise, we need a mathematical model that imitates the phenomenon. Such a model can be obtained if we understand the basic principles involved.

As an example, consider the motion of the Earth around the Sun. The Sun and Earth attract each other. Once we know or model this gravitational force, we can simulate the elliptic orbit of Earth. Here, we do not need a computer since the governing equation is simple.

Consider a slightly more complicated problem of a projectile hurled in the atmosphere. Here the friction of air comes into picture. It is a complicated function of the shape of the projectile, its orientation and velocity (last two are not known a priori). The trajectory can be simulated by approximate numerical techniques. We start with the condition of the projectile (position and velocity; then frictional force is known) at some instant. We can calculate its con-dition after a very small time interval. Then the new value for friction can be evaluated. We con-tinue this process of numerical integration to get the trajectory. Smaller the time interval employed more accurate is the solution. This is where the computer enters, which can do the four basic arithmetical operations at a high speed and without mistakes.

Digital computers entered the scene in the mid-20th century and have become powerful tools in simulating different physical phenomena. The complicated equations governing a phenomenon are approximated by a large system of simultaneous equations. The role of the computer is to solve this system of equations. The methods to solve simultaneous equations are known for centuries. But we did not know even at the beginning of the 20th century whether these methods would lead to the accurate solution if the system contains, say 40 equations. More the number of equations better is the simulation but more is the effort required by the computer. Today, millions of equations are solved literally millions of times, thanks to the good algorithms and powerful computers.

applications of Computer Simulation

Complex fluid flow phenomena, like turbulent flows, vibration of an aeroplane frame, combustion, weather, ocean circulation, chemistry of drug design, micro-electronics, nano-technology, economic modelling, formation of cosmic structures are some of the examples that need huge computing power.

Hence, we hear the words supercomputers, parallel computation, high-performance com-puting, tera-flops (1000 billion arithmetical operations per second; yes!), etc. Today, there are supercomputers delivering dozens of tera-flops. But the power we have on desktop machines today was available only with supercomputers a decade or so before. Computer simulation leads to a large volume of information. Then we need facilities to store it and also tools to analyze and understand.

Nanocomputing—The Next Wave

The invention of Germanium transistor way back in June 1946 was the starting point of microelectronics technology. In late 1960s, a thinking that integrated circuit can act as brain to different products gained ground resulting in the birth of microprocessor 4004 in 1971. The late 90s saw system on chip from 0.18 microns to 180 nanometres. Thus, between 1940s and 1950s, the semiconductor technology emerged from R&D laboratories.



Experts predict that the microelectronics manufacturing processes will not be cost effective beyond 2015. Beyond this, it is impossible to visualize at the present rate of growth, any large and cost-effective usefulness for this technology.

The future of computing technologies lies in nanotechnology. There are five critical areas that hold promise.

1. Nanofabrication:Carbon nanotubes are an exotic variation of common graphite having super strength, low weight, stability, flexibility, large surface area, etc.

Potential applications include transistors and diodes, field emitter for flat-panel displays, cellular-phone signal amplifier, ion storage for batteries and materials strengthener.

Nano electromechanical systems [NEMS] are being developed for heterogeneous assembly in business sectors, including medical optical assemblies, telecommunications, consumer electronics, microfluidics, defence and space needs.

Chemically assembled electronic nanotechnology is another emerging area. This uses self-alignment to construct electronic circuits out of nanometre scale devices that take advantage of quantum-mechanical effects.

2. Biocomputing: Cross-fertilization of biotechnology with IT reveals the inherent for-mation theories of natural life sciences with high-end computational techniques. Efforts have been made to compile full genetic information stored in the nucleus and the mito-chondria as digital repositories of information.

Genomics is the main constituent of bioinformatic research that aims to decipher code of life in its fundamental. Genomics is the main constituent of bioinformatic research that aims to decipher code of life in its fundamental unit, a cell.

3. MolecularComputing: Researchers had built an electronic switch consisting of a layer of several million molecules of an organic substance called rotaxane.

By linking a number of switches, the researchers produced a rudimentary version of an AND gate. One of the simplest active devices was a molecular based on a string of three benzene rings in which orbitals overlapped throughout.

4. OpticalComputing: In optical computers, electrons are replaced by photons. Thus, it is possible to fabricate closely packed nanostructures. Researchers are using new conduct-ing polymers to make transistor-like switches smaller and 1000 times faster than silicon transistors.

There are a number of proteins, which are sensitive to light and change their structures/orientation depending on the wavelength of the light.

Bacteriorhodopsin obtained from green algae has been used for writing and reading information using laser beams of different wavelengths.

5. QuantumComputing:Quantum computing aims to apply specific aspects of quantum theory in the development of the new systems and techniques for information processing.

By employing the extraordinary properties of quantum mechanical operations, such as superposition, entanglement, complementarity and uncertainty, data can be encoded in the quantum states of matter or light and manipulated with unprecedented speed and efficiency.

This emerging technology can revolutionize information processing, providing novel methods of securing, processing, storing, retrieving and transmitting information.

Practical applications could include super-fast computers operating at the sub-atomic scale, and fully secure information transmission.



CONVeRgeNCe Of TeChNOlOgIeS

It is the symbiotic application of technological advancement in different fi elds, such as:

• Nanotechnology

• Biotechnology and Biomedicine

• ICT and Advanced Computing

• Cognitive Neurosciences It studies the process of human thinking, decision making, reasoning, etc., by the human brain.

New developments in each of these technologies will have signifi cant impact on society, but most amazing innovations will occur at their intersection.

examples of Convergence of Technology

• IT and Communication Technology (CT) have already converged to form ICT. This convergence has led to conception of world as global village where interaction and com-munication are no longer hindered by distance.

• Application of IT in the fi eld of Biotechnology has yielded Bioinformatics.

Prerequisites for Convergence of Technology

• State-of-the-art R&D facilities

• Trained and motivated manpower (scientists)

• Huge funding

Prospects of Convergence of Technologies

The synergy of the combination is expected to lead to such capabilities as:

• Expanded human cognition and communication, enabled by

Brain impact

New Drugs

Rapid Learning

Direct brain to Machine interface

• Improved human health and physical capabilities, enabled by Nano Biosensors to monitor and repair bodily functions and to enhance human senses.

• Autonomous intelligence systems to support decision making and reasoning.

• Nano robots for environment surveillance and medical application.

• Integrated silicon electronics and photonics by convergence of Nanotechnology and electronics, etc.

glOBal INNOVaTION aND TeChNOlOgy allIaNCe (gITa)

GITA is the public–private partnership to promote and facilitate technological partnership between overseas and Indian industry/institutes with an aim of enhancing technological competitiveness of Indian organizations.

INfO

Cognitive Neuro-sciences studies the process of human thinking, decision making, reasoning, etc., by the human brain.



A Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) was signed between Department of Science and Technology and Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) on Global Innovation and Tech-nology Alliance (GITA). Kapil Sibal, the former S&T minister called it new age GITA and observed that it will go a long way in creating ‘A Global Knowledge Pool for Global Good.’

Significance of GITA

• GITA is a significant development in view of large-scale technological collaborations shared by institutions of developed nations bringing forth innovative applications of technology.

• There is greater global trade of high tech products across nation. India with its skilled and economical manpower can create a niche for herself in high tech market by devel-oping technology in partnership with national and international entities.

focus areas for global Technological alliance

The alliance can be particularly fruitful in the following areas:

• Water

• Energy

• Public Health

• Transportation

• Digital futuristic technologies

• Application of indigenous knowledge

• Innovation systems

eyCIN

EYCIN is short for eye-controlled Interaction. While working on a computer, we use hand to move the mouse and fingers to click the button. EYCIN is a computer system that tracks the human user’s eye movements and transmits it to the mouse pointer on the monitor. Thus, the pointer moves to the same part of the monitor where we have fixed our eyesight.

EYCIN has been developed by researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO in Stuttgart, Germany, in cooperation with industrial partners.

Working of eyCIN

Calculating the motion A camera observes the movement of the pupils from a distance of up to 1 m. A software programe calculates and transfers the coordinates of the area viewed, and quickly the mouse pointer moves in the required direction.

Clicking function Clicking a button is more difficult with the eyes. Researchers have developed sensitive areas on the monitor. When we fix our eyes on a button a (sensitive area) for a certain length of time, it changes its colour twice before it is clicked. The colour change is an important feedback for users, who can know whether or not the computer has understood their command.



OPTICal DISCS

An optical disc (OD) is a flat circular, usually polycarbonate disc whereon digital data, such as music or text is stored is form of pits or bumps within a flat surface. This data is accessed with the help of a laser and ray that is why it is called optical disc. The reflected laser light gets distorted on reflection from pitted surface and such distortions are deciphered by a software programe.

Example: Optical discs include, Compact Discs (CD and CD ROM’s), LASER Discs, Digital Versatile Discs (DVD and DVD ROMs), etc.

Differentgenerationsofopticaldisc: 1. First-generationOD: Optical discs were initially used for storing music and software,

e.g., CDs, laser disc.

2. Second-generationOD: They were created to store large amount of data, including TV quality digital videos (e.g., DVD, mini-discs).

3. Third-generationOD:They are currently in development. They will be optimal for storing high definition videos and large video game softwares (e.g., Sony PlayStation 3-Blue Ray Disc, high-definition DVD).

gOOgle eaRTh

Google Earth is a new mapping service launched by Google that uses local search and satellite images to give users a three-dimensional view of buildings and terrain.

Google Earth lets people search for a location either their own neighbourhood or of the far corners of the globe, enabling users to get an aerial view, then zoom in the see 3D images of certain buildings and landscapes. It utilizes 3D graphics and broadband stream-ing technology, much like a videogame, offering dynamic navigation enabling users to interactively explore the world. We can see the roof top of ALS Institute and then can nav-igate to see roof top of Batra Cinema with the help of Google Earth. We can also see 3D view of Qutub Minar.

IDeNTITy ThefT

Identity theft or identity fraud are terms used to refer to all types of crime in which someone wrongfully obtains and uses another person’s personal data in some way that involves fraud or deception, typically for economic gain.

how is Identify Theft done?Our personal data such as our:

• Social security number

• Bank account number

• Credit card number

• Telephone calling card numbers and other valuable identifying data can be used, if they fall into wrong hands to personally profit at our expense. Not only economic losses are incurred, but also the reputation in the community is lost.



how do Criminals get Such Information?The criminals get secret data by:

• Rummaging through rubbish

• Eavesdropping

• Phishing

• Spams

how Should We Protect Ourselves from Identity Theft?The golden rules are:

• Do not give information easily without interrogation

• Do not give credit cards numbers, etc., on telephone, e-mails, voicemails, etc.

• Keep in touch with credit card companies if the bills fail to come

• Choose difficult and different passwords for different uses

PhIShINg

Phishing is a criminal activity attempting to acquire sensitive information, such as passwords, credit cards details by masquerading as a trustworthy person or business in an electronic communication. It is typically carried out using e-mail or an instant massage although phone contact has also been used.

Phishing is done typically using an e-mail. An e-mail comes and is designed to look as authentic as the original bank’s email. Same logo is used and similar website addressed is used so that the person has no qualms in sharing his/her personal data.

how Can We Save Ourselves from Phishing?The Golden rule is to ignore all such e-mails as the banks and other institutions never ask for personal data by e-mail.

OPTICal COmPUTINg

The computing in which the information carried in the computer chips is by photons rather than electrons is called optical computing. (The light is made up of small particles called photons which have zero mass and no charge). The optical computers have microchips and other parts which primarily use light as medium of information exchange.

Importance of Optical Computing

• With the rapid growth of computers in various applications of daily life, efforts are on to make them deliver at high speed and to make them smaller in size.

• In this regard, the electronic computers are now reaching their saturation. They are lim-ited not only by the speed of electrons, but also by increasing density of interconnections on microchips.

• The solution to this problems lies with the optical computing in the long run.



Why are Optical Computers faster?

• The photons that travel at 3000 km/sec are the fastest medium to carry signals. The limitation produced by slow-moving electrons in electrical circuit can be solved by photons.

• The optical data processing can perform many operations simultaneously (in parallel) much faster and easier than electronic one. The parallel processing when associated with fast switching speeds would produce staggering computational power. Bill Gates advocates that a calculation that might take 11 years for conventional computer to solve may be solved in just a single hour by optical computer.

BlOggINg/BlOg

Blog is short for Weblog, a type of website where entries are made and displayed in reverse chronological order. Blogs are basically online journals or diaries which are great for sharing information and ideas. A Blog often provides commentary or news on a subject (e.g., politics, food, etc.). The work weblog was coined by Jorn Barger, owner of popular Robot Wisdom Weblog. Blogger.com says: ‘A blog is a personal diary. A daily pulpit. A collaborative space, a political soapbox. A breaking news outlet. A collection of links. Your own private thoughts. Memos to the world.’ As well as text, blogs often contain audio, music, images and video. Blogging is a way of collecting links to webpages and sharing thoughts and ideas with people online. Blogging is to participate in a blog.

Types of Blogs

Blogs are classifi ed on the basis of way content is delivered or written.

• A blog comprising video is called Vlog • A blog comprising links is called Linklog

• A blog comprising photos is called Phottoblog

• A blog written by mobile or PDA is called moblog.

VIRTUal RealITy

VR is a technology which allows a user to interact with a computer simulated environment. A person perceives the computes simulated environments and participates in that environment. The persons act in that virtual on environment as if it were a reality.

how is Virtual Reality environment Created?

The person is provided with:

• Head mounted visual display to view the computer simulated environment • Headphones to listen to sounds • Virtual hand or wired glove to reproduce the movements of a real hand and permit

people to grasp, rotate and position objects • Polhemus boom arm to simulate movements of arm • Omni direction treadmill to run in that environment

INfO

Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic or probabilistic logic; it deals with reason-ing that is approx-imate rather than fi xed and exact.



gSm (glOBal SySTem fOR mOBIle)

The Global System for mobile communications, GSM, is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. GSM service is used by over 2 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories. GSM is the standard used by Airtel service, Hutch service, Idea, BSNL service, etc. The ubiquity of the GSM standard makes international roaming very common. GSM has become the world’s fastest-growing communication technology of all times.

how is gSm Better than first generation Wireless System?

• GSM differs significantly from its predecessors in that both signalling and speech trans-mission it uses digital technology and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Trans-mission method.

• GSM is considered Second Generation (2G) mobile phone system.

What are the advantages of gSm?

Consumers

• High digital quality voice

• Easy roaming facility

• Low-cost alternatives to making calls, such as SMS

NetworkOperators

• It allows network operators to offer roaming services. The open-standard GSM allows easy interoperability.

• New innovations in mobile services, such as GPRS, EDGE, etc., are superimposed on the GSM standard.

eDge/egPRS

EDGE, short for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution or Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), is a digital mobile phone technology that provides faster data transmission rates and also more reliable data transmission.

EDGE is thus an improved and faster version of GSM wireless service.

What are advantages of eDge?

• EDGE enables the data to be delivered at rates up to 384-kilobits per second on a broad line.

• EDGE is based on GSM standard and uses TDMA technology.

• EDGE is generally classified as 2.75G network technology.

• EDGE or EGPRS is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it.

• EDGE is relatively faster and more reliable than GPRS and it provides all services provided by GPRS.



expert Systems

• An expert system also known as a knowledge based system, is a computer programe that contains some subject specific knowledge which is used for problem solving purposes.

• Typically, the problems to be solved are of the sort that would normally be tackled by a medical or other professionals (e.g., A computer programe that diagnoses a disease or provides information to a person about filing a case in court of law).

examples of expert Systems

• Prolog:Expert system that advices about programing languages. • Mycin: Diagnoses infections and recommends antibiotics. • DipmetesAdvisor: Analyzis data gathered during oil exploration.

INTeRaCTIVe TeleVISION (ITV)

Interactive TV is a convergence technology that will convert the one-way passive TV viewing into a two-way interactive experience. This technology would enable television viewers to access remote servers and Internet through their TV and digital set-top device. Or in other words, interactive TV is any television with a ‘return path’ (i.e., information flows not only from broadcaster to viewer, but also back from viewer to broadcaster). This return path can be by telephone, mobile SMS or cable lines.

Different Forms/Configurations of ITV

ITV has been conceived in several different forms and configuration out of which three are very important.

1. InteractivitywithaTVset: It is the most basic level of interaction. Here viewer can interact with the broadcaster and can control the viewing of television content.

Example: VCR-like functions (e.g., pause, rewind, fast forward, commercial skipping and Video on Demand [VOD]).

2. InteractivitywithTVprogrammecontent: Here, the idea is that the programme itself, might change based on viewers input.

Examples: (i) Home shopping channels (ii) Opinion polls (iii) SMS voting (iv) Choosing angle to watch football match

3. Interactivity with content that is related to what is onTV: It is also known as coactivity. It includes getting more information about what is on the TV, whether sports, movies, news, etc.

Example: While watching a movie, just press a button to get all the details of the movie, the title, the star cast, the director, the story. In a nutshell, viewer can get more informa-tion about what is being advertised, along with ability to buy it known as the duration in minutes, the number of minutes you have missed and the upcoming movie.



SmaRT CaRD

A smart card resembles a credit card in size and shape but inside it is completely different. A normal credit card is a simple piece of plastic, but inside of a smart card contains an embedded microprocessor. The microprocessor is under a gold contact pad on one side of the card.

The microprocessor on the smart card is there for security. The host computer and card reader actually ‘talk’ to the microprocessor. The microprocessor enforces access to the data on the card.

Smart card can be used with a smart card reader attachment to a personal computer to authenticate a user. Web browsers can also use smart card technology to supplement secure sockets layers (SSL) for improved security of Internet transaction.

Most common smart card applications are:

• Credit cards • Electronic cash

• Computer security systems • Wireless communication

• Loyalty systems • Banking

• Government identification

INSTRUmeNT laNDINg SySTem

Instrument landing system is a ground based radio system designed to provide an airplane pilot with precise guidance for the final approach in landing. It facilitates take-offs and landings of aircraft in very low visibility conditions (e.g., dense fog). Instrument landing system utilizes radio beams to delineate course. The path is delineated by the intersection of two radio beams.

localizer Beam • The localizer beam provides guidance in the horizontal direction.

• With the help of intersection of radio beams, the pilot can know where on ground lies the runway. In aircraft, the needle sensitive to deviations from localizer help the pilot to guide the aircraft.

The glide Slope Beam • The GS beam provides guidance in the vertical plane.

• The GS beam indicates the slope and path which a pilot requires to keep while landing the aircraft. The needle sensitive to deviations from glide slope help the pilot in landing.

• By keeping both sensitive needles centred, the pilot can guide his aircraft down to the end of the landing runway aligned with the runway centre line.

What are the limitations of IlS?

• False guidance can result from distortion of the radio beam by nearly buildings or mountains. That’s why newer systems use microwaves which are not easily distorted.

• It cannot be used safely in locations where the land beyond the approach end of runway is not level.

For this radio marker beacons are installed at several locations along the approach path to tell the pilot on how far he is from the end of runway.



VIRTUal WaTeR

Virtual water is the amount of water that is embedded in food or other products needed for its production (e.g., to produce 1 kg of wheat we need about 1000 L of water (i.e., the virtual water of this kg of wheat is 1000 L).

The per capita consumption of virtual water contained in our diet varies according to the type of diets:

1. 1 m3/day–survival diet

2. 2.5m3/day–vegetation diet

3. 5 m3/day–meat based diet

(It shows moderating our diets could make water available for other purposes).

What is Virtual Water Trade and its Significance?

With the trade of any commodity or food crops, there is a virtual flow of water from producing and exporting countries to countries that consume and import those commodities. It is called Virtual Water Trade.

A water scarce country can import products that require a lot of water for their production rather than producing them domestically. By doing so, it allows real water savings, relieving the pressure on their water resources or making water available for other purposes.

At the global level, Virtual Water Trade has geo-political implications. It induces dependen-cies between countries. Therefore, it can be regarded either as a stimulant for cooperation and peace or a reason for potential conflict.

The third World Water Forum held in Kyoto reflected on the need to popularize the concepts of virtual water and water fool prints to improve water availability in water stressed countries.

NaTURal DISaSTeR INfORmaTION SySTem

Natural Disaster Information System developed by Geneva Software Technologies will inform people about an impending disaster or about any disaster in their local language over mobile phones and specially set up Wireless Public Address System in their locality in less than a minute.

how will NDIS Warn People about an Impending Disaster?

• Any disaster that is detected by the Indian Meteorological Department will put the whole machinery into action.

• The IMD will use its web interface to send message to Geneva Software Technologies (GSTL’s) server.

• The message is translated and streamed or sent as multi lingual message.

• The Location-Based Language Message Service (LBLMS) maps the location and identifies the subscriber in the area which faces impending disaster.

• The Dynamic Voice Translation System (DVTS) translates this alert, converts it to voice and sends it as voice calls.

• The voice message is broadcast to specially installed Wireless Public Address System (WPAS). As a result, the public receives alert messages in 5 essential forms:

(i) SMS in regional language (e.g., Tamil)

(ii) SMS in Hindi



(iii) SMS in English

(iv) Voice message in mobile phone

(v) Voice message through WPAS for these who do not own mobile phones

The whole process will take around 33 seconds.

ChaPTeR aT a glaNCe

• Daily newspapers were brought out in all the princi-pal languages except Kashmiri.

• Uttar Pradesh retained the prestigious position of pub-lishing the largest number of newspapers in any state.

• In case of dailies also, Uttar Pradesh held the top position.

• Bombay Samachar, a Gujarati daily published from Mumbai since 1822, is the oldest existing newspaper.

• Eenadu, a Telugu Daily published from Hyderabad is the largest-circulated, single edition daily followed by The Hindu English/Daily published from Chennai.

• The Times of India in English having 12 editions came fi rst among multi-edition dailies. Eenadu with 19 editions stood second in terms of circulation.

• Among periodicals The Hindu Weekly English/Weekly from Chennai topped, while Times Ascent an English/Weekly, published from Delhi came second.

• The fi rst radio programme was broadcast by the Radio Club of Bombay in June 1923.

• It was followed by a Broadcasting Service that began broadcasting on 23 July 1927 on an experimental basis at Mumbai and Kolkata simultaneously under an agreement between the Government of India and a private company called the Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd.

• In 1935, Lionel Fielden was appointed the Controller of Broadcasting in India. The Indian State Broadcast-ing Service was renamed All India Radio in January 1936.

• At the time of partition, India had six radio stations (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Tiruchirap-palli and Lucknow) and three radio stations went to Pakistan (Lahore, Peshawar and Dacca, now in Bangladesh).

• The fi rst ever FM service was started in Madras on 23 July 1977.

• All India Radio came to be known as Akashvani from 1957.

• FM Gold channel was on air on 1 September 2001 at Delhi as a niche infotainment channel with 30% of news and current affairs component and 70% of entertainment programming. At present FM gold channel is available in four metros (i.e., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai) DTH Service

• DTH Radio Channel is a Satellite Service meant for listeners who own a TV set.

• DTH Service is available through the DTH platform of Prasar Bharati with uplinking facilities at Todapur, Delhi. It is not a terrestrial broadcast service.

• The most signifi cant aspect of DTH is its digital quality.

NationalChannel

• National Channel was started on 18 May 1988.

• Having the entire area of India as its zone, the programme composition of the channel has been designed to make it representative of the varied cul-tural mosaic and ethos of the nation as a whole.

• Doordarshan, a public service broadcaster, is one of the largest television networks in the world.

• It started a service on 15 September 1959 in Delhi with the transmission of educational and develop-ment programmes on an experimental basis. The sec-ond television centre was started in Bombay, in 1972.DD National.

• DD national channel is the largest terrestrial net-work in the world covering about 92.0% population and 82.0% land area of the country. Being a public service broadcaster, the channel continues to make signifi cant contribution to accelerate socioeconomic changes, promote national integration, inculcate a



sense of unity and fraternity and stimulate scientific temperament among the people.

• DD National is the No. 1 channel in the country in terms of absolute viewership (DD News)

• News and Current Affairs programming forms an important component of DD News since its launch on 3 November 2003.

• It is committed to present news and current affairs in fair, balanced and objective manner away from sen-sationalism. It has the unique distinction of being the only terrestrial-cum-satellite news channel.

• It reaches the non-cable, non-satellite homes, which account for major portion of the population.

DD Sports

• A dedicated Indian sports channel of Doordarshan was launched on 18 March 1999.

• The transmission of the channel was increased from 10 hours to 12 hours a day from 25 April 1999 and considering the popularity of the channel the

transmission hrs extended to round the clock (i.e., from June, 2000).

DDBharati

• DD Bharti was launched on 26 January 2002

• The channel was revamped from 7 June 2010 and car-ries programmes on art, literature and culture.

DD Urdu

• DD Urdu was launched in 15 August 2006 initially for a shorter transmission which was extended to make Channel 24×7 (w.e.f., 14 November 2007) India

• Doordarshan opened its windows to the world by launching its international channel on 14 March 1995. The channel, initially known as DD World, was renamed DD India in 2002.

• The programming offers international viewers an update on the Indian social, cultural, political and economic scene.



PReVIOUS yeaRS’ QUeSTIONS

Prelims Questions

1. The terms ‘Wanna Cry, Petya and Eternal Blue’ sometimes mentioned in the news recently are related to (2018)

(a) Exo-planets (b) Crypto-currency

(c) Cyber attacks (d) Mini satellites

2. The identity platform ‘Aadhaar’ provides open “Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)”. What does it imply? (2018)

1. It can be integrated into any electronic device.

2. Online authentication using iris is possible.




3. In India, it is legally mandatory for each of the fol-lowing to report on cyber security incidents? (2017)

1. Service providers

2. Data centres

3. Body corporate



(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

4. Regarding ‘Digi Locker’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)

1. It is digital locker system offered by the Govern-ment under Digital India Programme.

2. It allows you to access your e-documents irre-spective of your physical location.




5. ‘Project Loon’ sometimes seen in the news, is related to (2016)

(a) Waste management technology (b) Wireless communication technology (c) Solar power production technology (d) Water conservation technology

6. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (2015)

1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium 3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor 5. Mercury 6. Lead 7. Plutonium

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7

(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6

(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

7. A new optical disc format known as the Blue-ray Disc (BD) is becoming popular. In what is it different from the traditional DVD? (2011)

1. DVD supports Standard-defi nition video while BD supports High-defi nition video.

2. Compared to a DVD, the BD format has several times more storage capacity.

3. Thickness of BD is 2-4 mm while that of DVD is 1–2 mm.


(a) 1 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

8. What is ‘Virtual Private Network’? (2011) (a) It is a private computer network of an orga-

nization where the remote users can transmit encrypted information through the server of the organization.

(b) It is computer network across a public Internet that provides users access to their organization’s network while maintaining the security of the information transmitter.

(c) It is a computer network in which users can access a shared pool of computing resources through a service provider.

(d) None of the statements (a) (b) and (c) given above is a correct description of Virtual Private Network.

ChaPTeR eND eXeRCISe



9. Which among the following do/does not belong/belongs to the GSM family of wireless technologies? (2010)

(a) EDGE (b) LTE

(c) DSL (d) Both EDGE and LTE

10. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the list. (2007)

List-I List-II (Computer) (Major Area/Pro.)

A Chevron 1. Wind energy

B AT & T 2. Oil

C AM(D) 3. Telephone, Internet

D GmbH 4. Microprocessor

Codes: A B C D (a) 2 1 4 3

(b) 4 3 2 1

(c) 2 3 4 1

(d) 4 1 2 3

11. MCA-21 is a major initiative taken up by the Gov-ernment of India in which one of the following areas? (2007)

(a) Foreign direct investment in India

(b) Attracting international tourists

(c) e-governance

(d) Modernization

12. Consider the following statements: (2004) 1. Adam Osborne produced the first portable com-

puter.

2. Ian Wilmut created the first cloned sheep.


(a) 1 (b) 2


13. Param Padma, which was in news recently, is (2004) (a) A new Civilian Award instituted by the Govt. of

India.

(b) The name of a supercomputer developed by India.

(c) The name given to a proposed network of canals linking northern and southern rivers of India.

(d) A software programe to facilitate e-governance in Madhya Pradesh.

14. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (2004)

(a) Reinhold Messner: Computer Technology

(b) Harlow Shapley: Astronomy

(c) Gregor Mendel: Heredity Theory

(d) Godfrey Hounsfield: CT scan

15. Consider the following statements: (2004) 1. Smart card is a plastic card with an embedded

microchip.

2. Digital technology is primarily used with new physical communication medium, such as satel-lite and fibre optics transmission.

3. A digital library is a collection of documents in an organized electronic form available on the Internet only.


(a) 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

16. The memory of a computer is commonly expressed in terms of kilobytes or megabytes. A byte is made up of (2006)

(a) eight binary digits (b) eight decimal digits

(c) two binary digits (d) two decimal digits

17. For reproducing sound, a CD (Compact Disc) audio player uses a (2000)

(a) quartz crystal (b) titanium needle

(c) laser beam (d) barium ceramic

main Questions

1. Use of Internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major security concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to curb the above threat. 12½ (2016)

2. Comment on the following in not more than 50 words:

(a) e-governance initiatives by the Union Public Ser-vice Commission (UPSC). (2011)

3. Comment on any two the following in about 50 words each: (2011)



(a) The scourge of e-waste.

(b) Analog, hybrid and IP systems in CCTV technol-ogy.

(c) Difference between Compact Disc (CD), Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) and Blu-ray Disc.

4. Why have each of the following been in the news recently? (Each answer in a sentence or two only). (2011)

(a) Tiangong-1 (b) K-computer

(c) Operation Shady Rat (d) SAGA-220

5. Answer any two of the following in not more than 150 words each: (2011)

(a) Bring out the applications of computer models in studying climate changes’ with special reference to the Community Earth System Model (CESM).

(b) Explain and differentiate among ‘Plasma’ ‘LCD’ and ‘LED’ television technologies.

(c) What is ‘cloud computing?’ Bring out its essential features and list its advantages and limitations.

6. Who/what are the following and why have they been in the news recently? (Your answer should be in a sentence or two only) (2010)

(a) Craig Venter (b) Shah ran Amery (c) Wolfram Alpha (d) Blue gene project

7. Explain the following in about 100 words. (2009) (a) Define ‘optical frequency comb.’ Suggest at least

three applications. (b) Why is tele-medicine important for country like

India?

8. Write briefly on Biometric ATMs. (about 30 words). (2009)

9. Internet Protocol Television (IPTV). (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2008)

10. Write about Wi-Fi in 150 words. Marks 15 (2008) 11. Answer all the five questions in about 20 words each.

Marks 2 × 5 = 10 (2007) a) What is firewall? b) What is malware? c) What do the following stand for? i) MPEG ii) ISP iii) HTML iv) ASCII d) What is Root kit? e) What is computer architecture?

12. Explain how Nanoscience and Nanotechnology have revolutionized modern technology. (In about 250 words). Marks 30 (2006)

13. What do you understand by optical computing? Why is optical computing envisaged to have much better performance than that of electronic computing? (In about 150 words). Marks 15 (2006)

14. Answer all the five questions in about 20 words each. Marks 2 × 5 = 10 (2006)

a) What do you understand by a ‘search engine’ in computing?

b) Expand the following:

i) CAD ii) CAM

iii) CIM

c) Explain what is Thin Film Memory in computers.

d) Write a short note on ‘Artificial Intelligence.’

e) Who are called ‘Hackers’ in computer world?

15. What is digital convergence? Examine its impli-cations for modern society? (In about 250 words). Marks 30 (2005)

16. Answer all the five questions in about 20 words each. (2005)

a) What is an exabyte?

b) What is VIRUS?

c) What do the following stand for?

i) XML ii) MASER

iii) SECAM iv) TIPS

d) What is avatar?

e) What is Wikipedia?

17. What is ‘Superconductivity’? Give its uses and appli-cations. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2004)


a) What do you understand by e-governance?

b) What is a URL?

c) What do the following stand for?

i) CD-ROM ii) USB

iii) ITES iv) FORTRAN

d) What do you understand by MP3?

e) What are cybercrimes? How are these protected?

19. What is interactive television? What special advan-tages are derived by using VOD services? What are the components of a typical VOD system? Which feature film was generated first entirely on com-puters and in which year? (In about 250 words). Marks 30 (2003)



20. Answer all the five questions in about 20 words each.

(2003) a) What is ‘Sympathetic Haptics’?

b) What are special features of ‘Linux’?

c) What is an operating system? List the basic ser-vices provided by an operating system.

d) What is an ‘Internet Worm’? Explain DDoS.

e) What do the following stand for?

i) POSIX ii) EPROM

iii) MODEM iv) COBOL

21. Discuss in detail ‘The Internet telephony as an alter-native.’ (In about 250 words). Marks 30 (2002)

22. Answer all the five questions in about 20 words each.

(2002) a) What is a digital camera?

b) What is firewall in Computer Language?

c) What is multimedia?

d) What do the following stand for?

i) HTML ii) FTP

iii) MELOPS iv) PLANIT

23. Determine the utility of Direct to Home in broad-casting system. (About 125 words each). Marks 10 (2001)

24. What is fibre optics? What advantages does it offer in telecommunications? Elaborate. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2001)

25. (About 20 words): Marks 2 × 5 = 10 (2001) a) What is ‘handshake’ in computer language?

b) What is ‘ethernet’ and what is it used for?

c) What is ‘digital signature’ and what is it used for?

d) What do the following stand for?

i) DRAM ii) JPEG

iii) ASCII iv) IMAP

e) What is a WAP-enabled phone?


a) What does the ‘clock speed’ of a computer sig-nify?

b) What do the following stand for?

i) http ii) CPU

iii) ROM iv) BIOS

c) What is a modem and what is it used for?

d) What is spamming?

e) How does a computer virus destroy data?

27. What is a modem? What is it used for? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1999)

28. What is a computer virus? How does it infect sys-tems? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1999)

29. Describe the development of supercomputers in India. (About 150 words). Marks 20 (1998)

30. What are optical fibres? What are their advantages? (About 150 words). Marks 20 (1998)

31. Why is Website getting popular? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1998)

32. What is the difference between E-mail and Fax? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1998)

33. What is an E-mail write in 20 words. Marks 2 (19974) 34. What are high-temperature superconductors?

Describe their important applications. (About 150 words). Marks 20 (1994)

35. What is a supercomputer? Give an account of super-computer development in India. (About 250 words). Mark 30 (1993)

36. What is a CD-ROM? Describe its main advantages as a vehicle for information dissemination. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1993)

37. What is an E-lamp? What are its main advantages? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1993)

PRaCTICe eXeRCISe

1. Which of the following are the departments under the Ministry of Communications and IT?

1. Department of Posts

2. Department of Information Technology

3. Department of Telecommunications

4. Department of Space


(a) Only 1, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2, and 3

(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Which of the following are the initiatives taken by the MoCIT during the XII FYP?



1. Promote research/innovation in key and strategic areas in ICT through appropriate Industry Aca-demia Partnerships

2. Promote hardware design, research and manu-facturing capability

3. Digitize broadcasting network, including content

4. Establish common regulatory framework for the broadcasting sector both for content and carriage



(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

3. Which of the following are correct in the context of evolution of communications in India?

1. First telegraph line was installed between Kolk-ata and Diamond Harbour in 1851.

2. In March 1884, telegraph messages could be sent from Delhi to Kolkata.

3. In 1900, telegraph and telephone started serving Indian Railways.

4. First automatic exchange was commissioned at Shimla in 1913 to 14 with a capacity of 700 lines.



(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

4. In the context of telecommunication connectivity in the country, which of the following are correct as on June 2013?

1. Rural teledensity is 41.96%

2. Urban teledensity is 145%

3. Total teledensity is 93.50%

4. Number of broadband subscribers is 15.19 million



(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

5. Which of the following objectives of National Tele-comm Policy correctly stated?

1. Increase rural teledensity from the current level of around 39 to 70 by the year 2017, and 100 by the year 2020.

2. Provide high-speed and high-quality broadband access to all village panchayats through a combi-nation of technologies by the year 2014 and pro-gressively to all villages and habitations by 2020.

3. Provide affordable and reliable broadband-on-de-mand by the year 2015, and to achieve 175 mil-lion broadband connections by the year 2017, and 600 million by the year 2020 at minimum 2 Mbps download speed and making available higher speeds of at least 100 Mbps on demand.


(a) Only 1 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 2

(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

6. Which of the following statements are correct regard-ing steps taken recently to improve the telecommuni-cation services in India?

1. India is the first country where government has a road map for transition to IPv6 Internet Protocol.

2. TRAI has ordered to making roaming free in India.

3. The norms relating to compliance to EMF radia-tion standards are made more stringent.

4. National Optical Fibre Network will be funded by Universal Services Obligation Fund.


(a) Only 1, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2, and 4 (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

7. Which of the following statements are correct about the Universal Service Obligation Fund?

1. Resources to the fund are raised through a Uni-versal Service Levy of 5% on Adjusted Gross Revenue of Telecomm service providers.

2. USL is levied on all service providers including the providers of pure value-added services, such as Internet, e-mail, etc.

3. The fund’s objective is to provide basic telecom-munication services to people in rural and remote areas.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) Only 1 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 2 (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3




PSU Yearofestablishment (a) Mahanagar Telephone 1986

Nigam Limited

(b) Bharat Sanchar 2000

Nigam Limited

(c) Indian Telephone 1990

Industries Limited

(d) Telecommunications 1978

Consultants India Ltd.

9. Which of the following are the statutory functions of the Registrar of Newspapers for India?

1. Compilation and maintenance of Register of Newspapers

2. Issue certificate of registration for newspapers

3. Scrutiny of annual statements of the newspapers

4. Formulation of newsprint allocation policy


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 2, 3 and 4 (d) Only 1 and 4

10. Which of the following statements is true in relation to the newspapers in India?

1. There is no daily newspaper in Kashmiri lan-guage.

2. Bombay Samachar, the oldest existing newspa-per, is published in Marathi.

3. Eenadu, the largest circulated single edition daily, is published in Telugu.

4. The Times of India has the highest circulation among multi-edition dailies.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 2, 3 and 4 (d) Only 1, 3 and 4

11. Which of the following is the correct function of Press Information Bureau?

(a) Regulate the content of the print media

(b) Act as an interface between government and media

(c) Publish the important reports and studies of the government

(d) Present the government views in the Internet media

12. Which of the following statements is true about the Journalists Welfare Fund?

1. It is being implemented by the Press Information Bureau

2. It provides ex-gratia relief to families in case of death or permanent disability of the journalist

3. The amount that can be sanction to the journalist is ` 5,00,000


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 2

(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) Only 3

13. Which of the following is a news agency?

1. Press Council of India

2. Press Trust of India

3. United News of India


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 2 and 3

(c) Only 1 and 2 (d) Only 1 and 3

14. Which of the following is true in relation to news agencies in India?

1. United news of India is the first Indian news agency to deliver its entire news service in English and Hindi as well as its photo service via Internet.

2. Press Trust of India is a participant in NAM News Network.

3. NAM News Network replaced the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool in June 2006.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 2 and 3


15. Which of the following are the correct objectives of Prasar Bharati?

1. Upholding unity and integrity of the country 2. Promotion of national integration 3. Live telecast of Parliament proceedings 4. Promoting R&D in broadcast technology 5. Promoting social justice

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (b) Only 3 and 4 (c) Only 1, 2, 4 and 5 (d) Only 1, 2 and 4



16. Which of the following are the correct provisions of the recently passed Prasar Bharati Amendment Bill, 2011?

1. Central government can transfer the employees of Akashvani and Doordarshan on certain condi-tions

2. All new employees of Akahsvani are considered employees of Prasar Bharati

3. New employees of Doordarshan are considered to be employees of Prasar Bharati

4. Prasar Bharti will have power to dismiss any offi-cer or employee from service


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 4


17. Which of the following is correct in the context of radio broadcasting in India?

1. The first radio programme was broadcast in Bombay in 1923.

2. The first FM radio service was started in Madras in 1977.

3. At the time of partition India got 6 radio stations and Pakistan got 3.

4. All India Radio was named Akashvani in 1946.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 1 and 2 (c) Only 1 and 2

(d) Only 2 and 3

18. Which of the following is true regarding FM radio service in India?

1. There is a two-tier system of broadcasting FM radio: national and regional.

2. Only Andaman and Nicobar Islands do not have FM radio as on 2013.

3. FM Gold is an infotainment radio service with 30% information and 70% entertainment pro-grammes.

4. FM gold is available only in four metros.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 2, 3 and 4


19. Which of the following is correct with regard to Hams?

1. It is another name of Amateur Radio operators.

2. They can operate even when the main power sup-ply is cut due to disaster.

3. Amateur Radio Society of India is a registered society that is internationally recognized.

4. Amateur radios usually operates on an 18 V battery.


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 1 and 2 (d) Only 2, 3 and 4

20. Dr. V Shantaram Award for Lifetime Achievement is given to

(a) Radio personalities

(b) Television personalities

(c) Film personalities

(d) Theatre personalities

21. Who among the following is the Chairman of Central Board of Film Certification?

(a) Sharmila Tagore (b) Leela Samson

(c) Jaya Bachchan (d) Shabana Azmi

22. What is the main objective of Policy on Headend in the Sky (HITS)?

(a) To increase the popularity of theatre in India

(b) To widen the reach of FM service

(c) To increase the depth of penetration of cable ser-vices in rural areas

(d) To support the short and documentary film makers

23. Which of the following journals is not published by the Publications Division of the Ministry of Informa-tion and Broadcasting?

(a) Aajkal

(b) Yojana

(c) Kurukshetra

(d) Economic and Political Weekly

24. Which of the following is the name of the Hindi lan-guage news service of Press Trust of India?

(a) Akhbar (b) Samachar Patrika

(c) Bhasha (d) Dainik Bharati



aNSWeR KeyS

Prelims Questions

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)

11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (c)

Practice exercise

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)

21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (c)

hINTS aND eXPlaNaTIONS

Prelims Questions

1. The Petya and WannaCry cyber-attacks in May and June 2017; are two of the biggest in history and impacted the finances of companies throughout the globe. Wanna Cry, which affected numerous organ-isations, including the NHS, spread to 150 countries and is estimated to have cost the global economy £6bn.

2. The UIDAI is charged with the responsibility of issu-ing Indian residents with identification numbers that are unique to facilitate authentication and verification of Indian residents.

The API authenticates Indian residents wishing to get services from Indian government agencies. Responses and calls for Aadhaar API are in XML format.

The Application Programming Interface released by Aadhaar contains individual’s protocol, specifica-tions about security and data in for of API format.

The open source programming offered by Aadhaar API in its project of unique identification in India helps developers of the software to build and manage data applications. With the API system the Aadhaar team handling the identification process is able to enjoy a smooth flow of activities without undue inter-ferences. With the open source program available, developers will be able to create apps using standards that are open which will eventually enhance interop-erability.

The connection of Aadhaar API with open source programming is also aimed at enhancing perfor-mance metrics and prudency that will ensure trans-

parency through public portals. The open source program supports java, NET, windows and Linux and developers of Aadhaar API can easily create an eco-system that allows him to play libraries stored in the standard API.

For complete authentication of individuals, the authentication API would require 12 digits together with the various biometric identifications such as iris scans and fingerprints. The API system gives responses in binary forms of either no or yes which guarantees privacy.

3. The CERT Rules also impose an obligation on ser-vice providers, intermediaries, data centres and body corporates to report cyber incidents within a reason-able time so that CERT-In may have scope for timely action. Hence, the correct option is (d).

9. Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is the next step from 3G/WCDMA and HSPA for many already on the GSM technology curve but also for others too, such as CDMA operators. This new radio access technology will be optimized to deliver very fast rate speeds of up to 100 Mb/s downlink and 50 Mb/s uplink (peak rates). LTE is a step toward the fourth-generation (4G) of radiotechnologies designed to increase the capacity and speed of mobile telephone networks. Hence, the correct option is (c).

10. Chevron Corporation is one of the world’s largest global energy companies, Headquartered in San Ramon, California, United States, and active in more than 180 countries, it is engaged in every aspect of



the oil and gas industry, including exploration and production; refining, marketing and transport; chem-icals manufacturing and sales; and power generation. Hence, the correct option is (c).

12. Ian Wilmut of Roslin Institute, Scotland created the first cloned sheep Dolly in 1996. Hence, the correct option is (c).

13. Param Padam is developed by C-DAC. Hence, the correct option is (b).

14. Charles Babbage: Computer Technology. Hence, the correct option is (a).

15. A digital library is available other than Internet also. For example, CD, floppy. Hence, the correct option is (b).

16. A computer may perform millions of calculation in solving a problem in a flash second. Each number, letter, symbol, etc., put into a computer is turned into a group of 8 bits (bytes), each bits must be stored in somewhere and must ready to be retrieved at a moment notice. Hence, the correct option is (a).

17. Interference is the reason for reproducing sound. Rainbow colours are found if the light is not mono-chromatic. Interference takes place due to the reflec-tion of light rays from the top layer of the CD and from the bottom layer of the CD. To reflect from the bottom layer, light has to transmit through the mate-rial of the CD. Hence, the correct option is (c).


INTRODUCTION

For any nation, defence research and technology is of prime importance in maintaining a robust security system, combating any socio-political and military attack or war from inside as well as outside the borders.

Since independence, India has devoted a great deal of thought and action to the necessity and development of a strong defence mechanism. It is worth noting that India ranks third after the USA and China in terms of the number of military troops.

GOVERNMENT’S ROLE IN DEFENCE RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

The Government of India is responsible for ensuring the defence of India and every part thereof. The supreme command of the armed forces vests in the President. The responsibility for national defence rests with the cabinet. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, which provides the policy framework and wherewithal to the armed forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.

India’s Manoeuvres in Defence Research

• India succesfully test fired supersonic interceptor missile on 15 May 2016 from Abdul Kalam Island (formed as Wheeler Island).

• India succesfuly test fired n-capable Agni I missile on 14 March 2016 from Odisha coast.

• International Fleet Review 2016, attended by 52 countries, was hosted by India’s Eastern Naval Command.


❍ Understand the importance of defence technology.

❍ Discuss the development of defence technology in India.

❍ Name tanks, missiles, planes and submarines developed in India.

❍ Understand the defence policy of India.

Learning Objectives

5Chapter

Defence Research and Technology


Section A: Unit II – progression of Science and Technology1.264

• Nag Anti-Tank missile succesfully tested in the second week of January 2016. • Medium-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (MR-SAM) developed jointly by India and

Israel. Test of Odisha coast similar to the Barak missile. Strike range from 50 to 70 km. • India succesfully test fi red the Barak and long range surface-to-air nuclear capa-

ble ballistic missile, strike range from 70 to 90 km. Both are air- and land-based missiles.

• Tejas light combat aircrafts inducted into IAF squadron known as Flying Daggers 45 equipped to handle air-to-air, air-to-surface, anti-ship, bomb, and rockets.

• INS Tillanchang, Water Jet Fast Attack Craft (WJFAC) was recently commisioned into Indian Navy.

• Mormugao is the indigenously built guided missile destroyer, 2nd ship project 15B. Designed by Directorate of Naval Design, New Delhi.

• TAPAS 201 (RUSTOM-II) DRDO carried act maiden fl ight, a Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV).

• INS Chennai, a P15A guided missile destroyer commisioned into Indian Navy. • INS Kalvari: Indian Navy’s 1st Indigenous Scorpene-class stealth submarine also known

as TIGER SHARE (or S50). • INS Viract, world’s longest serving warship decommisioned by Indian Navy. It also

holds the Guinness Book of record of being the longest serving warship in the world.

Functions of Ministry of Defence

• India’s defence policy aims at promoting and sustaining durable peace in the subconti-nent and equipping the defence forces adequately to safeguard aggression.

• India possesses nuclear weapons and maintains short and intermediate-range ballistic missiles, nuclear capable aircraft, surface ships, and submarines under development as possible delivery systems and platforms. Although it lacks an operational ballistic mis-sile submarines, India has ambitions of possessing a nuclear triad in the near future when INS Arihant, the lead ship of India’s Arihant class of nuclear-powered submarines, formally joins the Indian Navy in 2012 after undergoing extensive sea trials.

• Though India has not made any offi cial statements about the size of its nuclear arse-nal, estimates suggest that India has between 40 and 95 nuclear weapons, consistent with estimates that it has produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 75–110 nuclear weapons.

• Production of weapons-grade plutonium is believed to be taking place at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, which is home to the CIRUS reactor acquired from Canada, to the indigenous Dhruva reactor, and to a plutonium separation facility.

• India is not a signatory to the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which India argues, entrenches the status quo of the existing nuclear weapons states whilst prevent-ing general nuclear disarmament.

• India tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code named Smiling Buddha), which it called peaceful nuclear explosive. The test used plutonium, produced in the Canadian- supplied CIRUS reactor, and raised concerns that nuclear technology supplied for peaceful pur-poses could be diverted to weapons purposes.

• This also stimulated the early work of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. India performed further nuclear tests in 1998 (code named Operation Shakti).

INFO

The defence minis-ter is the head of the Ministry of Defence. The principal task of the defence ministry is to obtain policy directions of the government on all defence- and security-related matters and com-municate them for implementation to the services head-quarters, inter-ser-vices organizations, production establish-ments and research and development organizations. It is also required to ensure eff ective implementation of the government’s policy directions and the execution of approved pro-grammes within the allocated resources. Ministry of Defence comprises four departments, such as Department of Defence (DOD), Department of Defence Production (DDP), Department of Defence Research & Development (DDR & D) and Department of Ex- Servicemen Welfare and also Finance Division.


Chapter 5 – Defence Research and Technology 1.265

ORGANIzATIONAL SET Up AND FUNCTIONS

• After independence, the Ministry of Defence was created under the charge of a cabinet minister, and each service was placed under its own commander- in-chief. In 1955, the commanders-in-chief were renamed as the chief of the army staff, the chief of the naval staff and the chief of the air staff.

• In November 1962, a department of defence production was set up to deal with research, development, and production of defence equipment.

• In November 1965, the department of defence supplies was created for planning and execution of schemes for import substitution of defence requirements. These two depart-ments were later merged to form the department of defence production and supplies.

• In 2004, the name of department of defence production and supplies was changed to department of defence production. In 1980, the department of defence research and development was created. In 2004, the department of ex-servicemen welfare was created.

• The defence secretary functions is head of the department of defence and is additionally responsible for coordinating the activities of the four departments in the ministry.

The principal functions of all the departments are as follows:

• The department of defence deals with the Integrated Defence Staff (IDS) and three services and various inter-service organizations. It is also responsible for the defence budget, establishment matters, defence policy, matters relating to parliament, defence cooperation with foreign countries, and coordination of all defence-related activities.

• The department of defence production is headed by a secretary and deals with mat-ters pertaining to defence production, indigenization of imported stores, equipment and spares, planning and control of departmental production units of the Ordnance Factory Board and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs).

• The department of defence research and development is headed by a Secretary, who is the scientific adviser to the defence minister. Its function is to advise the government on scientific aspects of military equipment and logistics and the formulation of research, design and development plans for equipment required by the services.

• The department of ex-servicemen welfare is headed by a secretary and deals with all resettlement, welfare and pensionary matters of ex-servicemen.

DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOpMENT ORGANIzATION (DRDO)

Introduction

DRDO was formed in 1958 from the amalgamation of the then already- functioning Technical Development Establishment (TDE) of the Indian army and the Directorate of Technical Development and Production (DTDP) with the Defence Science Organization (DSO).

DRDO was then a small organization with 10 establishments or laboratories. Over the years, it has grown multi-directionally in terms of the variety of subject disciplines, number of laboratories, achievements, and stature.

Today, DRDO is a network of more than 51 laboratories which are deeply engaged in developing defence technologies covering various disciplines, like aeronautics, armaments,



electronics, combat vehicles, engineering systems, instrumentation, missiles, advanced com-puting and simulation, special materials, naval systems, life sciences, training, information systems and agriculture.

Presently, the organization is backed by over 5000 scientists and about 25,000 other scientific, technical and supporting personnel.

Several major projects for the development of missiles, armaments, light combat aircrafts, radars, electronic warfare systems, etc., are on hand and significant achievements have already been made in several such technologies.

Vision

Its vision is to make India prosperous by establishing world-class science and technology base and provide our defence services decisive edge by equipping them with internationally competitive systems and solutions.

Mission

Its mission is to design, develop and lead to production state-of-the-art sensors, weapon systems, platforms and allied equipment for our defence services and to provide technological solutions to the services to optimize combat effectiveness and to promote well-being of the troops.

Its mission also includes to develop infrastructure and committed quality manpower and build strong indigenous technology base.

Infrastructure

National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) • The National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), a constituent of Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR), is India’s pre-eminent civil R&D establishment in aeronau-tics and allied disciplines. NAL was set up at Delhi in 1959 and moved to Bengaluru in 1960.

• NAL’s primary objective is the development of aerospace technologies with a strong sci-ence content and with a view to their practical application to the design and construction of flight vehicles. During the last decade, NAL has spearheaded the effort to design and develop HANSA and SARAS aircraft for the civil sector.

High Energy Material Research Lab (HEMRL) • The High Energy Material Research Lab (HEMRL), Pune, is engaged in the devel-

opment of propellants and explosives. It successfully developed solid fuels for Akash/Trishul/Nag. It is engaged in development of liquid fuels and charge line mine detecting and clearing vehicles. It has also developed mini-anti personal inflammables which can set water-surface inflammable to prevent enemy troops cross-water obstacles.

Defence production CompaniesSeveral private sector companies have approached the government for licences after the opening up of defence production to the private sector. Of these, L&T has plans of manufacturing armoured and other combat vehicles, warships, submarines, radars, sonar systems, weapons motors missiles, etc. The others mainly want to manufacture explosives. Gun manufacturer, SGAA Harvey Curtis has also approached the government, for the manufacture of rifles and



handguns for sports purposes and for the manufacture of ammunition. All these companies have approached the licensing committee in the industry ministry for clearances. Defence production was fully opened up to private participation in 2001. Prior to that, private sector participation was permitted in electronic aerospace and defence equipment manufacture, subject to compulsory licensing. India’s defence production industry made its beginning in 1801 when the first ordnance factory was established at Cossipore, Kolkata. At present, there are 39 ordnance factories and 8 defence public sector undertakings, whose combined sales last year amounted to `12,714 crores besides a number of big and small units in the private sector (already operating in the sectors opened up prior to 2001). The ordnance factories are involved in the manufacture of weapons, ammunitions, armoured vehicles, transport vehicles, clothing and general stores, while the defence public sector companies produce aircraft, warships, missiles, radars, communication systems, electronic equipment, special vehicles, superior alloys and special metallurgical products.

MISSILE pROGRAMME OF INDIA

There are two types of missiles:

1. Ballistic Missiles: These missiles have a projectile motion. A ballistic missile guides itself in a particular direction with a velocity such that it follows a ballistic trajectory till it reaches the desired destination.

2. Cruise Missiles: These are missiles flow very close to the surface (of the earth as well as the sea) and hence, cannot be easily detected by enemy radars.

Integrated Guided Missile Development programme of India (IGMDp)

The most important component of India’s defence programme is the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme or IGMDP, launched in 1983.

The age of fighting wars by aircrafts shooting bombs is over. Modern warfare has risen to a sophisticated and higher level where excessive reliance is placed on the nuclear weapons (in short nukes) carrying missiles.

Unless India has sufficiently capable missiles to carry nuclear weapons, nuclear deterrence will remain a distant dream and consequently, there will be no significance left for our nuclear policy. IGMDP gives the blue print of our entire defence system. hence is absolutely crucial in the scheme of nuclear deterrence.

Components of IGMDpThe IGMDP comprises five missile systems:

• Two surface-to-surface missiles (viz., Agni and Prithvi)

• Two surface-to-air missiles (viz., Trishul and Akash)

• One anti-Tank missile (viz. Nag)

Agni-IAgni-I is a single-stage, solid fuel, road and rail mobile, Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM). This shorter-ranger missile specially designed for the near targets. The need for the Agni-I was felt after the Kargil war with Pakistan. It took DRDO 18 months to develop the



Agni-I after having completed Agni-II development. It is propelled by solid fuel giving it a shallow re-entry angle. Manoeuvring RV body-lift aerodynamics give it the ability to correct trajectory errors and reduce thermal stresses. The MRV has a velocity correction package to correct launch trajectory variances. Some Agni RV versions use a set of solid-fuelled thrust-ers cartridges of predetermined impulse, allowing the onboard guidance controller to trim velocity, using discrete combination of impulse quanta along the desired spatial orientation. The 15-m tall Agni-I missile, weighing about 12 tons, is capable of carrying both conventional as well as nuclear warheads of 1000 kg.

Agni-IIAgni-II provides a breadth of payload and range capabilities. Agni-II is an intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) with two solid-fuel stages and a Post Boost Vehicle (PBV) inte-grated into the missile’s Re-entry Vehicle (RV). The Agni’s manoeuvring RV is made of a carbon-carbon composite material that is light and able to sustain high thermal stresses of re-entry in a variety of trajectories.

Quick deployment of the Agni-II was possible by building on the earlier Agni-TD program that provided proven critical technologies and designs required for long-range ballistic missiles. Thus, when the decision was made to build the Agni weapon system, some quick optimization and ruggedization was done to the basic ‘1980 vintage’ design, including a solid-fuelled sec-ond stage. Further the solid-fuel chemistry, RV and avionics were brought up to state-of-the-art levels. As the Pokhran-II (POK-II) nuclear test proved a family of more powerful and lighter nuclear weapons, the 200 kt thermonuclear weapon is far lighter compared to 1000 kg earlier budgeted for the 200 kt boosted nuclear weapon. Thus, a high-yield weapon confi guration now assumes a payload of 500 kg, including weapon and RV. However, in the interest of rapid development, the basic, design that was earlier developed, continued to be used and keeping the future options open for more optimized missile design and lighter payload. The Agni-II missile will be used by 555th Missile Group of the Indian Army.

Agni-III Agni-III, an intermediate-range ballistic missile was developed by India as the successor to Agni-II. Designed by the DRDO, Agni-III is intended to be a two-stage ballistic missile that is capable of nuclear weapons delivery.

TechTalk

Agni Missiles Ranges

Agni Range Weight Type

Agni-I 700–1250 km 12,000 kg Medium Range Ballistic Missile

Agni-II 2000–3000 km 16,000 kg Medium Range Ballistic Missile

Agni-III 3500–5000 km 48,000 kg Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile

Agni-IV 3000–4000 km 17,000 kg Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile

Agni-V 5000–8000 km 49,000 kg Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

Agni-VI 8000–10,000 km 55,000 kg Intercontinental Ballistic Missile



Agni-III is expected to be India’s nuclear deterrent against People’s Republic of China. Agni-III development began when relations with China were still negative. The 1962 War and its unexpectedness made India determined to have an ICBM no matter how friendly the rela-tions turned out in future years. Testing of Agni-III missile has been repeatedly delayed and until that time, the details must be considered as tentative but provide insight to its potential configuration, capability and impact on strategic outlook.

The Agni-III has two stages with an overall diametre of 2.0 m. The first stage mass is about 32 tons and 7.7-m long, the second stage mass is about 10 tons and 3.3-m long. The missile is likely to support a wide range of warhead configurations, with a 3,500 km range and a total payload weight of 2490 kg.

Agni-IVThis missile is one of its kinds proving many new technologies for the first time and represents a quartum leap in terms of missile technology the missile is lighter in weight ans has two stages of solid propulsion and a payload with Re-entry heat shield. The composite Rocket Motor which has been excellent performance.

The missile system is equipped with modern and compact Avionics with Redundang to pro-vide high level of reliability. The indigenously Ring Laser Gyro-based high accuracy INS and Micro Navigation System Complementing each other in vadundant mode have been Smt. Tersy Thoams Project Director Agni-IV and her team prepared and integrated the Missile System and launched the missile succesfully DRDO has produced and proven many new state of the art technologies in the Missile System like composite Rocket Motors. Very high accuracy Ring Laser Gyro-based vertical navigation system a surface to surface missile with a range of about 4000 km was succesfully test-fired from the Wheeler Island of the Odisha coast the Agni-IV is a strategic missile which can carry a nuclear warhead weighing one tons. This was the third success in a row for Agni-IV, its first success came in November 2011.

Agni-VIndia conducted their first ICBM test launch in April 2012 the Indian defence minister described the launch as an immaculate success. With the Agni-V, India joins the US, Russia, France, and China as the only nation with this capability. Agni-V specifications are still vague but generally the missile is believed to have a three-stage version of the Agni-III while an enhanced range of 5000–8000 km. The Agni-V, with a claimed range of 5000 km, is known to be capable of carrying MIRV warheads. It is expected to become operational is 2014/2015.

Agni-VIAgni-VI with multiple nuclear warheads, which can reach targets 6000 km away is all set to be developed by the DRDO. So far all the strategic missile development by the DRDO are Agni I, II, III, IV, and V and the submarine launched k-15 and its land-based version Shaurya can carry only single nuclear warhead. The DRDO’s tactical missiles and supersonic cruise missile Brahmos can carry one conventional warhead each.

prithvi

It is a surface-to-surface missile, which forms part of the Indian tactical, mobile, battlefield missile system. It has 150–250 km range. The army version is around 150-km range and can carry 1000-kg warhead. The air force version is of 250-km range and can carry 500-kg warhead.

Agni-V missile successfully test-fired

India successfully tested its nuclear capable inter-con-tinental ballistic missile. Agni-V; with a range of around 5000 kilometres, is capable of carrying nuclear warhead of about 1.5 tons. It is India’s first 5000-km range missile and unstoppable once fired, it is also known to travel faster than a bullet. After the earlier four successful trial this fifth test fired was the first user associated test of the missile.

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It is powered with liquid propellants and has latest onboard computers which controls its flight. It is highly effective against fixed targets and highly accurate and hence will enable the army and air force, to destroy airfields, oil storage, bridges, etc.

It is difficult to trace by radar because of its trajectory and supersonic Mac-3 speed. It has the highest warhead to weight ratio status.

Figure 5.1: Prithvi missile

In 2009, India conducted two simultaneous user trials of 350-km extended range. Prithvi II to be used for strategic purposes.

The prithvi Missile and Its Four Variants • Prithvi-I is a battlefield support system for the army (range 150 km, 1000-kg payload).

It is a single-stage, dual-engine, liquid-fuel, road-mobile, short-range, surface-to-surface missile.

• It is claimed that this missile is equipped only with various conventional warheads (which stay attached to the missile over the entire flight path). The missile is of particular interest to the United States (and potential buyers) in that it has the capability of manoeu-vring in flight so as to follow one of several different pre-programmed trajectories.

• Prithvi-II is dedicated to the Indian Air Force (range 250 km, 500–750-kg payload). It is a single-stage, dual-engine, liquid-fuel, road-mobile, short-range, surface-to-surface missile. DRDO has decided to increase the payload capability of the Prithvi-II variant to 1000 kg.

• Prithvi-III is a solid-fuelled version with a 350-km range and a 1000-kg payload. It is a two-stage, solid-fuel, road-mobile, short-range, surface-to-surface missile. Sagarika and Prithvi-III are two different acronyms for the same missile. A related programme, known as Project K-15, is in development and will enable the missile to be launched from a submerged submarine.

• Dhanush (in Sanskrit/Hindi means Bow) is a system consisting of a stabilization plat-form (Bow) and the missile (Arrow).



DhanushDhanush is a naval variant of the Prithvi missile. It can fire either the 250 km or the 350 km-range missiles. Supposedly, it is a customized version of the Prithvi and that the addi-tional customizations in missile configuration are to certify it for sea worthiness. Dhanush has to be launched from a hydraulically stabilized launch pad. It is a low-range Missile acting against as a weapon either to be used to destroy an aircraft carrier or an enemy port. Indian Navy’s K-15 Sagarika submarine-launched ballistic missile is reported to be a variant of the Dhanush missile.

• It means Bow and is a two-stage ship-to-surface missile.

• The first stage is solid fuelled with a 16 MT force (157 kN) thrust motor.

• The second stage is liquid fuelled.

• The missile can carry a 1000-kg warhead to a distance of 350 km and a 500-kg warhead to a distance of 600 km and a 250-kg warhead up to a distance of 750 km.

• Dhanush is a system consisting of a stabilization platform (Bow) and the missile (Arrow).

• Dhanush was first tested in 2000 from INS Subhadra, a Sukanya class patrol craft. The missile was launched from an updated, reinforced helicopter deck of the vessel. The first flight test of the 250-km variant was only partially successful.

• The full-operational testing was completed in 2004. The following year, in December, an enhanced 350-km version of the missile was tested from the INS Rajput and success-fully hit a land-based target.

• The missile was again successfully tested-fired from INS Subhadra anchored about 35-km offshore from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at Chandipur on 13 December 2009. It was the sixth test of the missile.

Nuclear-capable Dhanush Missiles Successfully Test-fired

• Dhanush missile was fired from INS-Subhadra in the Bay of Bengal near Puri by Indian navy personnel as part of user training exercise on 27 March 2010.

• The nuclear-capable Dhanush, a naval version of Prithvi was test-fired at 05:44 hours.

• The missile followed the pre-designated trajectory with textbook precision and two naval ships located near the target have tracked the splash, the sources said.

• According to the sources, the 350-km range missile will give Indian navy the capability to launch a missile on enemy’s targets with great precisions.

• The single-stage missile is powered by liquid propellants. It is 10-m long and weight 6 tons. It has 1-m diametre and can carry 500-kg warhead.

TrishulThe Trishul (Trident) is a short range, quick reaction, all-weather, surface-to-air missile designed to counter a low-level attack. It has been flight-tested in the sea-skimming role and also against moving targets. It has a range of 9 km and is fitted with a 5.5 kg HE-fragmented warhead. Its detection of target to missile launch is around 6 seconds. The missile can engage targets like aircraft and helicopters, flying between 300 and 500 m/s by using its radar command to line-of-sight guidance.

Trishul, with its quickest reaction time, high frequency operation, high manoeuvrability, high lethal capability and multi-roles for three services, is state-of-the-art system providing



considerable advantage to the armed forces. This system has gone through development flight trials for army and sea skimmer trials for navy. The final evaluation is in progress before user trials.

AkashThe Akash (Sky) is a medium-range, theatre defence, surface-to-air missile. It operates in conjunction with the Rajendra surveillance and engagement radar. The Akash uses an integral ramjet rocket propulsion system to give a low-volume, low-weight (700 kg launch weight) missile configuration, and has a low reaction time, from detection to missile launch, of 15 s. It has a range of 25 km and can carry 55-kg warhead and has been integrated to indigenously produce Rajendra radars. It can aim against eight targets simultaneously. It is based of ramjet technology (sucks 02 from air) and has two stages. The first stage uses a solid propellant.

Figure 5.2: Akash missile

It is considered similar to American Patriot Missile, and hence, it is essentially an air defence missile. So, it can be very effective against US-F-16, Haft Missile of Pakistan.

Akash system uses high-energy solid propellant for the booster and ramjet-rocket propul-sion for the sustainers phase. The propulsion system provides higher level of energy with min-imum mass, compared to conventional solid/liquid rocket motor that has better performance with minimum weight of the missile. It has a dual-mode guidance, initially on command mode from phased array radar and later radar homing guidance with unique software developed for high accuracy. The phased array radar provides capability for multiple target tracking and simultaneous deployment of missiles to attack four targets at the same time, in each battery. Multiple batteries constitute a group centre. The system is highly mobile and has gone through a number of flight trials providing the command guidance.

NAGIt is a third-generation, state-of-the-art, anti-tank missile, which has ‘fire and forget’ facility. It has a range of 4 km. It uses a solid propellant motor. The presence of the infra-red imaging system gives it a tag of the heat-seeking missile.

India successfully test-fired surface-to-air Akash missileIndia successfully test-fired Akash its supersonic surface-to-air missile with indigenous radio frequency seeker from a test range in Odisha. The state-of-the-art indigenous missile targeting an UAV ‘Banshee’, was fired from the launch complex–III of the ITR at Chandipur near Balasore with the successful test firing, India has achieved the capabil-ity of making any type of surface to air missile. ‘Akash’ has a strike range of about 25 km and carries a 55-kg frag-mentation warhead that is triggered by proximity fuse. It is an all-weather area air defence weapon system for defending vulnerable areas against medium range air targets penetrating from low, medium and high altitudes.

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The missile is mounted on a tracked vehicle equipped with a ‘line of sight radar’ or can be fitted on a helicopter. It uses a smokeless propellant and hence not easy to seek the launcher. Nag missile has the unique ability to hit the tank from the top.

Advanced Variants of NagIn addition to basic land and helicopter variants, the DRDO is now developing number of advanced variants of the Nag missile.

AstraAs part of developmental tests, the flight trial of Astra, Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM), This missile was recently lastly tested on March 10, from a SU-30 MKI 2015 tighter accurist a simulated live target. DRDO sources said, in May 2009, that the missile’s dual mode guidance was fully proved when it was fired from the ground at an imaginary target. Astra is a high-end, tactical missile and is envisaged to intercept enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds in head-on mode at a range of 80 km and in tail-chase mode at 20 km. Astra is the first air-to-air missile developed by India; an advanced missile that enables fighter pilots to lock-on and shoot down enemy aircraft 80 km away. This missile was first successfully tested without control and guidance systems in 2003. The missile was again successfully tested in 2007. The ground testing of the Astra missile was successful. The missile was successfully tested in

Table 5.1 Missiles of India

Name Class Range Payload Status

Agni-I SRBM 850 km 1000 kg Operational

Agni-II MRBM 2500 km 500 kg–1000 kg Operational

Agni-III IRBM 3500 km–5500 km 2,490 kg In Testing

Agni-IV STOS ICBM 4000 km 17,000 kg Operational

Agni-V ICBM 5000 km–6000 km 3,000 kg+ Under Development

Agni-VI ICBM 12000 km 70,000 kg Under Depart.

Agni 3SL ICBM 5200 km–11,600 km 700 kg–1400 kg Under Development

Dhanush SRBM 350 km 500 kg Operational

Nirbhay Subsonic Cruise Missile 1000 km Under Development

Brahmos Supersonic Cruise Missile 290 km 300 kg Operational

P-70 Ametist Anti-shipping Missile 65 km 530 kg Operational

P-270 Moskit Supersonic Cruise Missile 120 km 320 kg Operational

Popeye ASM 78 km 340 kg Operational

Prithvi-I SRBM 150 km 1000 kg Operational

Prithvi-II SRBM 250 km 500 kg Operational

Prithvi-III SRBM 350 km 500 kg Operational

Sagarika (K-15) SLBM 700 km– 2200 km .150 kg – 1000 kg Under Development

Shaurya TBM 700 km–2200 km 150 kg–1000 kg Under Development

Surya-I ICBM 9000 km–12,000 km 3000 kg+ Under Development



2008. The missile will intercept the target aircraft at supersonic speed. The test flight of the missile from IAF Sukhoi-30MKI fighter aircraft will be carried out before induction of the missile into service. In 2008, India successfully test-fired Astra in the Chandipur, on-sea area, off the Odisha coast. Initially planned to arm Jaguar, MIG-29 and indigenous light combat aircraft, Tejas, DRDO officials are now concentrating that after user’s trial, the missile would be integrated with Indian Air Force’s front line fighter aircraft, such as Sukhoi-30MKIs and Mirage-2000. Lastly tested on 10 March, 2015.

Indian Ballistic Missile Defence program (IBMDp)

India has an active ABM development effort using indigenously developed and integrated radars and locally designed missiles. In 2006, India successfully conducted the PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) in which an anti-ballistic missile, called Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) an exo- atmospheric (outside the atmosphere) interceptor system intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of 80 km. During the test the target missile was intercepted at a 50 km altitude.

In 2007, the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile system was tested successfully. This missile is an endo-atmospheric interceptor with an altitude of 30 km. The missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. Induction of the system into services is expected to be in 2010. Two new anti-ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBM/ ICBMs are being developed. These high-speed missiles (AD-1 and AD-2) are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with the range of 5000 km.

India also has Russian S300PMU-2 and it is used as an interceptor for ballistic missiles. Akash an indigenous nuclear-tipped surface-to-air missile is used to destroy low-range mis-siles and capable of destroying various targets. It is one of the few of its kind systems in the world. India has also shown interest in the Russian S-400, the most advanced anti-ballistic missile.

Advanced Air Defence (AAD)/ Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor

• Advanced Air Defence (AAD) is an anti-ballistic missile designed to intercept incom-ing ballistic missiles in endo-atmosphere at an altitude of 30 km. AAD is single-stage, solid-fuelled missile. Guidance is similar to that of PAD—Inertial Navigation System, mid-course updates from ground-based radar and active radar homing in terminal phase. It is 7.5-m tall, weighs around 1.2 tons and a diametre of less than 0.5 m.

• On 6 December 2007, AAD successfully intercepted a modified Prithvi-II missile acting as an incoming ballistic missile enemy target. The endo-atmospheric interception was carried out at an altitude of 15 km. The interceptor and all the elements performed in a copy book fashion validating the endo-atmospheric layer of BMD System.

• Due to two successful interceptor missile tests carried out by India, the scientists have said that the AAD missile could be modified into a new extended range (up to 150 km) surface-to-air missile that could be possibly named as ‘Ashwin’.

Strategically Important Missiles Outside the IGMDp

Sagarika

• Sagarika is a nuclear capable submarine-launched ballistic missile with a range of 750 km. This missile has a length of 8.5 m, weighs 7 tons and can carry a payload of up

After the PADE, India became the fourth nation in the world to acquire such a capability and the third nation to develop it through indigenous effort.

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to 500 kg. Sagarika was developed at the DRDO’s missile complex in Hyderabad. The development of this missile started in 1991.

• The first confirmation about the missile came in 1998. The then Defence Minister, George Fernandes announced during a press conference about the development of the missile Sagarika.

• The development of the underwater missile launcher known as the Project 78 (P78) was completed in 2001. This was handed over to the Indian Navy for trials. The missile was successfully test fired thrice.

• The Indian Navy plans to induct the missile into service soon. The missile is likely to arm the nuclear submarine which is expected to be launched in 2008. Sagarika will form part of the triad in India’s nuclear deterrence and will provide with retaliatory nuclear strike capability.

• The missile is developed under the Project K-15. The missile launcher is developed at Hazira, Mumbai.

• The final test of the missile will be conducted from an immersed pontoon launcher before its integration into the advanced technology vessel, the nuclear submarine India is building.

Surya

• Surya is a ballistic missile being developed outside of IGMDP. It is an ICBM. India would be the fourth country to possess an ICBM. The other countries are US, Russia and China.

• By launching the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), India has proved its capacity to develop an ICBM.

• The Surya ICBM is an ICBM program that has been mentioned repeatedly in the Indian press. Surya (meaning Sun in Sanskrit and many other Indian languages) is the code name for the first ICBM that India is reported to be developing. The DRDO is believed to have begun the project in 1994.

Shaurya

• Derived from the Sagarika missile developed under the K-15 project, Shaurya is being offered to the services as an important component of the Indian quest for a credible land-based nuclear deterrent.

• Shaurya is a surface-to-surface tactical missile with a range of 750 km and a payload of about 1 ton for use by the army and navy. It can carry both conventional as well as nuclear warheads.

• Shaurya is a two-stage, solid-fuelled weapon with characteristics of both ballistic and cruise missiles. Unlike conventional cruise missiles, which cruise at extremely low alti-tudes and subsonic speeds using turbofan engines, Shaurya cruises at extremely high altitudes at hypersonic speeds using rocket power.

• Its first stage lofts it to 40-km altitude. The second-stage is used for cruising towards the target while manoeuvring with an aim of rendering interception difficult. During the endgame, the missile guides itself to the target.

• DRDO claims the missile is capable of striking within 20–30 m of its target after travel-ling 750 km.

• Shaurya can be canisterized for mobility and launched from silos making its detection and targeting in an enemy first strike difficult.



• Once sealed in a canister, it can be taken to any place giving it great tactical and operational advantage. It can be deployed anywhere, in hilly terrain, desert, etc. It is a relatively light, highly mobile, solid propellant-fuelled missile. There is no preparation required.

BarakIt is an Israeli surface-to-air missile designed to be used surface-to-surface Shourya missile from ITR as a point-defence missile on warships, defending against aircraft, anti-ship missiles and UAVs. The Barak SAM is designed to replace gun-based CIWS platforms, such as the Phalanx CIWS, with a more flexible SAM model.

Barak was developed in a joint venture between Israel aircraft industries and RAFAEL and is based on RAFAEL’s vertically launched missile.

Cruise Missile: BrahMos

• BrahMos is a supersonic cruise mssile that can be launched from submarine, ship, aircraft and land-based Mobile Autonomous Launchers (MAL). The missile is launched from a Transport-Launch Canister (TLC), which also acts as storage and transportation container.

• BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited was established in India as a joint venture through an Inter-Governmental Agreement between India and Russia signed in February 1998. The acronym BrahMos is perceived as the confluence of two great nations represented by two great rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia.

• DRDO from India and the Federal State Unitary Enterprise NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM) from Russia are the joint venture partners of the company.

• The first flight-test of the BrahMos missile was conducted in 2001 at the Interim Test Range in Odisha. The missile was launched in vertical mode, where the missile was

Figure 5.3: BrahMos missile



launched upward from the canister and directed towards the target point. This launch was the first in a series of flight tests planned to demonstrate the capabilities of the sys-tem to the potential customers.

• Primarily, BrahMos is an anti-ship missile. It has the capability to engage land-based targets also. The missile can be launched either in vertical or inclined position and will cover 360 degrees.

The BrahMos missile has identical configuration for land, sea and sub-sea platforms. The air-launched version has a smaller booster and additional tail fins for stability during launch. It can also be launched from a mobile launch complex. The mobile launch complex consists of an indigenously built multi-axle truck called TATRA, which has a cross-country capabil-ity. In other words, TATRA is the base around which the mobile complex has been built and TATRA can carry the BrahMos to different types of terrain. It has its own fire-control system for the missile.

Features • High supersonic velocity

• Long flight range

• Varieties of flight trajectories

• Fire and Forget principle

• Universal for multiple platforms

• Low radar signature

• Simplicity of technical operations

• High lethal power

• Higher effectiveness

Advantages • Long flight range with supersonic speed all through the flight

• Shorter flight times leading to lower target dispersion and quicker engagement

• Higher destructive capability aided by the large kinetic energy of impact

• Higher effectiveness against ship defences

• Canister for transportation, storage and launch

It is the first and only supersonic cruise missile that uses liquid ramjet technology. It cruises in the atmosphere at speeds faster than sound. It can travel at Mach 2.8 to 3 (2.8 to three times the speed of sound) and can be launched from ground, including silos and ships, submarines and aircraft. Weighing about 3 tons, the missile is 8-m long and carries a conventional warhead weighing about 200 kg. It cannot carry nuclear warheads. Its fuel is aviation kerosene.

A two-stage vehicle, its propulsion consists of a solid propellant booster and a liquid pro-pellant ram jet system. It is called liquid ramjet system because the missile collects the air (oxidizer) available in the atmosphere, rams the air on the liquid propellant and the propellants burn in the combustion chamber. It has a range of 290 km.

Present Position: India and Russia intend to make 1000 BrahMos supersonic cruise mis-siles over the next 10 years through their joint venture company and nearly 50% of them are expected to be sold to other countries.

In a first, air-launch Brahmos-missile test firedIn a first, India suc-cessfully test-fired the air-launched version of the Brahmos supersonic cruise missile from an IAF Su-30 MKI aircraft in Novem-ber, 2017. Brahmos is now capable of being launched from land, sea and air and completes the tactical cruise missile triad. The IAF is the first Air Force in the world to have successfully fired an air launched 2.8 Mach surface attack missile of this category. Brahmos weighing 2.5 ton is the heaviest weapon to be deployed on the Su–30 fighter aircraft which was modified by the Hin-dustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) to carry the weapon. Brahmos is a joint venture with Russia and named after the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers. The development trials of an anti-shipping variant began in 2003 and combat trials in 2005.

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Indian Navy: The missile is in service with the Indian Navy. The missile is fitted on the Rajput class of destroyers. The submarine-launched version of the missile is ready for testing. The missile will be either tested on a Kilo class submarine of the Indian Navy or will be tested in Russia.

Indian Army: The missile was successfully tested with new capabilities for the Indian Army in the deserts of Rajasthan. It was inducted into the army on June 21, 2007.

Indian Air Force: The air launched version for the Indian Air Force is under development. An expert committee from the DRDO and the Indian Air Force (IAF) has ruled out any structural modification to the advanced Su-30MKI if it is to be fitted with the supersonic BrahMos.

Cruise Missile: Nirbhay • Nirbhay is a long-range, subsonic cruise missile being developed in India. The missile

will have a range of 1,000 km and will arm three services—the Indian Army, Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force.

• The Nirbhay will be able to be launched from multiple platforms on land, sea and air. The missile is being developed by the Advanced Systems Laboratory, a division of DRDO and after finalizing the design, the technology required for the missile is being developed.

• Nirbhay will be a terrain hugging, stealth missile capable of delivering 24 different types of warheads depending on mission requirements and will use inertial navigation system for guidance.

• Development of the Nirbhay apparently began at least 5 years ago.

• It would be the third indigenous weapon to equip the Su-30MKI, joining the Brahmos supersonic cruise missile—a variant of the NPO Mashinostroenia 3M55 (SS-N-26)—and the Astra medium-range air-to-air missile.

BATTLE TANkS IN INDIA

Arjun

• It is India’s Main Battle Tank (MBT). Arjun project was initially envisaged in 1974. It is being designed, developed and produced by Combat, Vehicle Research and Develop-ment Establishment (CVRDE) AWADI, Chennai.

• All the Battle Tanks which are above 50T are known as MBT. Arjun, T-90 are examples of MBT. The medium battle bank weighs around 35–50 T. T 72, Vijayanta (38 tones) is an of medium battle bank.

• Arjun has a 1400 HP-Turbo-charged diesel engine and weighs 58.5 tons. Arjun has a speed of 72 km/h on road and 40 km/h on rocky terrain. It is designed to meet Indian Army’s most stringent specifications. It can climb steep gradients, negotiate sand dunes and deep wide trenches with equal agility.

• It has thermal imagers to provide night vision facility. It is fitted with satellite-based GPS which helps it to find its geographical grid in barren area.

• It is fitted with 120-mm gun, capable of firing 6–8 rounds in a minute Fin Stabilized Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (FSAPDS) which can pierce contemporary Armours. It is also fitted with 7.62-mm machine guns and 12.77-mm anti-aircraft guns. The laser range finder measures accurately the distance at which the target is located (range 10 km).

India Successfully Test-fired Supersonic Interceptor MissileIndia successfully test fired a low–altitude or endo atmospheric Advanced Area Defence (AAD) interceptor missile in December 2017. In the test, the AAD interceptor missile hit the ‘enemy’ missile (a modified Prithvi missile) at an altitude of 15 km. This is the 3rd such successful test in 2017.

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• Considered among the best three MBTs in the world Arjun, it was dedicated to the Nation in 1996.

• MBT Arjun is a multi-laboratory programme of DRDO with CVRDE as the lead laboratory. It is a state-of-the-art tank with superior fire power, high mobility and excel-lent protection.

T-90S Tank

• The Russian T-90S MBTs are inducted into the army to counter Pakistan’s deployment of T-80UD tanks from Ukraine. The army has already raised three T-90S armoured regiments, with around 40 tanks each.

• The 1-90 is a Russian MBT derived from the 1-72, and it is currently the most modern tank in service with the Russian Ground Forces and Naval Infantry.

• Faced with delays in the indigenous Arjun MBT programme, India had gone in for the T-90S deal after Pakistan’s acquisition of 320 frontline T-80UD tanks, their upgradation of the Chinese T-59 tanks and development of their MBT Al Khalid with help from China.

• The army’s old warhorses, the Vijayanta tanks, will be completely phased out soon. They are now gradually being replaced by the T-90S tanks and upgraded T-72 tanks.

• In 2001, India bought 310 T-90S tanks from Russia, of which 120 were delivered complete, 90 in semi-knocked down kits, and 100 in completely knocked down kits.

• The T-90 was selected because it is a direct development of the T-72 which India already employs, simplifying training and maintenance.

The T-90 M Bhishma

• A follow-on contract, worth $800 million, was signed on 26 October 2006, for another 330 T-90M Bhishma MBTs that were to be manufactured in India by Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.

Figure 5.4: T90 tank



• The T-90M Bhishma is a customized, improved version of the T-90S, which India devel-oped with assistance from Russia, Israel and France all of whom India has very close ties with.

• The tanks are equipped with the French-designed thermal sights and utilizes India’s Kanchan explosive reactive armoured plates.

• The army hopes to field a force of over 21 regiments of 1–90 tanks and 40 regiments of modified T-72s. The Indian Army would begin receiving its first T-90M MBT in com-pletely knocked-down condition from Russia’s Nizhny Tagil-based UralvagonzavodiSC by the end of 2009.

• The first batch of 10 license built T-90M Bhishma was inducted into the Indian Army on 24 August 2009. These vehicles were built at the Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.

The Indian T-90S Bhishma Tank

• Equipped with 125mm-smooth bore gun

• Gun stabilized in Elevation and Azimuth

• 12.7-mm anti-craft machine gun

• 7.62-mm co-axial machine gun

• High-accuracy sighting systems

• Automatic loader ensuring high rate of fire

• Capability to fire-guided missile using the same main gun barrel

• Integrated fire control system which includes gunner’s sight, guided weapon system and ballistic computer. This system facilitates accurate firing of conventional ammunitions as well as the guided missiles.

• Built in Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) for enhanced tank protection saving crew and equipment from chemical, biological and radioactive (nuclear) attack.

• Thermal imagers with night fighting capability.

AIR CRAFTS

An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, heli-copter, airships (including blimps), gliders and hot air balloons.

• Multiple role light-weight combat aircraft.

• Has capabilities for fighting, intercepting and bombing.

• 8.5 tons, payload 4000 kg.

• Range of 600 km with mid-air refuelling facilities.

Engine Initially single GE-404 engine imported from the United States. Later on indigenous KAVERI Engine—developed by Gas Turbine Research Establishment.

Background

• Project started in 1982. Prototype rolled out in 1995; first test flight in 2001

• Likely to be inducted by 2005

• Envisaged at a cost of 560 crores



• To replace aging MIG-29s which is to be phased out in 2015

• Same class of F-16

• Manufacturer: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)

• ADA—Design and development

Specialties

• Fly by wire technology.

• Uses ‘ANUPAM’—A parallel processing system developed by BARC to compute air velocity and pressure.

• Uses air frame of carbon composites and aluminium alloys—a spin off from PSLV project.

• High manoeuvrability and adaptability in dog fights.

• Can carry laser-guided bombs radar-guided missiles, anti-ship missiles, cluster bombs.

• Primarily for air force but can be used in navy as well.

• Sanctions affected development of flight control systems.

• Five prototypes planned other than 2 TD.

• Five prototypes of Kaveri has undergone extensive ground testing.

• KABINI core engine of KAVERI—under altitude test in Moscow.

LCA: Third prototype Makes Maiden Flight

The third Prototype Vehicle (PV-3) of India’s prestigious but delayed Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme made its inaugural flight in Bengaluru on 1 December 2006.

Compared to its predecessors, PV-3 is equipped with a more advanced pilot interface, refined avionics and higher control law capabilities.

PV-3 is the LCA programme’s fifth aircraft. The earlier ones were the two technical demon-strators (TD-1 and TD-2) and PV-1 and PV-2. As of 27 February 2007, the LCA had completed 626 test flights in all (TD1-207, TD2-241, PV1-133, PV2-28,PV3-21). On 13 May 2006, the PV-2 went supersonic for the first time and on 14 May 2006, it did so again; but this time in a weaponized state (i.e., carrying a load of weapons such as missiles and an internal gun). Two more prototypes PV-5 and PV-6 (both twin-seater trainers) are planned.

As of 1 August 2007, the LCA had completed 725 successful test flights in all.

Saras: India’s First Indigenous Civilian Aircraft

SARAS, India’s first indigenous civilian aircraft, designed and developed by the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), made its formal inaugural flight in Bangalore on 22 August 2004.

Named after the Indian crane known for its grace and beauty in flight, Saras is a Light Transport Aircraft (LTA), with the design objective of being able to carry between 8 and 14 passengers and extendable to an 18-passenger variant, in multiple modes of operation. Saras is capable of flying up to a maximum speed of 550 km/h at a cruise altitude of 7500 feet and is designed to take off and land on short, semi-prepared runways. Saras could be used for multi-roles for civilian transport, air medical services, executive transport and surveillance. The suc-cessful flight of the Saras symbolizes that India has entered the exclusive club of countries that have proven their capability to develop a civil passenger aircraft.



Design and TechnologySaras is powered by two time-tested Pratt & Whitney PT-6A-66 turbo-prop-engines (made by the Canadian subsidiary of the US aero-engine giant) or turbine-based engines which drive propellers. The aircraft has a pressurized roomy cabin and is fitted with the latest instrumenta-tion and avionics as is common in contemporary small commuter and regional aircraft which seek to provide increasingly demanding paying passengers with ‘near-jet’ flying conditions.

Specific design goals • Multi-role capability

• Short take off and landing characteristics

• High cruise speed

• Ruggedness and reliability

• Ease of maintenance

• High specific range

• Low operating cost

These goals are achieved by using appropriate levels of technology in various areas:

• Superior aerodynamics

• Efficient, reliable power plant

• Efficient, high lift system

• Selective use of composite material for low-structural weight

• Integrated digital avionics to reduce pilot workload

• Use of well-proven systems for high reliability

Features

• All weather, day/night flying capability

• Operability from semi-prepared runways

• Operability from high-altitude airfields on hot days with little or no compromise on take-off weight

• Pressurized cabin

• Cabin comfort level matching that of regional aircraft

• Fully duplicated flight deck

Lakshya

• Pilotless target aircraft

• Designed and developed to simulate realistic air threats and to mimic radar and infrared signals

• Training for surface to surface SAM and gun firing

• Can be reused

• 0.7 mach speed

• 30,000 ft height

• Fuel capacity is 190 kg

• Can fly for around: 40 minutes

• Lakshya is recoverable on sea or land by a parachute



• Developed by Aeronautical Development Establishment, Bengaluru

• Manufacturer: HAL

• Started limited serial production

India Tests LakshyaIndia successfully tested the indigenously developed Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTA) Lakshya from a defence base in Odisha for the second time in 2 days in January 2007.

It was test-flown from the ITR at Chandipur in Balasore, Odisha.Developed by the DRDO, this is reportedly an improved version of PTA, which was

inducted into the Indian Air Force in 2000.Lakshya is a surface/ship launched, high-subsonic reusable aerial target system, remotely

piloted from ground. It provides training to the gun/missile crew and to air defence pilots for weapon engagement. The country has reached self-reliance in this class of UAVs.

Nishant

• UAV designed for reconnaissance.

• Indigenous Remote-Piloted vehicle.

• 45 km/h.

• Can fly for more than 5 h.

• Can be controlled from ground for a distance up to 160 km.

• Also programmed for autonomous flight.

UsesIt will fly into enemy territory, take pictures, provide target location, identify number of planes parked in a location and other vital information.

Status • Developed by Aeronautical Development Establishment, Bangalore.

• Produced by HAL.

• Serial production by mid 1999.

• 12 flight trials carried out.

Table 5.2 Aircrafts and their features

Aircraft Features

Dhruv • This helicopter is developed by India’s HAL. It was designed with the assistance of Germany.

Rudra • It is an armed version of HAL Dhruv. It is equipped with forward-looking infrared and thermal-imaging sights interface, turret gun, rocket pods, anti-tank guided missiles and air-to-air missiles.

Kiran MK-II • It is an Indian two-seat basic jet trainer built by HAL. It is used by the Indian Air Force aerobatic team Surya Kiran and Indian naval aerobatic team Sagar Pawan.

Advanced Jet Trainer

• The BAE System Hawk is a British single-engine, advanced jet trainer aircraft. On 23 February 2008, the Hawk Mk 132 formally entered service with the Indian Air Force.

MIG-29 • The Mikoyan MIG-29 is a jet fighter aircraft designed in the Soviet Union. India was the first international customer of the MIG-29. Since, its induction into the IAF in 1985, the aircraft has undergone a series of modifications with the addition of new avionics, sub-systems, turbofan engines and radars.

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INDIAN NAVY SHIpS

INS Mumbai

It is the third of the Delhi-class guided missile destroyers in active service with the Indian Navy. INS Mumbai was built at Mazagon Dock Limited.

INS Delhi

It is the lead ship of her class of guided missile destroyers of the Indian Navy. It was built at the Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai.

INS Airavat

It is also known as Asian Elephant.It is a Shardul-class landingship of the Indian Navy.

INS Viraat

It is a centaur-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Indian Navy. INS Viraat is ideally suited for missions supporting amphibious operations and conducting anti-ship warfare operations.

INS Susana

Indian Navy has inducted into service its largest Offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV), ISN Susana, at Southern Naval Command at Kochi.

Aircraft Features

Mirage-200 • It is a French multirole, single engine, fourth-generation jet fighter manufactured by Dassault Aviation. The Indian Ari Force has named the Mirage as Vajra.

Su-30 MKI • It is an air superiority fighter jointly developed by Russia and India. It is an upgraded version of the Su-30 aircraft. It integrates Indian, French and Israeli subsystems with the Russian plane.

Sukhoi Pak-FA • It is a fifth-generation fighter programme for Russian Air force. The T-50 is the aircraft designed by Sukhoi for the Pak-FA programme.

• In 2007, Russia and India agreed to jointly develop the fifth-generation fighter aircraft programme.

Orion P-3 • It is a four-engine, turboprop anti-submarine and maritime surveillance aircraft developed by the US Navy.

P-8LRz1 Poseidon • It is a maritime reconnaissance aircraft developed by Boeing. It is a version of the P-8 where the additional ‘I’ stands for India. India is purchasing these aircrafts from Boeing for its Navy.

C-130 J Hercules Aircraft and Associated Tragedy

• On 28 March, 2014, a US-made C-130 J Hercules aircraft came down in desolate area of Madhya Pradesh, while on a routine training mission.

• The heavy lift cargo aircraft, one of the six bought for the air force at a cost of `6000 crore in 2011, had been inducted into service just last year.

Integrated Defence Communication Network

• India’s first Integrated Defence Communication Network (IDCN) was launched an on 30 June, 2016, enabling the Army, Air force, Navy and the special forces command to share situational awareness for a faster decision-making process. The Defence Communication Network (DCN), a strategic, highly secure and scalable system, has a pan-India reach—from Ladakh to North-East to Island territories.

Table 5.2 Aircrafts and their features (Continued)



INS Vikramaditya

It is a modifi ed Kiev-class aircraft carrier which entered into service with the Indian Navy in 2013. The ship has been renamed in honour of Vikramaditya, a legendary 1st-century bc emperor of Ujjain, India.

INS Vikrant

It is the fi rst Vikrant-class aircraft carrier built by Cochin Shipyard limited for the Indian Navy and the fi rst aircraft carrier built in India.

INS kolkata

It was commissioned on 16 August, 2014, into the Indian Navy at a glittering ceremony held at the naval dockyard, Mumbai. It is the lead ship of the indigenously designed and constructed Kolkata-class guided missile destroyers.

INS Sumitra

India’s largest naval Offshore Patrol Vessel (NOPV), INS Sumitra was commissioned into India Navy on 4 September 2014. It is the forth in the series of indigenous NOPV developed for Indian Navy.

INS kamorta

The fi rst indigenously built stealth anti-submarine warfare corvette was commissioned at Visakhapatnam Naval Dockyard on 23 August, 2014. INS Kamorta is well equipped to fi ght in nuclear, biological and chemical warfare conditions.

INS Astradharini

INS Astradharini is an indigenously designed and built torpedo launch and recovery versel built by shoft shipyard for the Indian Navy. It was commissioned to navy service on 6 October 2015 at the naval base in Visakhapatnam, the versel is a replacement of INS Astravahini.

RLD-TD

Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstration Program or RLV-TD is a series of technology demonstration missions that have been considered as a fi rst step towards realising a Two-Stage To Orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable vehicle.

A winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been con-fi gured to act as a fl ying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely haypersonic fl ight.

Varunastra (Torpedo)

The Varunastra is an Indian advanced heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo, developed by DRDO for the Indian Navy. The ship launched variant of Varunastra torpedo was formally inducted in the Indian Navy on 26 June 2016. It has advanced autonomous guidance algorithms with low-drift navigational aids, insensitive warhead, which can operate in various combat scenarios. It is the only torpedo in the world to have a GPS-based locating aid.

TechTalk

Defence Minister Flagged off INSV TariniIn September 2017, the defence min-ister fl agged off the fi rst women expedition by the Indian Navy ‘Navika Sagar Parikrama’ at a ceremony at the INS Mandovi naval training base in Panaji, Goa. The six-mem-ber women crew circumnavigated the globe on an Indian built sail boat, INSV Tarini which is being captained by Lt. Commander Vartika Joshi. The circum-navigation is to be covered in about 165 days at sea.



INS karna

Indian Navy has commissioned INS Karna, an independent base of Marine Commandos (MARCCOS) at Bheemunipatanam, Naval Base, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. The commissioning of a new base to the special forces of the Indian Navy will play important role to safeguard our nation’s vast maritime interests.

INDIAN SUBMARINES

Arihant

Arihant means ‘Slayer of Enemies’ class submarines are nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines being developed for the Indian Navy. Arihant-class submarines were designed and constructed as a part of the Indian Navy’s Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project. Arihant-class will be armed with the existing 750 km K-15 Sagarika SLBM and under development K-4, an SLBM version of Agni-III.

k-152 Nerpa

It is an Akula II type nuclear powered attack submarine. The submarine was leased to the Indian Navy and recommissioned as the INS Chakra [leased from Russia for 10 years].

Scorpene Class

These are a class of diesel electric attack submarine jointly developed by French and Spanish companies.

Sindhughosh Class

These are India variants of the kilo class diesel electric submarines in active service with the Indian Navy. They have a displacement of 3000 tons, a maximum diving depth of 300 m, top speed of 18 knots.

INS kalvari (S50)

It is the indigenous built 6 Kalvari-class submarine launched on 6 April 2015. It is a diesel-electric attack submarine which is designed by French Naval Defence and Energy Company DCNS and being manufactured at Mazagon Dock limited in Mumbai.

TechTalk

INS kalvari CommissionedPrime minister Narendra Modi commissioned India’s fi rst Scorpene Submarine, the INS Kalvari, in Mumbai in December 2017 (‘Kalavari’ is the name of Tiger Shark found in the Indian Ocean.) The INS kalvari is class of diesel-electric attack submarines designed by French neval defence and energy company DCNS and are being manufactured by Mazagon Dock Ltd. in Mumbai. The submarine can undertake multiple missions, including anti-surface, warfare, anti-submarine warfare, intelligence gathering, mine laying and area surveillance. The submarine is fi lled out with state-of-the-art technology including superior stealth features such as advanced acoustic silencing techniques, low radiated noise levels, hydrodynamically optimized shape and the ability to launch a crippling attack on the enemy using precision guided weapons. All these features give it invulnerability. It is unmatched by most submarines.



Table 5.3 Initiative for Defense and Security

Name Area Important Facts1. Fast

Interceptor Craft

Indian Navy The Indian Navy inducted two Fast Interceptor Craft (FIC) into its fleet at Nagapattinam in an effort to beef up coastal security. The high-speed vessels, capable of operating in shallow waters were acquired for Sagar Prahari Bal, a unit of the Navy created post-26/ll Mumbai terror attacks as part of the coastal security construct. A total of four Fast Interceptor Craft (FIC) have been added, such as ICGS Priyadarshini, ICGS Annie Besant, ICGS Amrit Kaur and ICGS Kamla.

2. Agni-4 Ballistic Missile

India successfully test-fired its nuclear-capable long range ballistic missile Agni-IV with a strike range of 4000 km and it was the part of a user trial by the Indian Army. The strategic surface-to-surface missile was flight tested from launch complex-4 of the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at Dr. Abdul Kalam Island which was earlier known as Wheeler Island.

3. Barak-8 Missile

Low range Surface air Missile

A Long Range Surface-to-Air Missile (LRSAM) has been successfully test fired from INS Chennai against an incoming aerial target flying at low altitude. The missile destroyed the target with a direct hit. LRSAM has been jointly developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), India and M/s Israel Aerospace Industries (1A1), Israel for the Indian Navy. It is a quantum jump in air defence capability. The missile successfully intercepted a manoeuvring air-breathing target mimicking an attacking combat aircraft. It was a perfect launch achieving all the mission parameters.

4. Helina Anti-Tank Missile

HELINA is the helicopter launched version of NAG ATGM (Anti-Tank Guided Missile), designed and developed indigenously for Indian Army under integrated guided missile development programme (IGMDP). It is manufactured by India’s sole missile producer and state-owned Bharat Dynamics Limited.

5. Tejas Chief of the Army Staff General was flown in trainer version of DRDO’s Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas to demonstrate the operational capabilities of the aircraft during Aero India 2019 at Bengaluru.

6. Agni-5 ICBM Missile Agni-5 was test fired from Abdul Kalam Island the test firing was the 7th trial of the indigenously developed Agni-IV missile. The indigenously developed nuclear-capable Agni-5 has a strike range of 5000 km. Agni-5 is a three-stage missile and is 17-metre-tall and 2 metre wide. It is capable of carrying 1.5 tonne of nuclear warheads

7. INS Arihant Nuclear Parmanu Pandubi

INS Arihant will help India complete its nuclear triad. The air and land wing of the triad with Mirage-2000s and Agni ballistic missile were already in place. The name Arihant means ‘annihilator of enemies’. The missiles on INS Arihant is equipped with a range of 750 km and 3500 km, pale in comparison to missiles on Chinese, the US and Russian submarines, which have ranges of well over 5,000 km, yet the nuclear-triad has been a critical addition to India’s arsenal.

8. Astra Missile Air Force A 11-foot long missile zoomed off from the wing of an Indian Air Force Su-30 MKJ fighter jet about 120 kilometres off India’s east coast. Leaving behind a pulse of purple flame, the Astra careened off into the invisible horizon. Tracked both by the two pilots in the jet, another Su-30 flying some distance away as well as an observation team stationed on a ship in the Bay of Bengal, the Astra roared through thin air over a steady cloud deck over 50 kilometres from the jet that fired it, finally, smashing into a bright orange British-built BTT-3 Banshee target drone. The 15-kilogram warhead was built by the DRDO’s Chandigarh-based Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL).

(continued)



Name Area Important Facts

9. ICGS Varaha Navy The Indian Coast Guard has launched a new offshore patrol vessel called ICGS Varaha from a corporate shipyard near Chennai, the vessel has been designed and built indigenously. It was the third in a series of seven similar ships to be handed over to the Coast Guard. The timeline for the delivery of all the vessels is March 2021. ICGS Varaha will soon be fitted with advanced navigation and communication equipment, sensors and machineries. The weapons will include a 30 mm guns with fire control systems. It will also be capable of carrying a twin-engine helicopter and four high-speed boats for Search and Rescue and Maritime Patrol. It also carries pollution response equipment to contain the oil spill at sea. This 98 M OPV has been designed and built indigenously by M/s Larsen & Tourbo as part of the ICG shipbuilding contract for construction of 07 OPVs awarded to M/s L&T on 30 March 2015 by the Ministry of Defence.

10. M777 howitzer Top

Army The M777 Lightweight 155 mm howitzer provides timely, accurate and continuous firepower in support of Marine and Army infantry forces and replaces the M198 towed Howitzer. The M777 matches the firepower of current generation 155 mm towed systems at less than half the weight. The Howitzer is equipped with a 39-calibre barrel. The muzzle velocity (at Charge 8 super) is 827 m/s. The M777 has a maximum firing range of 24.7 km with standard rounds and 30 km with EFRB (Extended Range Full Bore) rounds. It can also fire the M982 Excalibur GPS-guided munition, which allows accurate fire at a range of up to 40 km. India had struck a government-to-government deal with the US in November 2016 for supply of the 145 howitzers at a cost of nearly ` 5000 crore.

11. K9 Vajra-T Top

Army The K9 VAJRA-T 155 mm/ 52 Cal. Tracked Self- Propelled Howitzer meets the requirements of 21st century warfare, which is based on the following missions. Deep fire support with its longer firing range; qualitative superiority to overcome a numerical inferiority with its higher rate of fire and accuracy and effective and reliable fire support in all kinds of circumstances with its higher mobility and protection. The main armament consists of a 155 mm/52 calibre ordinance with a maximum firing range of 40 km.

12. Prahtir Missile

Surface to Surface Missile

India successfully test-fired its indigenously developed surface-to-surface short-range tactical ballistic missile ‘Prahaar’ from the Odisha coast. ‘Prahar’ was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), it is capable of filling the gap between the multibarrel rocket system ‘Pinaka’ and medium-range ballistic missile ‘Prithvi’. It can also engage multiple targets in different directions. The test launch was successful as the missile travelled a range of 200 km before zeroing in on the target, achieving all mission objectives. Army in its efforts to enhance its firepower against Chinese and Pakistani force in a conventional two-front war in near future has decided to induct Prahaar (150 km) and Pralay (350-500 km) short-range tactical missiles which will address the shortfall of firepower.

13. Brahmos Missile

Surface to Surface, Air to Air, Sea to Air and Sea to Surface Missile

It is a joint venture between the Russian Federation’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya and India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) who together have formed BrahMos Aerospace. The name BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the names of two rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia. In 2016. as India became a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), a new generation of Brahmos missiles has been developed with 450 km plus range.

(continued)

Table 5.3 Initiative for Defense and Security (Continued)



Name Area Important Facts

14. Anti Nuclear Medical Kit

Nuclear Med idle

The Indian Scientists at a central research institute claim to have developed India’s first indigenous medical kit that may ensure protection from serious injuries and faster healing of wounds resulting from nuclear warfare or radioactive leakage. The kit was developed after two decades of work by the Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS) here, has over 25 items, including radio- protectors that provide 80–90 per cent protection against radiation and nerve gas agents, bandages that absorb radiation as well as tablets and ointments. Developed in India for the first time, it’s a potent alternative to similar kits that were till now being procured from strategically advanced nations, such as the US and Russia at much higher prices. The contents include an advanced form of Prussian blue tablets, highly effective in incorporating Radio Caesium (Cs-137) and Radio Thallium, among the most feared radioisotopes in nuclear bombs that destroy human body cells. The tablet provides 100 per cent absorption from the gut and other portals of entry to the human body, according to the documents inside the medical kit accessed by PTI. According to INMAS, the kit has been developed for the armed, paramilitary and police forces only as they are the first ones likely to get exposed to radiation be it during nuclear, chemical and biomedical (NCB) warfare or a rescue operation after a nuclear accident.

15. Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile

Part of NAG missile Series

MPATGM is Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile indigenously developed by DRDO. It has a strike range of 4 km. It is capable of being fired from shoulder and can be used during day and night.

16. Pinaka Mark-11

Guided version of Rocket

An upgraded version of Pinaka rocket, with enhanced range and guidance system, was successfully test-fired from Chandipur in Odisha. The earlier Pinaka system, which was an unguided one has now been transformed into a guided version, with a navigation, guidance and control kit developed by the Research Centre, Imarat (RCI). The conversion helped in enhancing the range and accuracy of Pinaka. If its range was 40 km earlier, it is 70 km now.

17. QR SAM Missile

Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile (QRSAM)

India’s state-owned Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully flight-tested the indigenously designed Unnamed Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile (QRSAM). DRDO-designed QR-SAM missile uses solid fuel propellant and has a stated strike range of 25–30 km.

18. Nirbhay Missile

Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile

It is India’s first indigenously designed and developed Long Range Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile. It has blended missile and aeronautical technologies which allows it to take off vertically like missile and cruise horizontally like an aircraft. It has operational range of 1000 km and can carry warheads of up to 300 kg including nuclear warheads. It can be launched from various kind of platforms.

(continued)




Name Area Important Facts19. Dhanush

TopUpgraded version of Swedish Bofors howitzers

Dhanush is an upgraded version of Swedish 155-mm Bofors howitzers, which India procured in the mid-1980s, based on its original designs. It is also called desi Bofors. It is 155 mm x 45 mm calibre artillery gun. It has been developed by Ordnance Factory Board (OFB), Kolkata based on the requirements of Indian Army and manufactured by Jabalpur-based Gun Carriage Factory (GCF). Its armament system comprises a barrel, muzzle brake, breech mechanism and recoil mechanism to fire 155 mm calibre ammunitions. It has a strike range of 38 kilometres (11 km more than imported Bofors guns) with accuracy and precision. It provides greater fire power, depending on the type of ammunition used. It also has night firing capability in direct fire mode.

20. CH-47F An advanced multi-mission helicopter

The CH-47 Chinook is an advanced multi-mission helicopter that will provide the Indian Air Force with unmatched strategic airlift capability across the full spectrum of combat and humanitarian missions. The Chinook has unsurpassed ability to deliver heavy payloads to high altitudes, and is eminently suitable for operations in the high Himalayas. India has obtained 15 of these helicopters from the United States for boosting the operational capabilities of IAF from which four of this series were delivered on 10 February 2019. The helicopter can carry 9.6 tonnes of load including artillery guns, light armoured vehicles and heavy machinery to high altitude areas.

21. Assault Rifles

For Military firearm

Assault rifle, military firearm that is chambered for ammunition of reduced size or propellant charge and that has the capacity to switch between semiautomatic and fully automatic fire. Because they are light and portable yet still able to deliver a high volume of fire with reasonable accuracy at modern combat ranges of 1000–1600 feet (300–500 metres), assault rifles have replaced the high-powered bolt-action and semiautomatic rifles of the World War II era as the standard infantry weapon of modern armies.

22. Chinook helicopters

Army Indian Air Force on 26 March 2019 formally inducted four US-made Chinook heavy-lift helicopters at Air Force Station 12 Wing in Chandigarh. Two hangars and logistics facilities were created for the Chinook helicopters. India has spent nearly $1.5 billion for 15 Chinook helicopters which are capable of deploying troops and machinery at high altitude location.

23. A-SAT Missile

27 March 2019

Defence Research and Development Organisation, DRDO on Wednesday successfully conducted an Anti-Satellite (A-SAT) missile test, Mission Shakti from Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Island in Odisha. A DRDO-developed Ballistic Missile, Defence Interceptor Missile successfully engaged an Indian orbiting target satellite in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) in a Hit Kill mode. An official release said, the interceptor missile was a three-stage missile with two solid rocket boosters. Tracking data from range sensors has confirmed that the mission met all its objectives. The test has demonstrated the nation’s capability to defend its assets in outer space. It is a vindication of the strength and robust nature of DRDO’s programmes. With this, India has joined a select group of nations which have such capability.

Table 5.3 Initiative for Defense and Security (Continued)



1. Type-15 Tank New light tank Type 15 enters in service with Chinese army

The Type 15 also named VT 5 for the export version, is a light weight main battle tank (MBT) designed and manufactured by the Chinese Defense Com-pany NORINCO (China North Industries Corporation). The VT5 was unveiled to the public during the Zhuhai AirShow China in November 2016. The main armament of the Type 15 consists of one 105 mm rifled gun with thermal sleeve and fume extractor which has a maximum firing range of 3,000m. The main armament also includes an automatic loading system. The empty cartridge cases are ejected via a small hatch located at the rear of the turret.

2. Avangard Russian defense Hypersonic Missile

Avangard is a hypersonic glide vehicle developed by Russia. It’s designed to be carried as a MIRV payload by the UR-100UTTKh, RS-26 Rubezh and RS-28 Sarmat super-heavy ICBM. Avangard can presumably reach speeds up to Mach 20 and can be used to deliver nuclear and conventional payloads. It’s designed to sit atop an ICBM and, once launched, it uses aerodynamic forces to sail on top of the atmosphere. Avangard is a strategically valuable weapons for two main reasons, its ma-neuverability and its versatility. After testing this missile Russia became the first country in the world to conduct such Defence Weapon.

3. Advanced S-400 Air Defence System

China tested S-400 Missile

China has successfully tested the advanced S-400 air defence system imported from Russia for which India also signed-up recently despite concerns over threat of sanctions from the US. S-400 is known as Russia’s most advanced long-range surface-to-air missile defence system. China was the first foreign buyer to seal a government-to-government deal with Russia in 2014 to procure the lethal missile system.

4. Starry Sky 2 Hypersonic air craft China has successfully tested its first wave rider hypersonic aircraft that can carry nuclear warheads and break through any current generation anti-missile defence system due to its high speed and “unpredictable trajectory”. The flight vehicle reached 30 km in altitude at Mach 5.5-6. The test showed that China is advancing shoulder-to-shoulder with the US and Russia.

5. Mother of All Bombs

China hypersonic air craft

China has claimed that it is the country’s answer to the US-built ‘Mother of All Bombs’,and Russia’s “Father of All Bombs” as it is the most powerful non-nuclear weapon, Mother of all Bombs It is dubbed as the Chinese version of the “Mother of All Bombs” due to its huge destruction potential that is claimed to be only second to nuclear weapons.

6. Arrow-3 Missile

America tested Arrow-3 Missile

Arrow 3, an upgraded version of Israel’s Arrow 2, is a U.S.-Israeli system designed to intercept medium-range ballistic missiles. Arrow 3 is capable of exo-atmospheric intercepts well beyond the range of its predecessor and pro-vides the necessary upper tier to Israel’s multilayer defense apparatus, with a reported range of up to 2,400 km. Arrow 3 will consist of a two-stage intercep-tor that will destroy incoming ballistic missiles and ICBMs with an exo-atmo-spheric kill vehicle that will also be to maneuver midair to intercept its target. The interceptor is designed to operate in space, inciting speculation that Arrow 3 could be used as an anti-satellite weapon.

Table 5.4 World Initiative of Defense and Security



IRNSS SERIES

Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite-based system with commercial and strate-gic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite navigation service is an emerging satellite-based system with commercial and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to pro-vide the satellite-based navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the civil aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the civil aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

1. GPS-aided GEO Augmented Nagivation (GAGAN): This is a Satellite-Based Aug-mentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI). The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide satellite-based navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace. The system will be interoperable with other international SBAS system and provide seamless navigation across regional boundaries. The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.

2. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)—NAVIC (Navigate with Indian Constellation): This is an independent Indian satellite-based positioning sys-tem for critical national applications. The main objective is to provide reliable position, navigation and timing services over India and its neighbourhood to provide fairly good acccuracy to the user. The IRNSS will provide basically the following two types of services:

(i) Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

(ii) Restricted Service (RS)

Space segment consists of seven satellites—three satellites in GEO stationary orbit (GEO) and four satellites in geosynchronous orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of 120° to the equato-rial plane. All the satellites will be visible at all times in the Indian region. The first satellite in scheduled to be launched in 2013 and the total seven satellite constellation is scheduled to be in place by 2016. Ground segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS constellation. It provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the orbital and clock parametres and navigation data uploading. The ground segment comprises TCC and uplinking stations, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing Centre, CDMA ranging stations, navigation control and data communication links. Space segment is compatible with single fre-quency receiver for Standard Positioning Service (SPS), dual frequency receiver for both SPS and RS service and a multi-mode receiver compatible with other GNSS providers.

RADAR SYSTEMS

Radar is an acronym for radio detection and ranging. Pulses of microwave energy are transmit-ted through asynthetic aperture radar, which measures the strength and time delay of the energy that is scattered back to the antenna. Thus, a surface or airborne object is detected by the radar system. As compared with telescope, radar system requires more precise reference system. In fact, some characteristics of radar and telescope are common. Both provide limited field of view and require reference coordinate system to define the position of the detected objects. Albeit, the general principles of radar system, were known for a long time, yet discoveries in



the field of electronics provided the real impetus to develop actual radar. In fact, the Second World War was instrumental in developing radar systems. Modern radar finds immense appli-cation, such as in detection of surface or air objects for providing accurate information on distance, direction, height and speed of the objects. Radars are also used to guide missiles and direct the firing of gun systems. Moreover, some of the radar systems are used to provide long-distance surveillance and navigation information and weather forecasting. In India, apart from DRDO, the Bengaluru-based Electronic and Radar Development Establishment (ERDE) and the Hyderabad-based Electronics Research Development laboratory (ERDL) work in the field of developing radars for various purposes. For instance, the radar Rajendra is used in the Akash missile. Similarly, radars Rani, Rashmi and Aparna are used for navigation purposes. India has also been able to develop low-flying detection radar Indra.

Radar works on the principle of electronics which is very similar to the principle of sound wave reflection. The Radio Frequency (RF) energy is transmitted to and reflects from the reflecting object.

A small portion of the energy is reflected and returns to the radar set. The returned or reflected energy is called Echo. The radar set uses this echo to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object. Based on their application, radars may be classified into the following ten groups:

1. Airborne radars

2. Doppler altimetres

3. Weather warning

4. Terrain mapping

5. Identification of friend/foe

6. Ground based

7. Surveillance

Figure 5.5: A radar antenna

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8. Height finding

9. Tracking and fire control

10. Missile guidance

The first international radar symposium was held in October 1983 in India in which the importance of radar as an important sensor in managing space and climate surveillance was stressed. In December 1999, again the symposium stressed on the need of giving momentum to research and development in advanced radar technology and to explore the latest radar technology trends.

Rajendra Radar

It is developed by the DRDO. It is multi-functional radar, capable of surveillance, tracking and engaging low radar cross section targets. It is the heart of the Akash surface-to-air missile system Rajendra’s multi-element antenna arrangement folds flat when the vehicle is in motion.

Indian Doppler Radar (INDRA)

It is a series of 2D radars developed by DRDO:

• Indra-I it is a 2D mobile surveillance radar for low-level target detection. The radar is housed in two wheeled vehicles.

• Indra-II it is a variant of Indra radar for ground controlled interception of targets.

Swordfish Radar

• It is an Indian long-range tracking radar specifically developed to counter ballistic mis-sile threat. Swordfish is an acknowledged derivative of the Israeli Green Pine long-range radar.

WLR

Weapon Locating Radar is a mobile artillery locating phased array radar developed by India. This counter battery radar is designed to detect and track incoming artillery and rocket fire, to determine the point of origin for counter battery fire.

Aparna

It can detect the enemy ship and can give warning to ship regarding self-defence. It is already commissioned in Indian Navy.

Rohini

This is a 3-D radar developed by DRDO for use with Akash, SAM (Surface to Air Missile) capable of tracking 150 targets. The Rohini is the Indian Air Force Version, while Revathi is the Indian Navy Variant.

STEALTH TECHNOLOGY

Stealth technology, the principle of reducing radar visibility, strives to use a plane’s body structure to direct signals away from the radar receiver. Currently, there are two main ways to achieve this goal, either making the fuselage with an angular shape of straight faces and



sharp angles, or covering the body of the plane with special material that absorbs radio signals. In addition, the thermal signature of an aircraft is often reduced by placing the nozzle motor on the upper surface of the aircraft. The mechanically rotating or fixed phase array antenna of the ground-based radar transmits a beam of radio waves that are reflected by any object that comes in its path. The intensity of the reflected wave varies with the nature of the reflecting surface. A conventional all-metal aircraft with fuselage generally of rounded shape for better aerodynamic efficiency provides an excellent surface for the reflection of the transmitted radar waves. Based on the time taken for the reflected wave to arrive back at the ground-based radar antenna, the radar system pinpoints the position of the aircraft and displays it as a ‘blip’ on the radar screen. Thereafter, the radar tags and tracks further movement of the target aircraft so long as it remains within the range of the radar.

While ground-based radars enhance aviation safety under normal circumstances, in the case of overt or covert military operations, it makes an aircraft on a mission into hostile airspace highly vulnerable to enemy air defence weapon systems. It would be obvious from the above that in order to build in stealth characteristics in an aircraft, ways have to be found to prevent reflection of radar waves by absorbing the radar waves striking the aircraft, through the use of appropriate material in the construction of the aircraft, through the use of appropriate mate-rial in the construction of the airframe or by painting the outer surface of the airframe with radar wave electromagnetic energy absorbing material, which is generally believed to be sil-icon-based inorganic compound. Reflection of radar waves can also be prevented by shaping the airframe in such a way that the radar waves are not reflected but in fact deflected and are not able to reach the ground-based radar receiver. This is achieved by designing the airframe largely with flat surfaces and sharp edges that deflect the radar waves away from the ground-based radar antenna.

These methods would successfully ‘blind’ the radar. Thus, stealth technology is based on a combination of materials used in the construction of the airframe as also its unique design fea-tures that help minimize reflection of radar waves. However, as of today, even with the best of

Figure 5.6: Difference in the functioning of stealth strike fighter and SAM systems

Stealth fighterwill bypassair defences

Detection radii againstconventional fighter

Detection radius against stealth fighter

Threat sam system

Threat sam systemStealth defeatsoverlapping samcoverage

Detection radius against stealth fighter



stealth technology developed so far, it has not been possible to totally eliminate the reflection of radar waves. However, as of today, even with the best of stealth technology developed so far, it has not been possible to totally eliminate the reflection of radar waves to make the aircraft invisible to the radar and prevent the ‘blip’ from appearing on the radar screen.

India’s Status in Stealth Technology

India has entered the global race of stealth technology with its AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) programme. Apart from the ongoing partnership with Russia, India is striv-ing for its indigenous stealth aircraft. Apart from China, India is the only country in the world to carry two stealth programmes at a time. AMCA is a twin-engine, single seat fifth-generation fighter aircraft to counter the J-31 and J-20 stealth aircrafts of China. The programme is using the valuable advancements in jet technology achieved while designing LCA Tejas. A naval version of the jet will also be developed as navy has also contributed in the project.

1. Hand-in-hand 2018

India-China 10–23 December, 2012

Place: Chengdu, China.

Important Facts: Opening ceremony for the 7th Si-no-India joint exercise Hand-in-Hand 2018 was started from 10 December 2018. Company size contingents of 11 SIKHLI from Indian Army and a regiment from Tibetan Military District of People’s Liberation Army participated in the exercise. The aim of the exercise was to build and promote close relations between armies of both the countries and to enhance ability of the joint exercise commander to take military contingents of both nations under command. The exercise was having the tactical level operations in an international counter insurgency/ counter terrorism environment under UN mandate.

2. Dhram Gargian 2018

India & Japan 1–14 Nonmember 2018

Place: Warfare school in Mizoram’s Vairengte with a focus on strengthening counter-terror cooperation.

Important Facts: Armies of India and Japan began their first-ever joint military exercise at a jungle war-fare school in Mizoram’s Vairengte with a focus on strengthening counter-terror cooperation. The focus of the two-week-long exercise ‘Dharma Guardian–2018’ was to enhance tactical skills against global terrorism and increase interoperability between the two forces. “The objective of the exercise is to build and promote Army to Army relation in addition to exchange skills and experiences of both the armies.”

Table 5.5 Defense Exercise 2018–19

(continued)



3. SLINEX-2018 India & Sri Lanka

7–13 September, 2018

Place: In Ships at Trincomalee, Sri Lanka for Slinex-18.

Important Facts: Indian Naval Ships Kirch, Sumitra and Cora Divh entered Trincomalee, Sri Lanka to par-ticipate in the sixth edition of SLINEX 2018, a bi-lat-eral Naval Exercise between India and Sri Lanka.

4. Nomadic Ele-phant-2018

India & Mangolia


Place: Mongolian Armed Forces (MAF) Desert Region Training Centre

Important facts: The exercise is being held at the Mongolian Armed Forces (MAF) Desert Region Train-ing Centre in the country’s Umnugovi province.

5. Udha Abhyas 2018

India & America


Place: At Chaubattia, Uttarakhand.

Important Facts: Exercise Yudh Abhyas 2018 a joint military exercise of Indian and US armies with a short yet impressive opening ceremony that saw the unfurl-ing of the national flags of both countries to the strains of “Jana Gana Mana” and “The Star Spangled Banner”.

6. Kazid-2018 Bharat & Kajakhastan

10–23 September 2018

Place: Kazakhstan Army in Otar region.

Important Facts: The aim of the exercise was to build and promote bilateral army to army relations and ex-change skills and experiences between armies of both countries. The exercise was served as platform for exchange of drills and procedures. Kazakhstan Army was also get vast knowledge from experience and expertise of In-dian troops in counter insurgency operations.

7. Exercise Maitree-2018

India & Thailand

6–19 August 2018

Place: Organised at Thailand.

Important Facts: The exercise had started with cross training period involving familiarization training be-tween two armies to evolve drills and procedures in-volved in counter insurgency & counter terrorist oper-ations in urban, rural and jungle terrain under United Nations (UN) mandate.It focused on familiarizing with each other’s modus operandi, basic maneuvers and evolving joint drills.


(continued)



8. Peace Mission-2018

India & Pakistan

24–29 August 2018

Place: In Russia.

Important Facts: The scope of exercise included pro-fessional interaction, mutual understanding of drills and procedures, establishment of joint command and con-trol structures and elimination of terrorist threat in urban counter terrorist scenario. It helped to strengthen mutual confidence, interoperability and enable sharing of best practices among armed forces of the SCO nations.

9. Indra-2018 India & Russia

18–28 November 2018

Place: at Babina Field Firing Ranges

Important Facts: The aim of the exercise was to prac-tice joint planning and conduct to enhance interoper-ability of between two armies in peace keeping/ en-forcement environment under aegis of United Nations. It focused upon training on enhancing team building, special tactical level operations such as Cordon and Search, house intervention, handling and neutralisation of Improvised Explosive Devices and integrated em-ployment of force multipliers.

10. Exercise sea vigil’

By Indian Navy

22–23 January 2019

Place: at coastal and special economic zone

Important Facts: The first coastal defence Exercise Sea Vigil, conducted by the Navy and Coast Guard, in close coordination with State Governments and Union Territories. Sea Vigil conducted by Indian Navy and as-sisted by all stakeholders will facilitate in establishing shortfalls, working out new ways to optimise resources, recommend solutions to higher authorities and refine Standard Operating Procedures. With active support from all stakeholders, such exercises further strengthen the overall security architecture and enhance confidence to thwart any misadventure by anti-national elements.

11. Vaya Shakti & Gagam Shakti-2019

By Indian Air Force

8–18 February 2019

Place: Pokhran Field Firing Range

Important Facts: Vayu Shakti and Gagan Shakti are two important exercises held by Indian Airforce. Ex-ercise Vayu Shakti demonstrtaes the IAF’s ability to strike target on the ground such as enemy convoys and tanks, radar stations, railway yards and military head-quarters. The other important dimension of air power, air-to-air combat is out into display at another exercise of IAF called Gagan Shakti.




Agreements for Defence and Security Equipments

Equipments Country

Admiral gorshkov, K 152 Nerpa Nuclear Submarine, Sukhoi – 30, T-90 Tank Ka-226T Multi-Mission Helicopter, S-400 Missile System

Russia

Mirage 2000, scorpion submarine, 36 rafale aircraft France

Falcon Radar Awacs System, Barak Missile System, Heron tp drone Isreal

IL 76, Uzbekistan Aircraft, Russian engine Russia, Uzbekistan

Advanced – Z Trainer Aircraft England

Bofors Howitzer Sweden

SDW Submiarine Germany

Daniel Rafael South Africa

C-130J Super Hercules, C-17 Globemaster Iii Aircraft,15 Chinok And 22 Apache Helicopter,P- 81 Multimission Maritime Patrol Aircraft, 89 Harpoon Anti Ship Missile, M777 Ultra Light Howitzer

United State

CHApTER AT A GLANCE

• Defence Research & Development Organization(DRDO) was established in 1958. It works under Department of Defence Research and Development of Ministry of Defence.

• SSM (also known as Ground-to-Ground Missile, GTGM) is a guided projectile launched from hand-held, vehicle mounted, trailer mounted or fi xed installation or from a ship.

• BallisticMissile is launched directly into upper lay-ers of the Earth’s atmosphere. It travels in a parabolic path outside the atmosphere and then the warhead detaches and falls back to earth.

• CruiseMissile travels in a relatively lower trajectory. Its motor burns during entire fl ight. Its typical range 2500 km.

• Anti-tank Guided Missile travels at lower levels towards the ground and may or may not burn motor through the fl ight. Its typical range is 5 km.

• Anti-shipMissile travels lower towards the ground and sea and often pops up or jinks before striking ship, its typical range is 130 km.

• India’s political and scientifi c leadership, which included Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, decided that all the technologies (in the fi elds of propulsion, nav-igation and manufacturing of materials) should be consolidated.

• Abdul Kalam, who had previously been the proj-ect director for the SLV-3 programme at ISRO, was inducted as the DRDL director in 1983 to conceive and lead it, four projects, to be pursued concurrently, were born under the IGMDP.



• Agni Missile was originally termed as a re-entry technology demonstrator, and it was first tested at the interim test range in Chandipur in 1989 and was capable of carying a conventional payload of 1,000 accurate Micro Navigation System (MINS).

• MIRV refers to Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle. Unlike a conventional missile, where one missile is used to target only one spot, an MIRV-equipped missile can target multiple spots (say 10).

• This is a medium-range surface-to-air missile defence system developed by the DRDO. It can target aircraft up to 30 km away.

• Trishul (means trident) is the name of a short-range, surface-to-air missile. It has a range of 9 km. It is designed to be used against low-level (sea skimming) targets at short range.

• Ramjet/Stovepipe jet/Athodyd is a form of air-breath-ing jet engine using the engine’s forward motion to compress incoming air, without a rotary compressor.

• Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet): It is a variant of a ramjet air-breathing combustion jet engine, in which the combustion process takes place in supersonic airflow.

• Lakshya is an Indian remotely piloted high-speed target drone system developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) of DRDO. The drone provides realistic towed aerial sub-targets for live fire training. Its range is 150 km.

• Nishant UAV is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by ADE. It is primarily tasked with intel-ligence gathering over enemy territory and also for

reconnaissance, surveillance, target designation, artillery fire correction and damage assessment.

• The DRDO Rustom (English: Warrior): It is a medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle (MALE-UAV) being developed by DRDO for the three defence services. It can fly at a max-imum speed of 225 km/h and has the operational range of 350 km.

• AURA (Autonomous Unmanned Research Air-craft): The design work is being carried out by ADE. The ADE describes the AURA as a self-defending, high-speed reconnaissance UAV with weapon firing capability.

• HAL Dhruv is developed by India’s HAL. It was designed with the assistance of Germany.

• HAL Rudra is an armed version of HAL Dhruv. It is equipped with forward-looking infrared and thermal imaging signs interface, turret gun, rocket pods, anti-tank guided missiles and air-to-air missiles.

• NAL Saras is the first Indian multi-purpose civilian air-craft in the light transport aircraft category designed by the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL). Its third prototype called ‘Saras’ Production Standard Aircraft (PSA) has been modified and is under production at NAL.

• Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard del-ta-wing, multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. The Rafale was one of the six fighter aircrafts competing for the Indian Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MCRA) competition for 126 multi-role fighters.



CHApTER END ExERCISE

pREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS

prelims Questions

1. What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news? 2018

(a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti missile system (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and

South Korea

2. Which one of the following is the best description of INS Astradharini that was in the news recently? 2017

(a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered seminar (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

3. With reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the fol-lowing statements is/are correct? 2016

1. It is a surface-to-surface missile. 2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only. 3. It can deliver 1-tonne nuclear warheads about

7500-km away. Select the correct answer using the code given below:


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. In the context of Indian defence, consider the follow-ing statements: 2016

1. The Shaurya missile fl ies with a speed of more than 8 Mach.

2. The range of Shaurya missile is more than 1600-km.




5. Consider the following statements: 2015 1. INS Sindhughosh is an aircraft carrier. 2. INS Viraat is a submarine




6. From which one of the following did India buy the Barak anti missile defence systems? 2014

(a) Israel (b) France

(c) Russia (d) USA

7. Consider the following statements: 2007 1. In November, 2006 DRDO successfully conducted

the interception test using Prithvi-II missile. 2. Prithvi-II is a surface-to-surface missile and can be

deployed to guard the metros against air attacks. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?


(c) Both 1 and 2 (c) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? 2004

(a) Arjun: Indigenously produced Main Battle Tank (MBT)

(b) Phalcon: Cruise missile supplied by Russia to India (c) Saras: Indigenously developed civilian passen-

ger aircraft (d) Operation Seabird: New Indian Naval base at

Karwar

9. INS Trishul acquired by the Indian navy in 2003 has been built by: 2003

(a) Israel (b) USA

(c) Russia (d) France 10. With reference to Indian defence, which one of the

following statements is not correct? 2001 (a) With the induction of Prithvi-II, the IAF is the

only air force in the world with surface-to- surface ballistic missiles under its command.

(b) Sukhoi-30 MKI jet fi ghters can launch air-to-air and air-to-surface precision missiles.

(c) Trishul is a supersonic surface-to-air missiles with a rang of 30 km.

(d) The indigenously built INS Prabal can launched surface-to-surface missiles.

11. The range of Agni-II missile is around 1991 (a) 500-km (b) 2000-km

(c) 3500-km (d) 5000-km



Main Questions

1. Discuss the missiles technology initiatives under-taken by India. (2007)

2. Discuss India’s L.C.A. emdash Tejas (About 20 words) (2008)

3. Write briefly about the P-8A Poseidon. (in about 30 words) (2009)

4. Comment on each of the following in about 50 words: (2011)

(a) F-22 ‘Reptor’ aircraft

(b) Various applications of Kevlar

5. Describe the importance of Laser in war and peace. (150 words) (2004)

6. What percentage of GDP India spends of defence? To what extent, defence expenditure should be increased? (50 words) (1999)

7. What is a fast-breeder reactor? Comment on its suit-ability in the Indian context. (250 words) (1999)

8. Give an account of the achievements of Indian defence scientists in technology development. (150 words) (1993)

9. What is RDX made of? Why has it been in the news lately? (150 words) (1993)

10. What are binary chemical weapons? (25 words) (1991)

11. Name the minerals used in generating nuclear energy and the places where they are found in India. (25 words) (1989)

12. What is meant by a stealth aircraft? Mention two stealth technological techniques used in such an air-craft. (25 words) (1889)

13. What is a blast furnace? Name the inputs into the blast furnace. (25 words) (1980)

14. Distinguish fusion from fission. Which process is relenting to generate of power in atomic power sta-tions at present? (25 words) (1980)

15. What do the following stand for ICBM. (20 words) (2000)

16. Why is Agni Project important for India? (250 words) (1997)

17. What are the salient features of India’s missile devel-opment programme? (150 words) (1992)

18. Give the names of three missiles developed by India under the integrated Guided Missile Development Programme. Briefly mention their capabilities. (25 words) (1989)

pRACTICE ExERCISE

1. Which of the following statements are correct in the context of organizational setup of Indian defence system?

1. The supreme commander of the armed forces is the president.

2. The president enjoys his discretionary power while commanding the armed forces.

3. Department of defence is responsible for defence production and indigenization of imports.

4. Scientific advisor to the defence minister is the secretary, department of defence research and development.


(a) Only 1, 2 and 4 (b) Only 3 and 4


2. Which of the following is not correctly matched?

Army Command Headquarters (a) Western Command Chandigarh

(b) Eastern Command Kolkata

(c) Southern Command Chennai

(d) Central Command Lucknow

3. Which of the following is a duty/function of Indian coast guard?

1. Safety and protection of artificial islands and off-shore terminals, installations and devices in mar-itime zones.

2. Protection and assistance to fishermen at sea while in distress.

3. Preservation and protection of marine environ-ment.

4. Prevention and control of marine pollution.





(c) Only 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

4. Which of the following cities has a regional head-quarters of the Indian Coast Guard?

1. Mumbai 2. Chennai

3. Vishakhapatnam 4. Kolkata




5. Which of the following is in the correct decreasing order of the rank of office?

(a) Major – Colonel – Captain – Lieutenant (b) Colonel – Lieutenant – Major – Captain (c) Major – Colonel – Lieutenant – Captain (d) Colonel – Major – Captain – Lieutenant

6. Recruitment to which of the following is not done by UPSC?

1. Combined Defence Services

2. Technical Graduates Course

3. Short Service Commission

4. National Defence Academy and Naval Academy


(a) Only 1, 2 and 4

(b) Only 2 and 3

(c) Only 1 and 4

(d) Only 1, 3 and 4

7. New ordnance factory is coming up at

(a) Nalanda (b) Korwa

(c) Khandwa (d) Both (a) and (b)

8. In the context of defence undertakings, which of the following statements are correct?

1. Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd is a Maharatna com-pany

2. Bharat Electronics Ltd is a Navaratna company

3. Mazagon Dock Ltd is a Miniratna company

4. Hindustan Shipyard Ltd is on the west coast.




9. Which of the following is not correctly matched?

Technology System (a) Akash Missile

(b) Arjun Combat Vehicle

(c) USHUS Armament

(d) Lakshya Aeronautical

10. In the context of DRDO, which of the following are its responsibilities?

1. Design, development that lead to production, the state-of-art: sensors, weapon systems, platforms and allied equipment.

2. Research in Life Sciences, to optimize combat effectiveness of soldiers and promote their well being, especially in harsh environments.

3. Develop infrastructure and highly trained man-power for strong defence technology base.


(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 and 3

(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

11. Match the list.

List-I List-II A. Western Air command 1. Gandhinagar

B. Central Air command 2. Delhi

C. Eastern Air command 3. Allahabad

D. South Eastern command 4. Shillong

Codes: A B C D (a) 2 3 4 1

(b) 3 2 4 1

(c) 3 2 1 4

(d) 2 4 3 1

12. Which rank in navy is equivalent to Air Vice Marshal of Air Force?

(a) Captain (b) Vice admiral

(c) Rear Admiral (d) Commodore

13. Consider following statements:

1. Under new system from 1998, recruitment of Tawan’s in army is carried out through open recruit-ment procedure while considering geographical, demographical and topographical considerations.



2. There are 184 trades for Persons below of Juice Rank (PBDR) in army graped into X, Y and Z category.


(a) Both (b) None

(c) 1 (d) 2

14. When was National Cadet Crops NCC established?

(a) 15 July 1949 (b) 15 August 1949

(c) 15 July 1948 (d) 15 August 1948

15. What is rank of Flag Officer who heads a command in Navy?

(a) Vice Admiral

(b) Admiral

(c) Chief of Naval Staff

(d) Vice-Chief of Naval Staff

16. Match the list.

List-I List-II A. Army war College 1. Secunderabad

B. National Defence 2. Wellington

Academy

C. Defence Services 3. Khadakwasla

staff college

D. College of Defence 4. Mhow

Management

Codes:

A B C D (a) 4 3 1 2

(b) 2 3 1 4

(c) 2 3 4 1

(d) 4 3 2 1

17. Match the list.

List-I List-II A. Institute of National 1. Jabalpur

Integration

B. Army Air Bore Training 2. Dehradun

School

C. Rashtriya Indian Military 3. Agra

college

D. College of Materials 4. Pune

Management

Codes: A B C D (a) 3 1 4 2

(b) 1 2 3 4

(c) 4 3 2 1

(d) 4 2 3 1

18. Consider and choose correct statement related to ordinance factory.

1. There are 39 such factories.

2. One factory is being established at Nalanda.

3. It meets the requirements of arms, ammunitions and other items of armed force.

4. It also provides items for Railways, PSUs and other government development.


(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 4

(c) 2, 4, 3 (d) NIL

19. Which of following PSU functions as a wing of Department of Defence Production?

1. Bharat Earth Mover Limited (BEML)

2. Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL)

3. Mozgaun Dock Limited (MDL)

4. Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineer Lim-ited (GRSEL)


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1, 2, 4 (d) All

20. Which organism is not a part of Defence Ministry?

1. Dept. of Defence Product

2. Dept. of Defence R&D

3. Dept. of Ex-servicemen Welfare


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 (d) None

21. Which of following agency was created on recom-mendations of Kargil Review Committee?

1. Integrated Defence Staff

2. Defence Acquisition Council

3. Defence Intelligence Agency

4. Andaman & Nicobar Command


(a) 1, 2 (b) 1, 3

(c) 1, 4 (d) All of the above



ANSWER kEYS

prelims Questions

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b)

practice Exercise

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d) 21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (b)

HINTS AND ExpLANATIONS

prelims Questions

1. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD), formerly Theater High Altitude Area Defense, is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short-, medium-, and inter-mediate-range ballistic missiles.

2. INS Astradharini is an indigenously and built tor-pedo launch and recovery vessel built by Shoft Ship-yard for the India Navy. She was commissioned to Navy Service on 6 October 2015 at the naval Base in Visakhapatnam. After commissioning, the ship entered the Eastern Navel Command. Hence, the cor-rect option is (c).

3. Agni-IV

Type Intermediate Range Ballistic missile

Specifications Weight 17,000 kg Length 20 m

Warhead Strategic nuclear

(~15kt to ~250kt)

Engine Two-stage solid propellant

engine

Operational 4000 km range Hence, the correct option is (a).

4. Shaurya a medium-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile, to be used by its army. With a 600 km range, the missile is capable of hitting targets deep inside Pakistan and China. The indigenous missile was lunched from an underground facility with an in-built canister at 11.25 am from Complex 3 of the Inte-grated Test Range at Chandipur. The sophisticated tactical missile is capable of carrying conventional warheads with a payload of about 1 tonne. Hence, the correct option is (d).

5. Sindhughosh class is one of the three diesel-powered submarine classes in the Indian Navy which is made in the surname of Ghosh.

Ten project 877 submarines, known in India as the 877 EKM or Kilo class submarine or Sindhu class, were built under a contract between Rosvooru-zhenie and the Ministry of Defence (India).

22. What is Jejas?

(a) Pilotless aircraft

(b) Light Combat Aircraft

(c) Reusable aerial target system.

(d) Guided Missile

23. What is Samaytha Communication Segment?

(a) Electronic warfare system

(b) Telecommunication Satellite

(c) Digital Warfare System

(d) None

24. What is ‘Zakshya’?

(a) Reusable Aerial Target System

(b) Guided Missile

(c) Marhiv Gun

(d) Pilotless Target Aircraft



The submarine have a displacement of 3,000 tons a maximum diving depth of 300 metres, top speed of 18 knots, and are able to operate solo for 45 days with a crew of 53. The final unit was the first to be equipped with the 3M-54 Klub (SS-N-27) antiship cruise missiles with a range of 220 km.

INS Virat (R22) is a Centaur-class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Indian Navy. INS Viraat is the flagship of the Indian Navy, the oldest carrier afloat, and also the only aircraft carrier in the Indian Ocean Region. Hence, the correct option is (d).

7. India tested Prithvi II from Chandipur testing range on Nov 19, 2006. Hence, the correct option is (c).

8. India’s indigenously designed and developed main battle tank (MBT) Arjun was thought of in 1974 and was entrusted for development to the DRDO and Combat Vehicle research and development Establish-ment (CVRDE). located in Avadi, Chennai. In 1993, the DRDO offered six Arjun tanks of mark 1 series to the army for user trials. In January 1996, the MBT was dedicated to the nation Arjun has an armour planting of composites called Kanchan successfully developed in India, which is able to resists anti-tank missiles.

Phalcon is the AWACS radar to be mounted on IL 76 planes. Radar-implied radio detection and rang-ing is a device for detecting and locating stationary or moving object.

Saras is the first Indian multipurpose civilian air-craft in the light-transport category designed by the National Aerospace Laboratory (NAL) with coopera-tion from HAL. Saras is named after the Indian Saras crane. The project took off in 1991 as a collaboration with Russia, but financial trouble led the Russians to drop out early in the programme. The project almost took a pause, when it was hit by US-imposed sanc-

tions in 1998 after India’s nuclear tests in Pokhran. Saras uses a pusher propeller configuration. Only a few aircraft currently uses this configuration. Saras (PT-1) completed its maiden flight at the HAL airport in Bangalore on may 29, 2004. It has a capacity of 14 passengers.

Operation seabird placed Karwar on the defence map of the country. Karwar was preferred to other ports because of its geographical advantage and stra-tegic location. Karwar (Karnatka) could now emerge as the Indian Navy’s third major base after Mumbai and Vishakhapatnam. Hence, the correct option is (b).

9. INS Trishul is the second ship of Talwar class frig-ates of the Indian Navy. It arrived at Mumbai on 23rd September 2003. Commanded by Captain SPS Chana, NM, a missiles and gunnery specialists. INS Trishul commenced for passage homeward on 9 July 2003 from Russia. INS Trishul was, however, commissioned at St. Petersburg. Russia on 25 June 2003. Hence, the correct option is (c).

10. Prithvi-II is a surface-to-surface, ballistic missile with a range of 250 km, carrying a payload of 500–750 kg. It is a single-stage, dual-engine, liquid fuel, road mobile, short-range, surface-to-surface missile. DRDO has decided to increase the payload capabil-ity of Prithvi-II to 1,000 kg by using boosted liquid propellant to generate higher thrust to weigh ratio. Hence, the correct option is (c).

10. The Agni II missile uses a solid propellant at sec-ond-stage replacing the liquid-propellant Prithvi short-range missile used as upper stage of the Agni I. It can be launched within 15 minutes as compared to half-a-day preparation for the earlier version of the Agni. Another major development is a highly mobile platform. Hence, the correct option is (b).



❍ Understand the need of energy in human life.

❍ Discuss the development of energy sector in India.

❍ Explain the concept of energy crisis.

INTRODUCTION

Energy can be defined as the measure of the potential of a system to do work. Energy resources are those from which it can be extracted and be put to use for development of mankind. Energy is an absolutely necessary input in the process of production of electricity.

On the basis of renewability, energy resources can be divided into two types—Renewable and Non-renewable resources of energy.

A renewable resource is a natural resource which, if harvested sustainably, can be regener-ated. For example, wind energy, solar energy, etc.

Non-renewable resources, on the other hand, are natural resources that take millions of years to regenerate and are therefore, irreplaceable after consumption, for example, fossil fuels, coal, etc.

BACKGROUND ON POWER DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Power development in India dates back to pre-independent era with commissioning of electric-ity supply in Darjeeling during 1897. It was followed by the commissioning of a hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka in 1902. Though private sector controlled power supply in the pre-independence era, formation of states electricity boards during five-year plans and setting up of multipurpose projects with thermal, hydro and nuclear power stations led to a systematic growth of power supply industry in the country.

India was the third top electricity producer with 1272 TWh in the financial year 2014–15 with 408% global share, surpassing Japan and Russia. By 2016, total energy generated in India was 1433.4 TWh and consumption was 1,122 KWh per capita. India is the third largest producer and fourth largest consumer of electricity in the world.

The Government of India has set a target to generate 10,000 MW of power through solar energy by 2017. The Phase I of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission has been very successful, wherein 1,685 MW of solar power was generated. In order to attract foreign

Learning Objectives

6Chapter

Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources



investments in the power sector, foreign direct investment up to 100% is permitted under the automatic route for projects of electricity generation (except atomic energy), transmission, dis-tribution and power trading. The Ministry of Power (MOP) is responsible for the development of electrical energy in the country. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) assists the ministry in technical matters. An electricity policy was developed by the ministry which sets the tune for generation of electricity in the country.

Energy Sector in India

By and large, the Indian energy sector has been regulated and owned by government agencies and organizations; though of late, the entry of private sector has enhanced the scope for greater power generation.

Institutional StructureThe basic institutional structure comprises a nodal ministry at the centre for each energy supply sector, which is the primary agency for policy formulation, support in decision-making and implementation by state governments, state-level nodal agencies, public sector undertakings, and technical and research institutions. The union government plays a dominant role in the energy sector and it is mainly due to the fact that the subject energy has been placed in the concurrent list of the seventh schedule of the constitution of India.

India’s Energy Policy The energy policy of India speaks about the goals with respect to short, medium and long terms, which are as follows:

• Short Term: Development of domestic conventional energy resource and demand management without affecting eco-growth.

• Medium Term: Energy conservation and improved energy efficiency.

• Long Term: Development of technologies to exploit resources of thorium and devel-opment of renewable ones on a large scale.

ULTRA-MEGA POWER PROJECTS

Ultra-Mega Power Projects (UMPPs) are being promoted with a view to provide power to all at a reasonable rate and ensuring fast capacity addition by the central government as an initiative facilitating the development of UMPPs of 4,000 MW capacity each under tariff-based interna-tional competitive bidding route.

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGy

Renewable energy is that type of energy which provides power from any source that can be replenished. Most renewable systems rely on solar energy directly or through the weather cycle as wave power, hydroelectric power, wind power via wind turbines, or solar energy col-lected by plants (e.g., alcohol fuels). In addition, the gravitational force of the Moon can be harnessed through tidal power stations, and the heat trapped in the centre of the Earth is used via geothermal energy systems. Other examples are energy from biofuel and fuel cells.

Renewable energy resources have the advantage of being non-polluting. However, some (viz., wind energy) can be unreliable and therefore lose their effectiveness in providing a constant supply of energy.

India has installed one national grid with the capacity of 330.86 GW on 31 December 2017. India generated around 1,160.1 billion units of electricity in financial year 2017. Over Financial year-10-17, electricity produc-tion India has grown at CAGR of 7.03%. The 12th five-year plan projects that total domestic energy production would reach 844 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) by 2021–2022.

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Chapter 6 – Renewable and N on-Renewable Resources 1.309

Ultra-Mega Power Projects

Proposed Type State Status Remarks

1 Sasan UMPP Coal pithead Madhya Pradesh

Reliance Power Ltd First 660 MW unit was commissioned in 2013

2 Mundra UMPP Coastal Gujarat Tata Power Ltd All fi ve units commissioned; become fully commercially operational

3 Tilaiya UMPP Coal pithead Jharkhand Reliance Power Ltd Land Acquisition and preliminary works under progress

4 Krishnapuram UMPP

Coastal Andhra Pradesh

Reliance Power Ltd Scheduled for commissioning during 12th FYP

5 Chhattisgarh UMPP Coal pithead Chhattisgarh Bidding stage

6 Orissa UMPP Coal pithead Odisha Proposed

7 Tamil Nadu UMPP Coastal Tamil Nadu

8 Maharashtra UMPP Coastal Maharashtra

New Sites for UMPPs

Nyunapalli village in Prakasham district Andhra Pradesh

Husainabad, Deoghar district Jharkhand

Bijoy Patna, Chandbali of Bhadrak district Odisha

Narla and Kasinga subdivision of Kalahandi district Odisha

Kakwara in Banga district Bihar

ETA UMPP Uttar Pradesh

TechTalk

Despite inherent problems with the technology behind renewable energy sources, increas-ing environmental pressure is forcing development at an increasing pace. By the end of 2007, worldwide wind-power generation had exceeded 30 MW and had reached an annual growth rate of 25%.

India has vast potential for production of power from non-conventional and renewable energy sources.

Advantages • NCE–renewable source • Inexhaustible



• No pollution/minimum pollution

• Ultimately sourced to solar energy

Disadvantages • Subject to vagaries of nature

• Present level of technology needs vast investment

• Gestation period is very high

Indian Scenario for Renewable Energy

The importance of increasing use of renewable energy sources in the transition to a sustainable energy base was recognized in India in the early 1970s. During the past-quarter century, a significant effort has gone into the development, trial and induction of a variety of renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors of the economy and sections of society in India.

• Presently, India has holds world’s largest programmes for renewable energy. Our activ-ities cover all major renewable energy sources, such as biogas, biomass, solar energy, wind energy, small hydropower and the other emerging technologies. In each of these areas, we have programmes of resource assessment, R&D, technology development and demonstration. Several renewable energy systems and products are now not only commercially available, but are also economically viable in comparison to fossil fuels particularly when the environmental costs of fossil fuels are taken into account.

• The ministry is involved in the implementation of these programmes for development, demonstration and utilization of various renewable energy-based technologies, such as solar thermal, solar photovoltaics, wind power generation and water pumping, biomass combustion/co-generation, small/mini and micro hydropower, solar power, utilization of biomass (gasifiers, briquetting, biogas, improved chulha [cookstove]), geothermal for heat applications and power generation/energy recovery from urban, municipal and industrial wastes, and tidal power generation.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

Natural resources include those resources that are derived from the environment. Water, air, minerals, oil and products are some examples of natural resources.

The Unequal Consumption of Natural Resource

Currently, a major part of our natural resources are consumed in the technologically advanced or developed world, usually termed as the North. The developing nations of the South, includ-ing India and China, also overuse many resources because of their greater human population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing countries. Advanced countries also produce over 75 of the global industrial waste and greenhouse gases (GHGs).

Energy from fossil fuels is consumed in much greater quantities in developed countries. Their per capita consumption of food and other products is also much greater, resulting in larger quantities of waste, such as packaging material used in the food industry. Producing animal food for human consumption requires more land than that required for growing crops. Thus, countries that are highly dependent on meat-based diets need much larger areas for

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy or MNRE also deals with other emerging areas and new tech-nologies, such aschemical sources of energy, fuel cells, alternative fuel for surface transporta-tion and hydrogen energy, etc.

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Chapter 6 – Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources 1.311

pasture than those where the people are mainly vegetarian. This consumption pattern can also be measured in terms of a nation or city’s Ecological Footprint (EF), which is a measure of human demand on the Earth’s resources in relation to the Earth’s capacity to regenerate those resources. Thus, the per capita EF provides a means to compare consumption and lifestyles while checking this against the Earth’s ability to provide for this consumption. As of 2006, the US footprint per capita was 9.0 global hectares (gha), while India’s was 0.8 gha. While India’s footprint is much smaller than the world average of 2.2 gha, it is important to know that our footprint has doubled since the 1960s due to population growth. This accelerated degradation of our natural capital is unsustainable.

Planing Land Use

Land itself is a most important resource. It is necessary for food production, animal husbandry, industry and for our growing human settlements. These forms of intensive land use are fre-quently extended at the cost of wild lands (our remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts). Thus, it is essential to evolve a rational land use policy that examines how much land must be made available for different purposes and where it must be situated. For instance, there are usually alternate sites at which industrial complexes or dams can be built, but a natural wil-derness cannot be recreated artificially. Scientists today believe that at least 10 per cent of the land and water bodies of each ecosystem must be kept as wilderness for the long-term needs of protecting nature and natural resources.

Land as a resource is now under serious pressure due to an increasing ‘land hunger’ to produce sufficient quantities of food for an exploding human population. It is also affected by degradation due to misuse. Land and water resources are also polluted by industrial waste and rural and urban sewage apart from being diverted for short-term economic gains to agriculture and industry. Natural wetlands of great value are being drained for agriculture and other purposes and semi-arid land is being irrigated and overused.

The most damaging change in land use is demonstrated by the rapidity with which forests have vanished in recent times, both in India and in the rest of the world. In the long term, the less of forests and the services they provide is far greater than the short-term gains produced by converting forested lands to other uses.

The Need for Sustainable Lifestyles

The quality of human life and the quality of ecosystems on Earth are indicators of the sustain-able use of resources. There are some clear indicators of sustainable lifestyles in human life, such as:

• increased longevity, • an increase in knowledge and • an enhancement of income.

These three together are known as the Human Development Index. The indicators of the qual-ity of the ecosystems are more difficult to assess. They are:

• increased longevity, • a stabilized population or the percentage of species loss, • species diversity in ecosystems and • the state of ‘naturalness’ of ecosystems.



RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGy SOURCES

A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable form over a long period of time. These sources can be of two types:

1. Renewable resources which can be generated continuously in nature are inexhaust-ible (e.g., wood, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, biomass energy, bio-fuels, geo-thermal energy and hydrogen). They are also known as non- conventional sources of energy, and they can be used reused in an endless manner.

2. Non-renewable resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span of time and cannot be quickly replenished when exhausted (e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium).

A renewable resource is a natural resource which, if harvested sustainably, can be regenerated after its use. Ecosystem acts as resource producer and processor. Solar energy is the main driv-ing force of ecological systems, providing energy for the growth of plants in forests, grasslands and aquatic ecosystems. A forest recycles its plant material slowly by continuously returning its dead material, leaves and branches to the soil. Grasslands recycle material much faster than forests, as the grass dries up after the rains every year. All the aquatic ecosystems also depend on solar energy and have cycles of growth when plant life spreads and aquatic animals breed; the sun also drives the water cycle.

It is important to understand that although water and biologically living resources (such as forests, grasslands and wetlands) are considered renewable, they are, in fact, renewable only within a certain limit. If over-utilized and/or degraded beyond that limit, they lose their capac-ity to regenerate.

Non-renewable resources, on the other hand, are natural resources that take millions of years to regenerate, and therefore, irreplaceable after consumption. They are often present in only a fixed amount and are often consumed at a faster rate than the environment’s capacity to regenerate them. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are some examples of non-renewable resources.

Wood is a renewable resource as we can get new wood by growing a sapling into a tree within 15–20 years, but it has taken millions of years for the formation of coal from trees and cannot be regenerated in our life time, hence coal is not renewable. We will now discuss vari-ous forms of renewable and non-renewable energy resource.

SOLAR ENERGy

Sun is the ultimate source of energy, directly or indirectly for all other forms of energy. The nuclear fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous quantities of energy in the form of heat and light. The solar energy received by the near-Earth space is approximately 1.4 kJ/sec/m2 known as solar constant.

Traditionally, we have been using solar energy for drying clothes and food grains for, pres-ervation of eatables and for obtaining salt from seawater. Now we have several techniques for harnessing solar energy. Some important solar energy harvesting devices are:

1. Solar Heat Collectors: These can be passive or active in nature. Passive solar heat collectors are natural materials like stones, bricks, etc., or material like glass which absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night. Active solar collectors pump a heat absorbing medium (air or water) through a small collector which is nor-mally placed on the top of the building.



2. Solar Cells: They are also known as photovoltaic cells or PV cells. Solar cells are made of thin wafers of semiconductor materials, like silicon and gallium. When solar radia-tions fall on them, a potential difference is produced which causes flow of electrons and produces electricity. Silicon can be obtained from silica or sand, which is abundantly available and inexpensive. By using gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide or boron, effi-ciency of the PV cells can be improved. The potential difference produced by a single PV cell of 4 cm2 size is about 0.4–0.5 V and produces a current of 60 mA.

A group of solar cells joined together in a definite pattern form a solar panel which can harness a large amount of solar energy and can produce electricity enough to run streetlight, irrigation water pump, etc.

Solar cells are widely used in calculators, electronic watches, street lighting, traffic signals, water pumps, etc. They are also used in artificial satellites for electricity gener-ation. Solar cells are used for running radio and television also. They are more in use in remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.

4. Solar Cooker: Solar cookers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiations using a mirror directly on to a glass sheet which covers the black insulated box within which the raw food is kept. A new design of solar cooker is now available which involves a spherical reflector (concave or parabolic reflector) instead of plane mirror that has more heating effect and hence greater efficiency.

The food cooked in solar cookers is more nutritious due to slow heating. However, it has the limitation that it cannot be used at night or on cloudy days. Moreover, the direc-tion of the cooker has to be adjusted according to the direction of the sun rays.

5. Solar Water Heater: It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and hav-ing a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box, it has black painted copper coil through which cold water is made to flow in, which gets heated and flows out into a storage tank. The hot water from the storage tank fitted on rooftop is then supplied through pipes into buildings, like hotels and hospitals.

6. Solar Furnace: Here thousands of small plane mirrors are arranged in concave reflectors, all of which collect the solar heat and produce as high a temperature as 3,000°C.

EarthAbsorbed −51Radiated −51

+51 Absorbed

+34

Absorbed

Radiated byatmosphere Absorbed −48

Radiated −48

−51 Radiated by Earth

Outgoingradiation 100

−48

100

−17

−65

+14

−2−27

−6−35

Total reflected

Incomingradiation

100

Atm

osph

ere

Spa

ce

Figure 6.1 Illustration of Earth's energy budget



7. Solar Power Plant: Solar energy is harnessed on a large scale by using concave reflectors which cause boiling of water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a generator to produce electricity. A solar power plant (50 kW capacity) has been installed at Gurgaon, Haryana.

International Solar Alliance

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) Framework Agreement entered into force on the 6 December 2017. Nineteen countries have ratified and 48 countries have signed the ISA Framework Agreement. To start with, India has also set aside $2 billion for solar projects in Africa out of government’s $10 billion concessional leica of credit for Africa.

The idea of a solar alliance of countries that receive sunshine for around 300 days in the year, mooted by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on November 2015 in Paris with the president of France.

The World Bank signed on agreement with ISA to mobilize $1 trillion in investments by 2030.

WIND ENERGy

The high-speed winds have a lot of energy in them as kinetic energy due to their motion. The driving force of the winds is the sun. The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills. The blades of the wind mill keep on rotating continuously due to the force of the striking wind. The rotational motion of the blades drives a number of machines, like water pumps, flour mills and electric generators. A large number of wind mills are installed in clusters called wind farms, which feed power to the utility grid and produce a large amount of electricity. These farms are ideally located in coastal regions, open grasslands or hilly regions, particularly mountain passes and ridges where the winds are strong and steady. The minimum wind speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/h.

Wind energy is very useful as it does not cause any air pollution. After the initial installation cost, the wind energy is very cheap. It is believed that by the middle of the century, wind power would supply more than 10% of world’s electricity.

Figure 6.2 Wind turbines in a wind farm



HyDEL ENERGy

The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a big dam where the water is stored and allowed to fall from a height. The blades of the turbine located at the bottom of the dam move with the fast-moving water which in turn rotate the generator and produces electricity. We can also construct mini or micro hydel power plants on the rivers in hilly regions for har-nessing the hydro energy on a small scale, but the minimum height of the waterfalls should be 10 m. The hydropower potential of India is estimated to be about 4 × 1,011 KW-hours.

Hydropower does not cause any pollution. It is renewable and normally the hydropower projects are multipurpose projects helping in controlling floods, used for irrigation, navigation, etc. However, big dams are often associated with a number of environmental impacts.

Figure 6.4 Release of water at a dam for electricity generation

Wind energy in India has increased in the last few years. In December 2017 total installed wind power capacity was 32.72 GW. India has installed 4th largest installed wind power capacity in the world. Muppan-dal Wind farm in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu generates about 1500 MWe, forward by Jaisalmer wind park, Rajasthan (1064 MWe) and Brahmanvel wind farm, Maharashtra (528 MWe)

CONNECT7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0Tamilnadu

4305

4907

5904

19392078 2311

15671864

2176

13271473

1730

7381088

1525

213 229 276123 236 200 27 28 33

Maharashtra Gujarat Karnataka Rajasthan Madhyapradesh

Andhrapradesh

Kerala

Mar-09 Mar-10 Mar-11

Figure 6.3 Installed wind energy generation capacity per state (in MW) India



TIDAL ENERGy

Ocean tides produced by gravitational forces of Sun and Moon contain enormous amounts of energy. The ‘high tide’ and ‘low tide’ refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. A difference of several metres is required between the height of high and low tide to spin the turbines. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage. During high tide, the seawater flows into the reservoir of the barrage and turns the turbine, which in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators. During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and again turns the turbines.

Figure 6.5 Illustration of tidal energy generator in ocean

There are only a few sites in the world where tidal energy can be suitably harnessed. The Bay of Fundy, Canada having 17–18 m high tides has a potential of 5,000 MW of power generation. The tidal mill at La Rance, France, is one of the first modem tidal power mill. In India, Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch and the Sunderban deltas are the tidal power sites.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGy

The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water at the surface of the tropical oceans and at deeper levels is called Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE).

A difference of 20°C or more is required between surface water and deeper water of ocean for operating OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) power plants. The warm surface water of ocean is used to boil a liquid like ammonia. The high-pressure vapours of the liquid formed by boiling are then used to turn the turbine of a generator and produce electricity. The colder water from the deeper oceans is pumped to cool and condense the vapours into liquid. Thus, the process keeps ongoing continuously for 24 hours a day.

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ock



GEOTHERMAL ENERGy

The energy harnessed from the hot rocks present inside the Earth is called geothermal energy. High-temperature and high-pressure steam fi elds exist below the Earth’s surface in many places. This heat comes from the fi ssion of radioactive material naturally present in the rocks. In some places, the steam or the hot water comes out of the ground naturally through cracks in the form of natural geysers as in Manikaran, Kullu and Sohana, Haryana. Sometimes the steam or boiling water underneath the Earth does not fi nd any place to come out. We can arti-fi cially drill a hole up to the hot rocks and by putting a pipe in it make the steam or hot water gush out through the pipe at high pressure which turns the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. In the United States and New Zealand, there are several geothermal plants working successfully.

Steam

Turbine

Generator

Waterreservoir

Figure 6.6 Illustration of a geothermal power plant

BIOMASS ENERGy

Biomass is the organic matter produced by the plants or animals which includes wood, crop residues, cattle dung, manure, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc. Biomass energy is of the following types:

1. Energy Plantations: Solar energy is trapped by green plants through photosynthesis and converted into biomass energy. Fast-growing trees; like cottonwood, poplar and leucaena, non-woody herbaceous grasses, crop plants; like sugarcane, sweet sorghum and sugar beet, aquatic weeds; like water hyacinth and seaweeds and carbohydrate rich potato, cereal, etc., are some of the important energy plantations. They may produce energy either by burning directly or by getting converted into burnable gas or may be converted into fuels by fermentation,

TechTalk

India Joining the International Energy Agency—oceanEnergy SystemThe Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has given its approval for India becoming a member country of the International Energy Agency–Ocean Energy Systems (IEA–OES) by signing the Imple-menting Agreement (IA). By becoming a member of the IEA–OES, India will have access to advanced R&D teams and technologies across the world. This will help in testing Indian prototypes as per international require-ments and norms. Joint cooperative programmes with institutes of member countries could be taken up. Indian’s own research project with specifi c targets can be taken up in conjunction with other countries.



2. Petro-crops: Certain latex-containing plants like, euphorbias and oil palms are rich in hydrocarbons and can yield an oil-like substance under high temperature and pressure. This oily material may be burnt in diesel engines directly or may be refined to form gasoline. These plants are popularly known as petro-crops.

3. Agricultural and Urban Waste Biomass: Crop residues, bagasse (sugarcane residues), coconut shells, peanut hulls, cotton stalks, etc., are some of the common agricultural wastes which produce energy by burning. Animal dung, fishery and poultry waste and even human refuse are examples of biomass energy. In Brazil, 30 of electricity is obtained

Not to scale

7 km

Pump

Hot water risesto the surface

Cold waterpumpeddown

Steam Turbine Generator

National grid

Hot rocks

Figure 6.7 Generation of electricity by geothermal power plant

Figure 6.8 A biomass power plant

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from burning bagasse. In rural India, animal dung cakes are burnt to produce heat. About 80% of rural heat energy requirements are met by burning agricultural wastes, wood and animal dung cakes.

In rural areas, these forms of waste biomass are burnt in open furnaces called chulhas which usually produce smoke and are not so efficient (efficiency is < 8%). Now improved chulhas with tall chimney have been designed which have high efficiency and are smokeless.

The burning of plant residues or animal wastes cause air pollution and produce a lot of ash as waste residue. The burning of dung destroys essential nutrients, like N and P. It is, therefore, more useful to convert the biomass into biogas or biofuels.

Biogas

Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide, the major constituent being methane. Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes (sometimes plant wastes) in the presence of water. Anaerobic degradation means breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in the absence of oxygen.

Biogas is a non-polluting, clean and low-cost fuel which is very useful for rural areas where a lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available. India has the largest cattle population in the world (240 million) and has tremendous potential for biogas production. From cattle dung alone, we can produce biogas of a magnitude of 22,500 Mm3 annually. A 60 ft3 cattle dung gas plant can serve the needs of one average family.

Biogas has the following main advantages:

• It is clean, non-polluting and cheap.

• There is direct supply of gas from the plant and there is no storage problem.

• The sludge left over is a rich fertilizer containing bacterial biomass with most of the nutrients preserved as such.

10 000 cattle from40 farms produce 500tonnes of faeces and

urine per day.

20 tankerloads per day

Digesters producebiogas.

Remaining slurry is separatedinto solid and liquid.

Liquid containingions is sprayed

as fertilizer.

Biogas is used to generateelectricity.

Solid is mixed withwood waste to

produce potting soil.

Figure 6.9 Large-scale biogas generation



• Air-tight digestion/degradation of the animal wastes is safe as it eliminates health hazards which normally occur in case of direct use of renewable and nonrenewable resources I 79 dung due to direct exposure to faecal pathogens and parasites.

Biogas plants used in our country are basically of two types:

1. Floating Gas Holder-type Biogas Plant: This type has a well-shaped digester tank which is placed under the ground and made up of bricks. In the digester tank, over the dung slurry, an inverted steel drum fl oats to hold the biogas produced. The gas holder can move which is controlled by a pipe and the gas outlet is regulated by a valve. The digester tank has a partition wall and one side of it receives the dung–water mixture through inlet pipe, while the other side discharges the spent slurry through outlet pipe.

Sometimes corrosion of steel gas holder leads to leakage of biogas. The tank has to be painted time and again for maintenance which increases the cost. Hence, another type is designed as discussed below:

2. Fixed Dome-type Biogas Plant: The structure is almost similar to that of the previous type. However, instead of a steel gas holder there is dome-shaped roof made of cement and bricks. Instead of partitioning, here there is a single unit in the main digester but it has inlet and outlet chambers.

The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), now renamed as Minis-try of New and Renewable Energy Sources, has been promoting the biogas programme in India. Out of the various models, the important ones used in rural setup are KVIC Model (Floating drum type), Janta Model (Fixed dome type), Deenbandhu Model (Fixed dome type), Pragati Model (fl oating drum type), Ganesh Model (KVIC type but made of bamboo and polythene sheet) and ferro-cement digester Model (KVIC type with ferro-cement digester).

BIOFUELS

Biomass can be fermented to alcohols like ethanol and methanol which can be used as fuels. Ethanol can be easily produced from carbohydrate-rich substances, like sugarcane, corn and sorghum (jowar). It burns clean and is non-polluting. However, as compared to petrol, its

Inlet tank

Ground level

Gas outlet pipeHydraulic chamber

Slurry level

Outlet pit

Central guide pipe

Floating dome type biogas digester

Digester

Faeces putin thisend daily

Water level

Largeplastic

bag

Outgoingbiogasvalve

‘Bell’ wherebiogaswill bestored

This end can belowered to let

effluent out intoa ditch

Water Exhaust

Figure 6.10 Floating-type biogas plant (left) and fi xed dome-type biogas plant (right)



calorific value is less and therefore, produces much less heat than petrol. It is also considered to be an excellent substitute for kerosene and its combustion is as clean as LPG.

Gasohol is a common fuel used in Brazil and Zimbabwe for running cars and buses. In India too, gasohol is planned to be used on trial basis in some parts of the country, to start with in Kanpur. Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol and gasoline.

Methanol is very useful since it burns at a lower temperature than gasoline or diesel. Thus, the bulky radiator may be substituted by sleek designs in our cars. Methanol too is a clean, non-polluting fuel.

Methanol can be easily obtained from woody plants and ethanol from grain-based or sugar-containing plants.

HyDROGEN AS A FUEL

As hydrogen burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form water and a large amount of energy (150 kJ/g) is released. Due to its high, rather the highest calorific value, hydrogen can serve as an excellent fuel. Moreover, it is non-polluting and can be easily produced. Production of hydrogen is possible by thermal dissociation, photolysis or electrolysis of water as follows:

1. By thermal dissociation of water (at 3,000°K or above), hydrogen (H2) is produced.

2. Thermochemically, hydrogen is produced by chemical reaction of water with some other chemicals in 2–3 cycles so that we do not need the high temperatures as in direct thermal method and ultimately H

2 is produced.

Hydrogen ions(protons) crossthe membrane

Hydrogenin

Oxygenin

++

+

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Figure 6.11 Working of hydrogen fuel cell



3. Electrolytic method dissociates water into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen by making a

current flow through it.

4. Photolysis of water involves breakdown of water in the presence of sunlight to release hydrogen. Green plants and micro algae also have photolysis of water during photo-synthesis. Efforts are underway to trap hydrogen molecule which is produced during photosynthesis.

However, hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature. Hence, safe handling is required for using H

2 as a fuel. Also, it is difficult to store and transport. Being very light, it

would have to be stored in bulk. Presently, H

2 is used in the form of liquid hydrogen as a fuel in spaceships. H

2 can be used

in fuel cell to generate electricity. In fuel cell, hydrogen is burnt in air or oxygen in the pressure of an electrolyte to produce electricity.

Limitations of Non-Renewable Energy Sources

These are the fossil fuels, like coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels. These are formed by the decomposition of the remains of plants and animals buried under the Earth millions of years ago. The fuels are very precious because they take a long time to be formed. If we exhaust their reserves at such a fast rate, as we have been doing ever since we discovered them, then very soon we will lose these resources forever. Till now, we have been heavily depending upon fossil fuels for our energy needs.

Coal

Coal was formed 255–350 million years ago in the hot, damp regions of the Earth during the carboniferous age. The ancient plants along the banks of rivers and swamps were buried after death into the soil and due to the heat and pressure gradually got converted into peat and coal over millions of years of time. There are mainly three types of coal, namely anthracite (hard coal), bituminous (soft coal) and lignite (brown coal). Anthracite coal has maximum carbon (90) and calorific value (8,700 kcal/kg.) Bituminous, lignite and peat contain 80, 70 and 60%

The fuel is burnt in afurnace to producehigh pressure steam.

Hot wastegases The steam is used

to spin a turbine,which is like a giantfan.

Steam out

Water input

The turbine is attached to a generator.The spinning turbine makes the generatorturn. The generator convertskinetic energyinto electrical energy.

Electricalcables

The water is cooled in a coolingtower before being sent back tothe furnace.

Steam

Ash

Coaldust

Cooling towers

Boiler

Figure 6.12 Production of electricity in coal-powered station



carbon, respectively. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world. At the present rate of usage, the coal reserves are likely to last for about 200 years, and if its use increases by 2% per year, then it will last for another 65 years.

India has about five of world’s coal reserve, and Indian coal is not very good in terms of heat capacity. Major coal fields in India are found in Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli and Godavari valley. The coal states of India are Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Anthracite coal is found only in J&K.

When coal is burnt, it produces carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas responsible for causing enhanced global warming. Coal also contains impurities, like sulphur; therefore as it burns, the smoke emits toxic gases, like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.

Petroleum

There are 13 countries in the world having 67% of the petroleum reserves which together form the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). About one fifth of the world oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia.

At the present rate of usage, the world’s crude oil reserves are estimated to get exhausted in another 40 years. Some optimists, however, believe that there are some yet undiscovered reserves. Even then the crude oil reserves will last for yet another 40 years or so. Crude petro-leum is a complex mixture of alkane hydrocarbons. Hence, it has to be purified and refined by the process of fractional distillation, during which process different constituents separate out at different temperatures. We get a large variety of products from this, namely petroleum gas, kerosene, petrol, diesel, fuel oil, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, asphalt, plastic, etc.

Petroleum is a cleaner fuel as compared to coal as it burns completely and leaves no residue. It is also easier to transport and use. That is the reason why petroleum is preferred amongst all the fossil fuels.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): The main component of petroleum is butane, the other being propane and ethane. The petroleum gas is easily converted to liquid form under pressure as LPG. It is odourless, but the LPG in our domestic gas cylinders gives a foul smell. This is, in fact, due to ethyl mercaptan, a foul-smelling gas, added to LPG so that any leakage of LPG from the cylinder can be detected instantaneously.

Oilfields in India are located at Digboi (Assam), Gujarat Plains and Bombay High, offshore areas in deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Mahanadi.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is mainly composed of methane 95% with small amounts of propane and ethane. It is a fossil fuel. Natural gas deposits mostly accompany oil deposits because it has been formed by decomposing remains of dead animals and plants buried under the Earth. Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel. It can be easily transported through pipelines. It has a high calorific value of about 50 kJ/g and burns without any smoke.

Currently, the amount of natural gas deposits in the world are of the order of 80, 450 gm Russia has maximum reserves, followed by Iran and the Qatar. Natural gas reserves are found in association with all the oilfields in India. Some new gas fields have been found in Tripura, Jaisalmer, offshore area of Mumbai and the Krishna-Godavari Delta.

Natural gas is used as a domestic and industrial fuel. It is used as a fuel in thermal power plants for generating electricity. It is used as a source of hydrogen gas in fertilizer industry and as a source of carbon in tyre industry.



Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): It is being used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for transport of vehicles. Delhi has totally switched over to CNG where buses and autorickshaws run on this new fuel. CNG use has greatly reduced vehicular pollution in the city.

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG): It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It is a connecting link between a fossil fuel and substituted natural gas. Low-grade coal is initially transformed into synthetic gas by gasifi cation followed by catalytic conversion to methane.

CUMULATIVE ACHIEVEMENTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGy PROGRAMMES IN INDIA

Biomass Power/Cogeneration

Aims and Objective • The national programmes on biomass power/cogeneration aim at establishing

techno-commercial feasibility and viability of power generation from biomass materials, which are either wasted or sub-optimally utilized along with maximizing power genera-tion from sugar mills.

Resources and Technology Options • Biomass includes straw, stalks, stems and fi nes, agro-industrial processing residues,

such as shells, husks, de-oiled cakes, forestry residues and biomass grown in specially dedicated energy plantation. Conversion technologies include combustion/inceneration, gasifi cation, pyrolysis, etc., using gas/steam turbine, dual fuel engine/gas engine or combination thereof, either in power alone or in co-generation (of more than one energy forms: steam and power) mode.

Renewable Energy Potential

TechTalk

Sources/Technologies Units Potential

Wind power MW 45,000

Small hydropower (up to 25 MW) MW 15,000

Biomass power MW 19,500

Biomass gasifi ers 16,000

Biomass cogeneration 3,500

Urban and industrial waste based power

MW 1,700

Solar photovoltaics MW/km2 20

Solar water heating collector area) Million m2 140

Biogas plants Million 12

Improved biomass Million 120

Chulhas (cookstoves)



Potential

• India is the largest producer of cane sugar and the ministry is implementing the world’s largest co-generation programme in the sugar mills.

• There exists an established potential of 3,500 MW of power generation through bagasse based co-generation in sugar mills.

• Biomass power generation from surplus agricultural residues is also being actively promoted.

• A capacity of 420 MW has so far been commissioned and 488 MW is under installation in 2002.

Co-generation (i.e., multiple and sequential use of a fuel for production of steam and power in a process industry) aims at surplus power generation in industries (such as sugar mills, paper mills, rice mills, etc.), where biomass resources are either generated or consumed in their main processing/production process. The potential in co-generation is about 19,500 MW.

Biomass Gasifiers and other Biomass Energy Programmes

• In the area of small-scale biomass gasification, significant technology development work has made India a world leader.

• Biomass gasifiers capable of producing power from a few KW up to 500 KW have been successfully developed indigenously.

• Indigenously developed small biomass gasifiers have successfully undergone stringent testing abroad.

• Biomass gasifiers are now being exported not only to developing countries of Asia and Latin America, but also to Europe and the United States.

• A large number of installations for providing power to small scale industries and for electrification of a village or group of villages have been undertaken.

• The biomass gasifier programme has been recasted to bring about better quality and cost effectiveness.

• The integrated biomass energy-based SuTRA Project being implemented in seven villages of two talukas in Karnataka has been accelerated.

• The programmes on biomass briquetting and biomass production are being reviewed, and a new programme on power production linked to energy plantations on waste lands is proposed to be developed.

• Five gasifier action research projects are being implemented in selected technical institutions in different parts of the country to provide technical support to the gasifier programme. The Potential in gasifiers is about 16,000 MW.

• Biomass includes straws, stalk, stems and fines; agro-industrial processing residues, forestry residues and biomass from specially dedicated energy plantations, etc.

Applications

• Thermal/heat

• Mechanical water pumping for irrigation, etc.

• Power generation (standalone/grid connected) including for village electrification

• Industrial applications



Thrust Area for R&D

• Cost reduction of gasifier systems

• Development of application packages

• For tea drying

• For plywood industry and other industries

• Development of qualifying tests and upgradation of standards

• Optimization of dual-fuel engines for rural grid scale

Progress

• 1796 gasifier systems of different unit capacities (3 to 500 kW) aggregating 51.30 MW installed (as on 30 Apr 2002).

RURAL ENERGy PROGRAMMES

Rural people largely depend upon fuel-wood, crop residues and cattle dung for meeting the basic energy needs for cooking and heating purposes. With increasing population pressure, the consumption of fuel-wood has far exceeded its supply, thereby causing deforestation and desertification. Similarly, the age-old practice of burning of cattle dung and crop residues for cooking purpose is depriving the agricultural lands of much needed manure and consequently causing loss of soil fertility.

Besides, the inefficient burning of biomass fuel materials in traditional chulhas creates high level of indoor air pollution, which in turn causes eye and respiratory-related diseases among women and children in the rural areas. Therefore, the strategy of the government has been to promote biogas units for recycling of cattle dung to harness its fuel value without destroying the manure value. Toilet-linked biogas plants are also popularized for sanitary treatment of human waste. A variety of smokeless efficient chulhas has been popularized to conserve fuel wood and reduce domestic air pollution. Capabilities are being built for planning and imple-mentation of area-based energy plans and projects at selected blocks. The ministry has taken up Biogas Development National Programme on Improved Chulhas Integrated Rural Energy Programme for meeting the rural energy needs, specially cooking.

INTEGRATED RURAL ENERGy PROGRAMME (IREP)

Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP) was conceptualized during the Sixth Five-Year Plan and launched as centrally sponsored scheme in the Seventh Plan. IREP was transferred in 1994–95 from the planning commission to MNES. IREP aims at promotion of an optimum mix of both conventional and non- conventional energy sources in selected blocks in the country.

The objectives of the Programme are as follows:

• Provision of the most cost effective mix of various energy sources and options for meeting, the requirements of sustainable agriculture and rural development by giving due weightage to environmental considerations.

• Provision of minimum domestic energy needs of cooking and lighting in IREP Blocks. • Development of capabilities in States/UTs for preparation and implementation of block-

level energy plans and projects.



• Ensuring large scale peoples’ participation in the planning and implementation of programmes through the involvement of panchayats, voluntary organizations and insti-tutions at the micro-level for the implementation of the IREP projects.

• Setting up and strengthening of the mechanisms and coordination arrangements for link-ing micro-level planning and rural energy and economic development so as to ensure regular and planned flow of energy inputs for meeting, the requirements of various end users in the IREP projects.

• Financing of the programme by supplementing available central and state budgetary support with resources to be mobilized by the panchayats and other local bodies and peoples’ participation.

Cumulative Achievement

• A total of 860 blocks have been sanctioned for establishing block-level IREP projects cells.

• 22 national pilot projects have been sanctioned. Technical backup units are functioning in 19 states/UTs.

• Regional IREP training centres are functioning at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. In addi-tion, three more centres are being established at Amrol Village, District Kheda, Gujarat; Jakkur near Bengaluru, Karnataka; and Shillong, Meghalaya.

Salient Features of National Pilot Project (NPP)

• To build up mechanism for increasing the necessity of utilizing energy in an efficient way among rural masses.

• Meet the basic minimum energy needs for cooking and lighting of IRDP beneficiary in the NPP Block on 100% coverage basis.

• Jointly funded by state and centre on 50:50 basis, up to Rs.10.00 lakh for each NPP. • To serve as model IREP block by strengthening the links/components of the ongoing

IREP. • Make IREP more participatory, cost effective, sustainable and accessible.

Urjagram

• To make remote and far-flung rural areas self-sufficient in energy.

• Through locally available renewable and non-conventional energy, such as solar energy, bio-energy wind energy, etc.

• Not only for domestic needs but also for agriculture operations, cottage industry, community facility (e.g., In an urjagram, a community biogas plant may be there).

Chemical Sources of Energy Programme

The main objective of the chemical sources of energy programme is the development and applications of fuel-cell technology which produces electricity, water and heat through reac-tion between hydrogen and oxygen. The fuel cell technology offers high-conversion efficiency, modularity, compactness and noise-free operations.

• Hydrogen is the primary fuel for fuel cells. Other fuels can also be used to produce hydrogen gas with the aid of reformers. Because of modular nature, fuel cells are ideally suited for de-centralized power generation and other uses.



• Prototypes of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) have been developed in KW size. The applications of these prototypes have been demonstrated for power generation, industrial and transport sectors.

• A fuel-cell vehicle with indigenously developed PEMFC is run for field performance evaluation.

• Efforts made are expected to lead to the indigenous production and wider applications of fuel-cell systems in the country, thus eliminating our dependence on scarce fossil fuels and preserving the environment.

This programme focuses on fuel cells, which produce electricity, water and heat through reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is the primary fuel for fuel cells. Hydrogen can also be extracted from other fuels through a fuel reformer. Because of modular nature, fuel cells are ideally suited for distributed power generation. Small fuel-cell power plants developed can be used for power generation, industrial, residential and transport applications. A 10 KW proton-exchange membrane fuel cell is being used in a fuel-cell electric vehicle, in addition to a battery pack. Efforts are being made to start indigenous production of fuel-cell power systems in the country. The widespread uses of fuel cells for power generation, transport and other appli-cations will reduce dependence on scarce fossil fuels and help in preserving the environment.

Achievements • Indigenous research and industrial base established.

• R&D projects led to technology/process/material development.

• Prototypes of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) developed

• The application of fuel cells demonstrated for distributed power generation and vehicular propulsion

• UNDP/GEF-assisted PDF (Block B) project on fuel cell bus development in India is under implementation

Potential Applications of Fuel Cells • Production of electricity, water and heat for various end uses

• Industrial uses

• Surface transportation

• Residential applications

• Power supplies for personal computers, hospitals, health clinics, etc.

• Electrification of remote locations/villages

Geothermal Energy Related Programmes

Water heated to stream beneath the crust of Earth can be harnessed to drive turbines for the generation of electricity. India has turbines at Manikaran and Tatapani in HP, and Punjab. The Tatapani site is not suitable for the generation of electricity as the temperature is as low as which is 90°C and the other two sites have up to 130°C temperature.

Geothermal resources, wherever existing, can be utilized for power generation and as a source of heat for space heating, greenhouse cultivation, cooking, etc., at various places in the country. Geothermal energy can effectively meet energy needs of the people. A detailed report for the assessment of geothermal resource potential for direct heat applications and power generation is under preparation. Magnetotelluric investigations to delineate sub-surface,



geo-electric structure and evaluate its geothermal significance are being carried out in Tattapani geothermal area in Madhya Pradesh. Similar investigations are being initiated for Puga geothermal area also.

Objectives • Harnessing of geothermal potential for direct heat applications and for power generation

at promising geothermal sites

Activities • Field studies/surveys for geothermal resource assessment • Infrastructure development • Demonstration • Training and manpower development.

Thrust Areas • Creation of geothermal-related data base and infrastructure for the indigenous produc-

tion of geothermal power plants, equipment for deeper drilling of bore holes, etc.

• Geothermal resource and manpower development.

• Applications of geothermal energy for power generation and in domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors.

Achievements • Geothermal Atlas of India, prepared by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) gives

information/data for more than 300 geothermal potential sites. This Atlas is being updated by GSI with MNES support.

• Applications of geothermal energy demonstrated for small-scale power generation and thermal applications.

Potential Applications • Power generation • Cooking • Space heating • Use in greenhouse cultivation • Crop drying

Organizations Working in Geothermal Energy • Central Electricity Authority • Geological Survey of India • Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai • Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu • National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad • Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Dehradun

ENERGy FROM URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES

• The enormous increase in the quantum and diversity of waste materials generated by human activity has led to an increasing world-wide awareness, about an urgent need to adopt efficient, scientific and safe methods for the treatment, processing and disposal of wastes.



• The technologies for recovery of energy from wastes not only reduce the quantity but also improve the quality of waste to meet the required pollution control standards, besides generating a substantial quantity of energy.

• A potential for generating about 1,000 MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and about 700 MW from industrial wastes is estimated for the country. This potential is likely to increase further with economic development.

• The ministry of non-conventional energy sources has identifi ed energy recovery from wastes as one of its thrust area activities and is implementing following two programmes for recovery of energy from urban and industrial wastes:

• NationalProgrammeonEnergyRecoveryfromUrbanandIndustrialwastes.

• UNDP/GEFprojectonDevelopmentofHighRateBio-methanationProcesses.

NATIONAL PROGRAMME ON ENERGy RECOVERy FROM URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES

• It was launched during the year 1995–96.

• Various fi scal and fi nancial incentives are being provided under this programme.

• Main objectives of the National Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban and Indus-trial Wastes are as follows:

To create conducive conditions and environment with fi nancial and fi scal regime to help, promote, develop and demonstrate the utilization of wastes for recovery of energy.

To help improve the waste management practices through adoption of renewable energy technologies for processing and treatment of wastes prior to disposal.

To promote setting up of projects for recovery of energy from wastes from urban and industrial sectors.

InstallationA total of 15 Waste-to-Energy projects of an aggregate capacity of about 1,700 MW (this also includes projects taken up under UNDP/GEF assisted project on high rate biomethanation Process) have already been completed and 7 projects of a total capacity of about 12 MWe are under installation. Proposals for 10 more waste-to-energy projects of a total capacity of about 60 MWe are under development.

TechTalk

A Few Success Stories from Waste-to-Energy1. Biogas from Wastewater at Starch and Glucose Manufacturing Unit: M/s Vensa Biotek Ltd., Samalkot

in Andhra Pradesh produces starch and liquid glucose from about 40,000 metric tones of maize and about 25,000 metric tones of Tapioca Tuber, per annum. The process also generates about 1,600 m3 per day liquid waste. A biomethanation plant based on Upfl ow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) technology along with aerobic system for secondary treatment has been installed for treating the wastewater. The biomethanation plant has been gen-erating about 8,000 m3 biogas every day from last one year. The biogas is not only leading to substantial savings in cost of fuel in the boiler but also results in large savings on cost of chemicals, which were required for wastewater treatment prior to installation of this project. The payback period of this project works out to about four years.

(continued)



2. Power from Biogas at Distillery: About 12,000 m3 biogas per day being produced from biomethanation plants installed for treating distillery wastewater (Spent wash) at M/s K M Sugar Mills (Distillery) Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, is being utilized for generating power through the steam-turbine route for meeting the total electricity requirement of their distillery as well as that of their residential colony. The project has been performing satisfactorily for last 4 years and has been generating an average of about 4 lakh units of electricity every month. The payback period for such a project works out to be about 3–4 years.

3. Power from Biogas: About 21,000 m3 biogas per day being produced from biomethanation plants treating distillery wastewater (Spent wash) at M/s. Kanoria Chemicals and Industries Ltd., Ankleshwar, Gujarat, is being utilized for generation of power required for their captive use. The project is based on two internal combustion engines fuelled by only biogas, each of 1.003 MW capacity. The waste heat of the flue gases of the engines, which is at a temperature of more than 500°C, is also being utilized for generation of about 1.5 tonne per hour steam at about 130°C. The steam is used for meeting process heat requirements. A H2S-removal plant based on a bio-chemical technology has also been installed to avoid the corrosion of biogas engines. The project has been performing satisfactorily for the last 3 years and generating about 10 lakh units of electricity every month. The payback period of this project works out to be about 3 years.

4. Biogas from Slaughterhouse Wastes: M/s Alkabeer Exports Ltd. (AKEL) have an integrated meat processing unit at Rudraram Village (35 km from Hyderabad) in Medak Distt. of Andhra Pradesh. Solid and liquid waste being generated, during slaughtering and processing of meat, is being treated through biomethanation plants. While about 2,000 m3 biogas is being generated from liquid wastes thus reducing the COD content by 75–80% and BOD5 content by 85–90%, about 2,500 m3 biogas is being generated from solid wastes. Adoption of biomethan-ation technology has resulted in saving of furnace oil as well as chemicals used for treatment of wastewater. The sludge from the anaerobic digester is dried and is being marketed as a nutrient rich soil conditioner.

5. Biogas from Tannery Wastes: India has about 1,600 tanneries with total processing capacity of 0.7 million tones of raw hides and skins. Fleshing and sludge are the two wastes emanating from tannery and treatment of tannery wastewater. A project for demonstration of application of biomethanation technology for treatment of tannery fleshing and sludge from tannery effluent treatment plants has been set up at Visharam Tanners Enviro Control Systems (VISTECS), Melvisharam, Tamil Nadu. The plant has been designed to handle about 3 tones of tannery fleshing and 2 tones of primary sludge from ETP. The generated biogas is then used for generation of electricity in a dual fuel engine.

6. Biogas from Pulp and Paper Mill (Black Liquor): Pulp and Paper Industry is considered to be one of the highly polluting industries and consumes large amount of energy and water in various unit operations. The waste-water discharged by this industry is highly heterogeneous as it contains compounds from wood or other raw mate-rials, processed chemicals as well as compound formed during processing. A biomethanation plant for treatment of black liquor has been set up at M/s Satia Paper Mills Ltd., Muktsar, Punjab. The biomethanation system is based on Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Technology and consists of two reactors having a total volume of about 52,000 m3 for treating about 4,000 m3 black liquor per day. About 10,000 m3 biogas being produced by this biomethanation system is being used as fuel in the boiler, saving about 20–22 tonnes of rice husk, which was being used as fuel in the boiler, which is equivalent to about 15–20% of the total energy requirement of the mill. This plant also leads to other indirect benefits like savings in electricity and chemical consumption required to achieve same level of COD and BOD reductions by activated sludge process.



MAGNETO HyDRODyNAMICS

It is not a non-conventional source. It is the science that deals with the phenomena, arising from the motion of electrically conducting fluids in the presence of electric and magnetic field. It is a method of direct conversion of thermal energy into electricity without any moving parts. In this system, air is heated to super heat. High-speed gases are ionized and are electrically conducted. When the ionized gases are made to flow over a magnetic field, it leads to the flow of electrons resulting in the generation of electricity.

The thermal conversion efficiency of MHD is about 60% as compared to 30–35% in case of conventional thermal plant.

The MHD has its application in the areas:

1. Development of fusion reactors. 2. Simulation of hypersonic flight condition. 3. Space vehicle braking upon re-entry to the atmosphere.

A prototype MHD power plant has been set up by BHEL and BARC jointly at Trichy in Tamil Nadu. It has been established by technical and financial assistance from former Soviet Union. This has been set up to design a larger MHD plant. Trichy plant has been sponsored by DNES.

FUEL CELL

Fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device which produces energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sand-wiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat. Principally, a fuel cell operates like a battery but unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters fuel cell through the cathode. In the presence of a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create electric current and return to the cathode, to be reunited with hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.

A fuel-cell system which includes a fuel reformer can utilize the hydrogen from any hydro-carbon fuel from natural gas to methanol and even gasoline.

Different Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are a family of technologies. Fuel-cell types are characterized by their electrolytes and temperature of operation.

1. Phosphoric acid fuel cell 2. Proton exchange membrane or solid polymer types 3. Molten carbonate type 4. Solid oxide type 5. Alkaline 6. Direct methanol fuel cell 7. Regenerative fuel cell 8. Zinc air fuel cell 9. Protonic ceramic fuel cell



S. No.

Name of Corporation Year Objective/Key Features Other Remarks

1. National Hydro-electric Power Corporation Ltd.NHPC

1975 Plan, promote and organize an in-tegrated and efficient development of power in all its aspects through conventional and non-conventional sources in India and abroad

Listed with the Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange

Transmission, distribution, trading and sale of power generated at stations

NHPC has signed an MoU with Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. (REC) for accelerated electrification of one lakh villages and provide connection to one crore households and with the ministry of rural development for development and maintenance of rural access roads in six districts of Bihar

2. National Thermal Power Corpo-ration Limited (NTPC)

1975 Planning, promoting and organizing integrated development of thermal power in the country

Schedule A 'Navratna' company of the Government of India, NTPC Limited is the single largest power generator in the country with comprehensive in-house capabilities in building and operating power projects

NTPC generation capacity was 18.82 per cent of country’s installed capacity as on 31 March 20094000 MW Lara Power Project in Chattisgarh 2,640 MW Gadarwara Power Project in Narsinghpur District of MP

3. Rural Electrifica-tion Corporation Limited (REC)

1969 Financing rural electrification schemes in the country

REC is a 'Navratna' company.

Financing of all projects including transmission and generation without any restriction on population, geo-graphical location or size

Nodal Agency for implementation of Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana

REC is a public financial institution under Section 4A of the Companies Act, 1956

REC is also registered as a Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC) under Section 45IA of the RBI Act, 1934

Table 6.1 Public sector organization

(continued)



S. No.


4. Power Grid Cor-poration of India Limited (POWERGRID)

1989 Establishment of operation of regional and national power grids to facilitate transfer of power within and across the regions with reliabil-ity, security and economy and on sound commercial principles

Power Grid was notified as the Central Transmission Utility (CTU) of the coun-try, w.e.f., 1998 and since 2008 enjoy 'Navratna' status.

5. Power Finance Corporation Limited

1986 To provide financial resources and encourage flow of investments to the power and associated sectors, to work as a catalyst to bring about institutional improvements in streamlining the functions of its borrowers in financial, technical and managerial areas to ensure optimum utilization of available resources to mobilize various resources from domestic and international sources at competitive rates, to strive for up gradation of skills for effective and efficient growth of me sector

The Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC) is a financial institution and a non-banking financial company, provid-ing fund and non-fund based support for the development of power sector

PFC is a Schedule-A, 'Navratna' CPSE in the financial services under the adminis-trative control of the ministry of power, with 89.78 per cent shareholding of the Government of India PFC provides technical, management advisory and consultancy services related activities through its subsidiary company, namely PFC Consulting Limited

6. Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited (SJVN)

1988 To plan, investigate, organize, exe-cute, operate and maintain hydro-electric power projects

A joint venture of the GoI and the Govt. of H.P. with equity participation in the ratio of 75 : 25, respectively

SJVN is a Schedule-A Mini Ratna company.

The corporation proposes to develop Rampur HE Project as CDM Project for obtaining carbon finance.

The preliminary estimates show that the execution of this Project shall result into Emission Reductions (ERs) of 1.4 million per annum resulting in saving of 1.4 million tonnes of CO per year.

(continued)

Table 6.1 Public sector organization (Continued)



S. No.


7. National Power Training Institute (NPTI)

1965 Committed to the development of human resources in power sector for the past four decades.

NPTI has its corporate centre at Faridabad and five regional institutes located at Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Durgapur (West Bengal), Badarpur (New Delhi), Nagpur (Maharashtra) and Guwahati (Assam).

NPTI (NER) is at present operating from temporary site at Narangi complex, Guwahati, and the full-fledged training institute, as sanctioned by the Govern-ment of India

NPTL offers training & job-oriented ed-ucational programmes also such as MBA in Power Management, B.Tech (Power) and Post Graduate Diploma in Thermal Power Plant Engineering.

8. Central Power Research Institute (CPRI)

1960 It serves as national laboratory to carry out applied research in electri-cal power engineering

The institute has built sophisticated facilities, both in the areas of research and testing like short circuit testing with synthetic testing facility at Bengaluru, Ultra High Voltage Research Laboratory at Hyderabad, short circuit testing Facility at Bhopal, Thermal Research Centre at Koradi, Nagpur and Regional Testing lab-oratory at Noida, Kolkata and Guwahati

It also functions as an independent national testing and certification Authority for Electrical Equipment for ensuring their reliability

The institute works as a nodal agency for national level power system research

CPRI has expertise in the areas of transmis-sion distribution systems, power quality, energy metering, energy auditing, transmis-sion line, tower design, conductor vibration studies, power systems studies, etc

CPRI has served as advi-sor-cum-consultant under APDRP-I for three southern states viz., Karna-taka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh

The CPRI’s laboratories are accredited under the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration of Laborato-ries (NABL), which is the national body for accreditation of laboratories

A centre has been set up for utiliza-tion of industrial solid wastes to useful value-added products for the benefit of industry


(continued)



S. No.


9. North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO)

1976 It plans, promotes, investigates, surveys, designs, constructs, gener-ates, operates and maintains power stations in the N.E. region

The Corporation currently meets more than 60 per cent of the energy require-ment of the North Eastern Region

It is an ISO: 9001:2000 (Quality) ISO 14001:1996 (Environment) and OHSAS-18001:1999 (Safety) Company with its Corporate Office in Shillong

Presently, two hydro projects of 710 MW (Kameng 600 MW and Pare 110 MW) and one gas based project (Tripura gas based power project, 100 MW nomi-nal 20 per cent) are under execution by NEEPCO

The installed capacity of the NEEPCO is 1,130 MW comprising 755 MW of hydro power and 375 MW of gas based power

10. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited

1956 Development of petroleum re-sources and sale of petroleum products. Engaged in exploration and production of crude oil, natural gas and value added products

Converted into a Public Limited Com-pany in 1994 and named ‘Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited’

11. ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL)(Renamed in 1989)

1965 To prospect for oil and gas acreages abroad. These include acquisition of oil and gas fields in foreign coun-tries as well as exploration, produc-tion, transportation and sale of oil and gas

A wholly-owned subsidiary of ONGC, was incorporated as Hydrocarbons India Ltd. OVL currently has participation in 33 projects in 15 countries. OVL has oil and gas production from 10 projects in 8 countries, namely, Russia (Sakhalin-1 and Imperial Energy), Syria (Al-Furat Petroleum Co.), Vietnam (Block 06,1), Colombia (MECL), Sudan (Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company), South Sudan (Greater Poineer Operating Com-pany and Sudd Petroleum Cooperating (Company), Venezuela (San Cristobal) and Brazil (BC-10)

(continued)




S. No.


12. Oil India Limited (OIL)

1959 Engaged in the exploration, produc-tion and transportation of crude oil and natural gas in the country

Incorporated as a company with a two-third share of Burmah Oil Company and one-third share of Government of India. On 14 October 1981, OIL became a GoI enterprise, a wholly-owned Public Sector Undertaking

Oil has operational areas in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Rajasthan

13. GAIL (India) Limited

1984 It is today an integrated energy company along the Natural Gas value chain with global footprints

GAIL’s telecom business unit–GAILTEL offers highly dependable bandwidth for telecom service providers across 175 locations in ten states

GAIL is setting up LNG import infrastructure and focusing on areas like city gas distribution, petro-chemicals business, diversifying into high margin areas in gas value chain and creating a portfolio of renewable business

GAIL consortium has participating inter-est in three CBM blocks in the country in collaboration with Arrow Energy of Australia, EIG Energy Infrastructure Group and Tata Power

The Company is also expanding its global presence to acquire new expert: and resources through over-seas tie-ups in emerging areas such as Shale gas

GAIL has recently acquired its first Shale Gas asset in the US through its wholly owned US subsidiary GAIL Global (USA) Inc

14. Bhakra Beas Man-agement Board (BBMB) (Renamed in 1976)

1967 The regulation of the supply of wa-ter for irrigation from Bhakra Nan-gal and Beas Projects to the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and also drinking water supply to Delhi and Chandigarh

Beas Construction Board was constituted under the Punjab Re-Organization A 1966 for construction of Beas Project

‘Bhakra Management Board’ was renamed ‘Bhakra Beas Management Board’ (BBMB) from May 15,1976 after transfer of Be Project on its completion by Beas Construction Board

(continued)




S. No.


15. Indian Oil Corpo-ration Ltd.(IOCL)

1964 It has business interests encom-passing the entire hydrocarbon value chain-from refining, pipeline transportation and marketing of petroleum products to exploration and production of crude oil and gas, marketing of natural gas, petro-chemicals, renewable energy and now into nuclear

Today, Indian Oil is the country’s largest commercial enterprise with Maharatna status and India’s highest ranked com-pany in the prestigious Fortune Global 500

The Indian Oil Group of companies own and operate 10 of India’s 22 refineries with a combined refining capacity of 213.2 million metric tones per annum

Having set up subsidiaries in Sri Lanka, Mauritius and the United Arab Emirates, Indian Oil is simultaneously scouting for new business opportunities in the energy markets of Asia and Africa

It operates more than 20,000 outlets, the largest and most exten-sive network of retail outlets

The Corporation’s Indane cooking gas reaches the doorsteps of about 65 million households through about 5934 Indane distributors

16. Hindustan Petro-leum Corporation Limited (HPCL)

1974 An integrated oil company in India A mega Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) with Navratna status

HPCL owns and operates the largest Lube Refinery in the country producing Lube Base Oils, with | capacity of 3,35,000 metric tones

It has two refineries producing a wide variety of petroleum products fuels, lubricants and specialty product in Mumbai and Vishakhapatnam

17. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

1976 Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) is an integrated oil company

BPCL has refineries at Mumbai and Kochi with a combined refining capacity of 21.5 MMTPA

Engaged in refining of crude oil and marketing of petroleum products

BPCL has a robust distribution network comprising major storage installations and depots; LPG bottling plants, 1938 km cross-country pipeline and 2 lubri-cant blending plants




MISCELLANEOUS

UNDP/GEF Project on Development of High-Rate Bio-methanation Processes

• It has been taken up as a means of reducing ‘Green House Gases Emission’ in September, 1994 for a duration of fi ve years with an outlay of Rs. 40 crores.

• The UNDP/GEF funds are utilized mainly for acquisition of technologies, consultancy services, engagement of experts, organization of Training Programmes, Study Tours, Workshops/Seminars and creation of awareness, etc., and meet part of the cost of instal-lation of demonstration sub-projects. The project has the following key objectives:

• InstitutionBuilding

• CapabilityBuilding

• PromotionofBiomethanationTechnology

• OrganizationofSeminars,WorkshopsandTraining

• Developmentofa‘NationalMasterPlan.’

• Settingupofdemonstrationsub-projects.

Demonstration Sub-projects • Sixteen demonstration sub-projects in seven waste sectors including sewage, leather

industry effl uent/solid waste, pulp and paper industry effl uent, vegetable market waste and utilization of biogas for power generation, fruit and food processing industry wastes and animal manure.

• Six numbers of demonstration sub-projects have already been completed and three sub-projects are under installation.

CFL

A CFL is a compact fl uorescent light and is also known as compact fl uorescent light bulb or an energy-saving light bulb. It is a type of fl uorescent lamp that screws into a standard light bulb socket.

Working of CFL

A CFL has the following two parts:

1. Gas-fi lled tube (or bulb)

2. Magnetic/electronic ballast

The electricity fl ows through the ballast. The electrical energy from the ballast fl ows through the gas causing it to give off ultraviolet light (UV light).

The ultraviolet light then excites the white phosphor coating on the inside of the tube. This excited white phosphor coating emits visible light.

The barrier to usage of CFL is its initial high cost.Many Governments are now encouraging use of CFLs by promoting its advantages.

COAL BED METHANE

Coalbed methane (CBM) is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds. In the recent decades, it has become an important source of energy in the United States, Canada and other countries. Australia has rich deposits where it is known as coal seam methane.

INFO

Shale gasShale gas is being explored as an important new source of energy in the country. India’s several shale formations are spread over several sedimentary basins, such as Cambay, Gondwana, and KG on land and Cauvery River. The DGH has exploration and equisition of additional geo-scientifi c data. An MoU has been signed with the United Staes in November, 2010, for cooperation in the fi eld of shale gas assessmentand development.



Also called coalbed gas, the term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called ‘sweet gas’ because of its lack of hydrogen sulphide. The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a serious safety risk.

The Process of Adsorption

• Coalbed methane, often referred to as CBM, is distinct from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir, as the methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption.

• Methane is an unpleasant explosive contaminant of coal, better known for killing miners than benefi ting society.

• But recent development in technology have allowed the gas to be tapped and sold in commercial quantities.

• The amount of methane held in coal seam depends on the age, moisture content and depth of the coal.

• Coal is a carbon-rich material that has been formed by the chemical and thermal alter-ation of organic debris.

• During this process called coalifi cation, a series of by-products are generated, including water and methane. With the progress of coal in rank from peat to anthracite, about 140 m3 of methane is generated per ton of coal.

• The amount of methane produced during coalifi cation generally exceeds the capacity of coal to hold the gas. The excess gas migrates into the surrounding rock strata and into the traditional sand reservoirs that may overlie the more deeply buried coals.

The Process of Desorption

• Methane can be extracted from the coal seams by the process of desorption according to which the initial reservoir pressure is reduced, by dewatering, to the critical desorption pressure.

• Thereafter, the coal seams release methane gas as the pressure is reduced. The aban-donment pressure is the lowest pressure at which no more methane can be produced. Before an exercise of drilling for the purpose of methane extraction can be undertaken, an estimate of the reserves of coalbed methane gas is made.

CHAPTER AT A GLANCE

• Biological diversity refers to the variation of life forms at three levels-genetic variability within a spe-cies, the variety of species within a community and the organization of species in an ecosystem.

• Biological diversity provides a variety of environ-mental goods and services. These can be categorized as consumptive and productive use values, sociocul-tural values, aesthetic values and option values.

• India is a bio-rich nation, it ranks among the top 15 counties that are exceptionally rich in species diver-sity, many of which are endemic to the country and found nowhere else in the world.

• Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity. India’s hotspots are con-centrated in three areas the Andaman and Nicobar

Why are CFLs more advantageous than fi lament bulbs?

CONNECT

◗ CFLs have longer life.◗ CFLs use less elec-

tricity.◗ In the long run, CFL

is more economic than bulb.

◗ The production and recycling of CFL is more eco-friendly than that of bulbs.



islands, forests of the north-eastern states and forests of the Western Ghats.

• Threats to biodiversity include: habitat loss due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, poaching for wildlife for short-term economic gain, and finally conflicts arising from human wildlife coexistence.

• In situ conservation refers to protecting species in their natural habitat by setting aside an adequate representa-

tion of wilderness as Protected Areas (PAs), consisting of a network of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

• These PAs must be integrated with each other, by establishing corridors between adjacent areas wher-ever possible so that wildlife can move between them.

• Ex situ conservation refers to protecting species away from their natural habitat, in conditions which can be closely controlled and monitored.



CHAPTER END ExERCISE

PREVIOUS yEARS’ QUESTIONS

Prelims Questions

1. With reference to solar power production in India, consider the following statements:

1. India is the third largest in the world in the manu-facture of silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units.

2. The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar Energy Corporation of India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2018)



2. It is possible to produce algae based biofuels, but what is/are the likely limitation(s) of developing countries in promoting this industry? (2017)

1. Production of algae based biofuels is possible in seas only and not on continents.

2. Setting up and engineering the algae based biofuel production requires high level of expertise/tech-nology until the construction is completed.

3. Economically viable production necessitates the setting up of large scale facilities which may raise ecological and social concerns.



(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

3. In which of the following regions of India are shale gas resources found? (2016)

1. Camaby Basin

2. Cauvery Basin

3. Krishna—Godavari Basin



(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. On which of the following can you fi nd the Bureau of Energy Effi ciency Star Label? (2015)

1. Ceiling Fans

2. Electric Geysers

3. Tubular Fluorescent Lampas



(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. Consider the following statements: (2014) 1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at

the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.

2. The Alliance included all the member countries of the United Nations.




6. Which one of the following is a purpose of ‘UDAY’, a scheme of the Government? (2013)

(a) Providing technical and fi nancial assistance to start-up entre-preneurs in the fi eld of renewable sources of energy.

(b) Providing electricity to every household in the country by 2018

(c) Replacing the coal—based power plants with natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind and tidal power plants over a period of time

(d) Providing for fi nancial turnaround and revival of power distribution companies

7. In automatic wrist watches energy is provided by (2009)

(a) manual binding (b) battery

(c) liquid crystal (d) different movements of our hand

8. Sodium Vapour Lamp is usually used as street light, because (2007)

(a) these are cheap

(b) light form this is monochromatic and will not split through water droplets

(c) it is pleasing to the eyes

(d) it is brightly illuminating



9. In wind power: which form of energy is converted into electrical energy? (2006)

(a) Kinetic energy

(b) Potentialenergy

(c) Solar energy

(d) Radiant energy

10. Photovoltic cells are (2005) (a) Solar cells (b) Thermal cells

(c) Sulphur cells (d) Molar cells

11. Which one of the following is the main area for pro-ducing ‘Tidal Energy’ (2001)

(a) Gulf of Bengal

(b) Gulf of Mannar

(c) Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay)

(d) Gulf of Kutch

12. The inexhaustible source of energy of the stars is due to (1999)

(a) conversion of Hydrogen to Helium.

(b) conversion of Helium to Hydrogen.

(c) decay of radioactive elements.

(d) excess of oxygen that helps burning and release of energy.

Main Questions

1. Give an account of the current status and the tar-gets to be achieved pertaining to renewable energy sources in the country. Discuss in brief the impor-tance of National Programme on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). (150 words) (2016)

2. Write short note on Concentrated solar energy and Photo-voltaic solar energy. (About 50 words) (2011)

3. What are the alternative fuels available for the trans-port sector? Discuss their characteristics, advantages

and disadvantages in their utilization. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2007)

4. Why is hydrogen being acclaimed as the fuel of the future? (About 250 words). Mark 30 (2005)

5. Discuss in detail 'Alternative Energy Sources.' (About 250 words). Mark 30 (2004)

6. Discuss the potential of solar energy utilization in India. (About 250 words). Mark 30 (1992)

PRACTICE ExERCISE

1. Consider the following statements on institutions related to power sector:

1. Ministry of Power (MOP) is responsible for the development of electrical energy in the coun-try and the Central electricity authority (CEA) assists the Ministry in technical matters.

2. The Power Finance Corporation (PFC) provides term-finance to projects in the power sector.

3. A Power Trading Corporation has also been incorporated primarily to support the Mega Power Projects in the private sector by acting as a single entity to enter into Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs).

4. Programmes of rural electrification are provided financial assistance by the Rural Electrification Corporation (REC).

Which of the statements above are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below:


(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Which of following bodies are Central Sector Corpo-rations?

1. National Thermal Power Corporation

2. North Eastern Electrical Power Corporation

3. Tehri Hydro Development Corporation

4. Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.



(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4



3. Which among the following UMPPs are correctly matched with their location?

List-I List-II1. Sasan UMPP A. Andhra Pradesh

2. Krishnapuram UMPP B. Gujarat

3. Tilaiya UMPP C. Jharkhand

4. Mundra UMPP D. Madhya Pradesh


(a) 1-D, 2- A, 3- C, 4-B

(b) 1-A, 2- D, 3- C, 4-B

(c) 1-D, 2- A, 3- B, 4-C

(d) 1-D, 2- C, 3- A, 4-B

4. Consider the following statements on Accelerated Power Development and Reforms Program. Which among the following statements are true?

1. Government of India had approved the ‘Restruc-tured APDRP’ for 11th Plan as a Central Spon-sored Scheme.

2. The programme focuses on actual demonstrable performance in terms of AT and C loss reduction.

3. Projects under the scheme are being taken up in two parts– Part-A as the projects for estab-lishment of baseline data and IT applications for energy accounting/ auditing and IT based con-sumer service centres and Part-B as regular dis-tribution strengthening projects.

4. Asian Development Bank is the nodal agency for operationalizing the programme.




5. Which among the following are true regarding National Grid?

1. With the regional grids have been inter-con-nected, a national power grid in the country is being developed in a phased manner.

2. At present, five regional grids namely northern, western, eastern and north-eastern and southern region are operating in synchronous mode.

3. A set of inter-regional links were developed under the centrally sponsored programme for facilitating exchange of operational surpluses among various regions in a limited manner.

4. Inter-regional power transfer capacity of the national grid is planned to increase to about 66,000 MW at the end of 12th Plan by adding about 38400 MW during the Plan.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

6. Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana has been a successful campaign for rural electrification. Which among the following are true in this regard?

1. The objective is to provide access to electricity to all rural households.

2. Households belonging to Below Poverty Line (BPL) are provided connections free of cost.

3. Panchayati Raj Institutions will have an import-ant role of overseeing in advisory capacity, the delivery of services by the franchisees according to their identified responsibilities.

4. With a view to augmenting the implementation capacities for the programme, REC has entered into MoUs with NTPC, POWERGRID, NHPC and DVC to states wishing to use their services.


(a) 1, 2 and 4 only

(b) 1, 2 and 3 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

7. Consider the following statements on Public Sector Undertakings:

1. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd (NHPC) is listed with the Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange.

2. National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) is the nodal Agency for implementation of Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana.

3. Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam Limited (SJVN) is a Schedule-A Nav Ratna company.

4. National Power Training Institute (NPTI) is com-mitted to the development of Human Resources in power sector for the past four decades.



(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4



8. Which of the following statements are not true regarding Government policy on Petroleum and Nat-ural gas?

1. Under NELP, National Oil Companies compete on an advantage with Indian and foreign compa-nies to secure Petroleum Exploration Licences.

2. Government backs companies in acquiring equity oil and gas assets overseas in order to enhance energy security.

3. Government has approved a comprehensive CBM policy in 1997 to harness Coal Bed Meth-ane (CBM) - a natural gas (Methane) absorbed in coal and lignite seams and an eco-friendly source of energy.

4. The quality of auto fuels is not yet upgraded to Bharat Stage (BS) TV/III grades in the country in line with auto fuel policy.




9. The following statements shed light on developments in Indian renewable energy sector. Which among the following are true in this regard?

1. The Petroleum Conservation Research Associa-tion (PCRA) has the main object to promote con-servation of petroleum products in major sectors of through direct technical assistance, research and development educational training programmes and mass awareness campaigns.

2. The coal reserves of India are chiefly located in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharash-tra and Karnataka.

3. Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) is an inte-grated Mining cum Power Project Company with open cast lignite Mines linked with Thermal Power Stations.

4. The country has an estimated renewable energy potential of around 15,000 MW from commer-cially exploitable sources of wind, small hydro, and biomass.




10. The Indian Policy on Renewable Energy and associ-ated regulatory framework is mainly devised through Electricity Act 2003. Which among the following are true in this regard?

1. Electricity Act 2003 recognizes the role of renew-able energy technologies for supplying power to the utility grids though stand-alone systems are yet to be included.

2. The Act empowers the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) to specify a percentage of the total consumption of electricity from renewable energy sources, known as Renewable Purchase Opportunity (RPO).

3. Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) seek to address the mismatch between availability of renewable sources and the requirement of the obli-gated entitles to meet their renewable purchase obligation.

4. The Government has been promoting private investment in setting of renewable energy projects on a 'build-own and operate' basis with 100% for-eign direct investment.




11. Which among the following cities are developed as model solar cities?

(a) Nagpur (b) Chandigarh

(c) Gandhinagar (d) All of the above

12. Which of the following Renewable energy sources has the maximum installed capacity?

(a) Solar Energy (b) Wind Energy

(c) Bio Gas (d) Small Hydropower

13. Which of the following has the maximum installed capacity in India?

(a) Coal-based thermal power plants

(b) Diesel-based thermal power plants

(c) Hydroelectric power projects

(d) Solar Energy

14. Which among the following leads the renewable energy in terms of installed capacity?

(a) Hydroelectric Power (b) Solar Power

(c) Thermal Power (d) Wind Energy



15. Where is Centre for Wind Energy Technology (CWET) located?

(a) Chennai (b) New Delhi

(c) Lucknow (d) Bangalore

16. Where is Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Renewable Energy (SSS-NIRE) located?

(a) Haryana (b) Punjab

(c) Delhi (d) Kolkata

17. Which among the following is a Maharatna?

(a) Neyveli Lignite Corporation

(b) Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

(c) GAIL (India) Limited

(d) Oil India Limited (OIL)

18. Which among the following is a coal-producing company?

(a) Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCC)

(b) BHEL

(c) National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC)

(d) Power Grid Ltd.

19. Who prepares National Electricity Plan?

(a) The Ministry of Power (MOP)

(b) The Central electricity authority (CEA)

(c) Appellate Tribunal

(d) Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

20. Consider the following statements on Civil Nuclear Liability Bill:

1. The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Bill, 2010, seeks to create a mechanism for compensating victims of nuclear damage arising from a nuclear incident.

2. The Bill fixes no-fault liability on operators with-out any right of recourse against certain persons.

3. The cap on the operator’s liability is required if all plants are owned by the government.

4. The right of recourse against the supplier pro-vided in the Bill is not compliant with international agreements India may wish to sign.

Which of the statements above are correct? Select the correct answer using the code given below:


(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

ANSWER KEyS

Prelims Questions

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (a)

Practice Exercise

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)

HINTS AND ExPLANATIONS

Prelims Questions

1. Solar energy corporation of india’s works include Solar Thermal installations for water/air heating and industrial process, Solar Thermal Pilot Power Plants, Implementation of Grid Connected Solar Roof-Top scheme, Development and dissemination of low cost solar lanterns, Grid connected solar power plants, Solar Mini/Micro Grids, Research and Development including solar resource assessment.

2. Statement 1: Alga-Culture (farming algae) can be initiated on land unsuitable for agriculture or saline water or wastewater. So, 1 is wrong.

Statement 2: Producing algae for bio-fuels (excluding simple seaweed production) requires significant cap-ital investments, which may be a significant barrier in developing countries that have a weak investment climate.



Producing biofuels from algae is still in a pre-com-mercial state of technology development. Most production plants are therefore prototypes, and the development and engineering of such plants requires a high level of expertise.

Statement 3: Using the land allotted to food crops to algal biofuel reduces the amount of food available for humans, resulting in an increased cost for both the food and the fuel produced. This is an ecological as well as economic concern.

3. Shale gas resources are found in all 3 basins men-tioned in the question.

4. BEE sets performance standards for appliances and designs labeling scheme for the same The star rating of various appliances like AC, Refrigerators, Fans, Pumps, Water heaters, etc is part of this mandate that they have. They develop energy efficiency code for buildings and industries. They certify Energy Man-gers and Energy Auditors who can perform energy audits. BEE level on Ceiling fans, Electric geysers and Tubular Fluorescent lamps.

5. Statement 2 is wrong as all member countries of UN are not members of the international Solar Alliance. Only countries lying within the Topics, have plenty sunlight, were prompted to join the alliance.

6. Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) is the financial turnaround and revival package for electric-ity distribution companies of India (DISCOMs) ini-tiated by the Government of India with the intent to find a permanent solution to the financial mess that the power distribution is in (1)

The scheme comprises four initiatives – improv-ing operational efficiencies of discoms, reduction of cost of power, reduction in interest cost of discoms

and enforcing financial discipline on discoms through alignment with state finances. It allows state govern-ments, which one the discoms, to take over 75 per-cent of their debt as of September 30, 2015, and pay back lenders by selling bonds. Discoms are expected to issue bonds for the remaining 25 percent of their debt.

7. In automatic wrist watches energy is provided by the different motions of our hands. While in crystal quartz wrist the energy is provided the liquid crys-tals. general watches having the key have the kinetic energy of the spring.

8. A sodium-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to produce light. Low-pressure sodium lamps only give monochro-matic yellow light and so inhibit colour vision at night and will not split through water droplets. As sodium-vapor lamps cause less light pollution than mercury-vapor lamps, many cities that have large astronomical observatories employ them as a street light.

10. The conversion of light energy into electrical energy is based on the phenomenon called photovoltaic effect. A photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect is utilized to produce electricity from light energy. Silicon is most widely used semiconductor material for constructing photovoltaic cell.

12. The enexhaustive source of energy of stars is the conversion of Hydrogen in Hellium. The major part of sun is made up of Hydrogen and Hillium and it's inner temperature is 1070K, In such a high tempera-ture in the fusion of hydrogen Nucleas take place which results in the release of huge energy.


IntroductIon

A nutrient is a substance that is required by all living organisms to sustain life and growth. Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food and are needed by the body to provide energy and help in maintaining good health. The term ‘nutrition’ refers to the process by which living organisms procure the nutrients and utilize them for proper functioning of their bodies. Usually, nutrients are obtained from the environment and are the sources of energy essential for the growth and repair of tissues of living organisms. Different organisms use different methods for the intake of nutrients, for example, plants absorb nutrients from the soil through their roots or directly from the air. On the other hand, animals or human beings get nutrients from the food they eat. Nutrients can be both organic and inorganic in nature. Examples of organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats and proteins, whereas inorganic nutrients include minerals and water. Nutrients can be classified according to the amounts they are required in as macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients.

MAcro-nutrIEntS

We all know that food is essential for us to survive. Nutrients from food provide energy ( calories) to the body and are needed for overall growth and development. These nutrients are required in large amounts, and hence are called macro-nutrients. There are essentially three types of macro-nutrients—carbohydrates, proteins and fats/oils.

Each of these macro-nutrients provides varying number of calories. Calorie is the unit of energy. Carbohydrates and proteins approximately provide 4 calories per gram each and fat provides 9 calories per gram. We now live in a world of packaged food. Pick-up any packed food like potato chips and look at the contents/nutritional facts. The amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats is mentioned. As you can see, fat provides the maximum amount of energy.


❍ Understand the importance of nutrition for humans

❍ Learn about nutrition and health policies of India❍ Discuss the health-related programmes run by

Government of India

Learning Objectives

7Chapter

Nutrition and Health


Section A: Unit II – Progression of Science and Technology1. 350

Consequently in cold countries, it is advisable to eat larger amounts of fat to keep the body warm. In fact, many cold-blooded animals that hibernate during winters eat a lot of fat before they go into hibernation.

carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the macro-nutrients that we need in the largest amounts. In chemical terms, all carbohydrates are made up of small units called sugars. Most of the carbohydrates are obtained from plants, but they are also found in other substances, like dairy products and honey. When we eat food that contains carbohydrates, during the process of digestion, they are broken down into simple sugar units. These sugar units are converted to glucose in the liver. Glucose is also known as blood sugar and is the basic source of energy in our body. The pri-mary use of carbohydrates in our food is to provide the body a source of fuel for the production of glucose. People suffering from diabetes are advised to reduce their intake of carbohydrates. We need carbohydrates because of the following reasons.

• They are the body’s main source of energy. • All the cells and tissues in our body utilize glucose for energy. • They are essential for our nervous system, vital organs and muscles for proper

functioning. • They can be stored in the muscles and liver, and later used for energy, for example,

animals that hibernate. • They help in waste elimination.

Based on complexity of constituents, there are two types of carbohydrates which are explained as follows:

1. Simple Carbohydrates: Simple carbohydrates have a sweet taste and contain a few sugar units (one or two). Since they contain few sugar units, they are easily and rapidly digested by the body and they are a source of energy (calories), but without any nutrient value.

2. Complex Carbohydrates: Unlike simple carbohydrates, complex carbohydrates are made up of long chains of sugar units. Their starchy taste is their characteristic. Food products that contain minerals, fibre and vitamins (like dairy products, vegetables and whole grains) contain complex carbohydrates. They are also present in the form of a complex with some proteins. Consequently, due to the presence of these extra nutrients, the body takes a longer time to digest complex carbohydrates.

Nutrients

Macro-nutrients Micro-nutrients

Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Vitamins Minerals

Figure 7.1: Classification of nutrients


chapter 7 – nutrition and Health 1. 351

FibreFibre is also a type of carbohydrate that our body is unable to digest. Fibres pass through our intestine without getting digested and facilitate the movement of waste out of the body. A low-fi bre diet is known to cause constipation and also increase the risk for colon cancer. On the other hand, diets high in fi bre help in decreasing the risk of heart disease, obesity and also help in lowering cholesterol. Foods that have high-fi bre content are fruits, vegetables and whole grain products. A breakfast consisting of simple carbohydrates like bread toast and packaged juice will cause the blood sugar level to rise very fast. This, in turn, causes an increase in insulin production (the hormone that carries glucose into the body’s cells). Insulin also helps in converting excess glucose into fat that is stored in the body. That is the reason why people who eat lot of simple carbohydrates have high levels of insulin and are typically obese. The advantage of eating fresh fruits instead of juice is that in addition to carbohydrates, fresh fruits also contain fi bre.

Proteins

About 15–20% of our diet should contain proteins. The basic building units of all proteins are amino acids. Only 9 amino acids out of the total 20 different amino acids are considered essential because our body is unable to produce these essential amino acids on its own, and they must therefore be obtained through the food we intake. Some proteins contain all the 20 amino acids and these proteins are called complete proteins. Animal products, such as meat, eggs and milk contain complete proteins.

Fats

It is a misconception that fat is bad for us. In fact, fat is extremely important for maintaining a healthy body. Our diet should consist of about 25% fat. Trans fats should be avoided as far as possible in our diet. On the other hand, omega 3 and omega 6 oils are essential and are good for health. Sweets and high fat meats contain saturated and trans fats which are unhealthy. Food products such as dry fruits and olive oil contain good fats and are considered healthy.

We need fats because of the following reasons:

• They help in insulating the body from extreme environmental temperatures and also provide cushioning to protect body organs.

• They help in growth and development.

• They help in maintaining cell membranes.

• They play an important role in the digestion of vitamins. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins. This means that they require fat in order to be absorbed into the body.

• They provide energy to the body.

The main sources of fats are meat, dry fruits, poultry, milk products, butter and margarine, oils, fi sh and grain products. There are three main types of fats—saturated, unsaturated and trans fats.

1. Saturated fats (found in foods, like meat, butter, lard and cream) are known to increase heart disease.

2. Unsaturated fats (found in foods, like olive oil, dry fruits and canola oil) decrease the risk of developing heart disease.

3. Trans fats (found in baked goods, snacks, fried foods and margarine) are associated with coronary heart disease.

InFo

◗ Proteins are essential for body building. They are also used for maintaining and repairing the body tissue.

◗ Proteins are extremely important for people who are physically active since their muscle tissues undergo a lot of wear and tear there-fore are constantly in need of repair.

◗ Proteins also help in making the immune system stronger. All vital body functions are performed by enzymes and hor-mones, which are invariably proteins.



MIcro-nutrIEntS

Micro-nutrients are essential nutrients required by our body in small quantities. Micronutrients include minerals, such as iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc, molybdenum and also vitamins, such as vitamin C, A, D, E, K as well as B-complex vitamins. All these micro-nutrients are necessary for the proper functioning of the body. Vegetables and pulses are the best sources for micro-nutrients.

Micro-nutrients are so called because our body requires them only in minute quantities for survival. If our body is deprived for the minute quantities of micro-nutrients it may develop serious health problems. Sodium, for example, is essential for maintaining the fluid balance in our body. Sodium helps fluids pass through cell membranes and also helps regulate the correct pH levels in our blood. Other micro-nutrients help maintain our body in the following ways:

• Manganese helps in the formation of bones and production of energy in our body. It also assists our body to metabolise the macro-nutrients (protein, carbohydrate and fat).

• The normal rhythm of our heart is maintained by magnesium. It also helps our body con-vert glucose into energy. Magnesium assists in the metabolism of the micro-nutrients, calcium and vitamin C.

• Iron helps our body to produce lymphocytes and RBCs (red blood cells).

• Iodine keeps the functioning of the thyroid gland normal. It helps our body to metabolize fats and helps in energy production and body growth.

• Chloride assists to regulate fluid and electrolytes within our cells. It also helps to maintain appropriate pH of the cells.

Table 7.1 Micro-nutrients chart

Vitamins Best Sources Functions Deficiency

A (Retinol, carotene)

Eggs, dark green and yel-low vegetables and fruits

Growth and repair of body tissue, immune function, night vision

Visual impairment, night blind-ness, increases risk of respiratory infections, skin problems

B1 (Thiamine) Wheat germ, port, whole dried beans and seafood

Carbohydrate metabolism, appe-tite maintenance, nerve function, growth and muscle tone

Person feels depressed and irrita-ble, body undergoes weight loss, muscle weakness, fatigued

B2 (Riboflavin) Low-fat milk products, green leafy vegetables, whole and enriched grains, beef, lamb and eggs

Carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, needed for cell res-piration and mucous membranes

Soreness, burning, cracking of lips and corners of mouth, lesions around eyes, itching, burning

B6 (Pyridoxine) Fish, poultry, lean meat, whole grains and potatoes

Carbohydrate and protein metab-olism, formation of antibodies, red blood cells and nerve function

Dermatitis, acne, mouth sores, insomnia, fatigue

B12 (Cyanoco-balamin)

Lean beef, fish, poultry eggs, low fat and non fat milk

Carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, maintains nervous system and blood cell formation

Numbness and muscle weakness, memory loss, dementia, neurologi-cal degeneration

B7 (Biotin) Egg yolk, meat, low fat and non-fat milk, dark green vegetables, also made by microorganisms in intestinal tract

Carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism formation of fatty acid and utilizes B vitamins

Hair loss, appetite loss, nausea

(continued)


Chapter 7 – Nutrition and Health 1. 353

Vitamins Best Sources Functions Deficiency

C (Ascorbic acid)

Citrus fruits, tomatoes, melons, berries, green and red peppers and broccoli

Wound healing, strengthens blood vessels, collagen mainte-nance, resistance to infection and healthy gums

Rheumatic pain in legs, bleeding gums, poor healing of wounds and bruises

D (Cholecalcif-erol)

Fatty fish, eggs, fish liver oil, butter and margarine

Proper functioning of the liver, maintenance of healthy bones and teeth, helps the body utilize calcium

Appetite loss, nausea, constipation

E (Tocopherol) Avocado, whole wheat nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables

Functions as an anti-oxidant to prevent cellular damage

Visual impairment, neurological damage, reduced lifespan of red blood cells, balance and coordina-tion problems

B9 (Folic acid) Green leafy vegetables, dried beans, poultry, growth and cell fortified cereals, oranges and nuts

Protein metabolism, division and essential during pregnancy to optimize the development of the baby’s nervous system, cardio-vascular support nutrient

Retarded growth in children, chronic diarrhoea anaemia

K (Menadione) Spinach, cabbage, Swiss chard, broccoli, spring onions, Brussels sprouts, pistachio nuts

Important factor for blood clot-ting and important vitamin for bone

Poor blood clotting with subse-quent bleeding

B3 (Niacin) Poultry, fish, whole and en-riched grains, dried beans and peas

Plays major role in carbohydrate, protein metabolism, blood circu-lation, nerve function

Pellagra dermatitis, diarrhoea, dementia

B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Most plant and animal foods, such as meat, whole grains and legumes

Major role in fatty acid metab-olism, maintaining membranes mucous, healthy skin

Burning feet, dry skin and hair, fatigue, insomnia


nutrItIVE VALuE oF Food

In the previous sections, we have read about the various constituents of food—macronutrients and micro-nutrients—which provide us with energy to work, building material to grow and protection from disease. Any deficiency in the concentration of these nutrients in food that we consume will result in malnutrition. On the other hand, excess consumption/intake of these nutrient will lead to a number of obesity-related diseases, such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, sleep apnoea and so on. Statistical data of Indian population affected from under- or over-nutrition has revealed some shocking results—33.2–36% of new-borns have low-birth weight and 70% of preschool children are anaemic (iron deficiency). These figures are chang-ing very fast either due to transition in the Indian economy or due to change in life styles from rural to urban, changing eating habits with more emphasis on ready-to-eat foods (fast foods) and beverages.



A variety of foods, such as French fries, pizzas, burgers, chhole bhature, etc., might appear far more tempting than our traditional simple foods, including dal, rice, chapati, vegetables, dahi, idli, dosa and sambhar, etc. The former may be inferior and incomplete in terms of important ingredients that our body needs to stay fit and healthy. Also, eating large quantities of food may not help in providing all essential nutrients. Therefore, it is important that we learn to improve our health by selecting the right kind of food and quantity in our diet that can fulfil needs of energy, growth and protection.

What are the different categories of foods available and their nutrient content? Why is this information important to all of us? We shall try to answer these questions in next section.

nutritive Value of Indian Foods

Nutritive value is the concentration or quantity of all macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients present in food which will be available to our body on consumption. These values help a nutri-tionist or dietician to plan a healthy diet for any age/sex group. Foods grown or produced in Indian have some typical nutrient values.

nutritive Value of Processed Foods

Nowadays natural foods are less commonly used in our diet due to time constraints espe-cially in urban India where both husband and wife work full-time. People are dependent on processed and packaged foods, including ready-to-eat food stuff, such as wheat flour, fruit juices, bread, varieties of milk products, biscuits, namkeens, mixed spices for curries and so on. Before 2008, information about the kind and quantity of nutrients present in these foods was not available. However, looking at the alarming scenario of nutrition-related diseases in India, on 19 September 2008, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare made the declaration, of nutrient values on all food products manufactured by food processors, mandatory to enable consumers to select foods according to their nutritional requirements. Such nutrient-related labels include information about total calories, fat, total carbohydrate and sugar, protein, min-eral and vitamin content generally per 100 g of food product.

Once we know the nutrient content of various food items used in our daily meal preparation, how much quantity and in what composition should these be added or eaten, will be the next question.

Table 7.2 Nutritive facts per 100 g of chips and bread

Bread

Energy Value 287 kcal

Carbohydrates 60 g

Sugar 5 g

Proteins 9 g

Fat 3 g

Trans Fatty Acid NIL

Cholesterol NIL

Calcium 143 mg

Iron 11 mg

Sodium 491 mg

Chips

Energy Value 239 kcal

Total Fat 12 g

Total Carbohydrate 53.2 g

Sugar NIL

Protein 2.0 g



FErMEntAtIon tEcHnoLoGY In Food ScIEncE

A variety of foods constitutes a balanced diet and provide all the nutrition for our body to stay fit and healthy. However, the availability of food and its abundance are dependent on the specific crop period, weather, season and climate. For example, production and availability of certain natural foods such as milk is high in winter and low in summer. Similarly, crops of cereals and pulses have been divided into Kharif and Rabi depending on their productive sea-sons, which directly affect their availability and cost. Even vegetables and fruits are available seasonally. If these foods are stored for long without special care, they are prone to spoilage by microorganisms. Spoilage will adversely affect the texture, flavour and taste of foods making them unacceptable for human consumption. Therefore, it becomes imperative to preserve these natural foods so that their availability is assured throughout the year, and economic damage caused due to their spoilage can be prevented. Such methods which enhance the shelf-life of foods are referred to as preservation methods.

Food can be preserved for longer than their usual life by applying high temperature (boiling of milk), low temperature (refrigeration and freezing of foods), removing available water/ moisture (drying of foods), adding chemical preservatives (organic acids, nitrates, sulphites, sugar, salt) or by fermentation. On the other hand, fermentation under controlled conditions enriches the fermented food with better nutrients in addition to enhancing its shelf-life. Therefore, it is important to have some knowledge about the common fermentation processes applied to raw foods and their role in the development of new, highly palatable and nutritious foods.

Fermentation Process

Fermentation is the process of converting one organic substance into another with the help of microorganisms, generally in the absence of oxygen. In this process, either desirable micro-organisms are added to the food material or the activity of indigenous microorganisms is enhanced and the food is allowed to stand for few hours at a particular temperature. The added microorganisms as pure or mixed cultures will produce certain enzymes which will degrade the available macro-nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and lipids into simpler substances and further transform them into specific end products. These end products are responsible for flavour and taste development, enhancing shelf-life and nutritive value of food. Such transfor-mations that are carried out by microorganisms in foods during fermentation are described as follows:

• Conversion of lactose and other sugars present in milk, vegetables, fruits and meat occurs into pyruvic acid and then to lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria. The accumulation of lactic acid during fermentation will bring down the pH value of foods, and therefore making them sour in taste. It also coagulates the milk protein casein, which is respon-sible for converting milk into curd. Low pH is also detrimental to the growth of patho-genic bacteria, which enhances the shelf-life of milk and makes it safer for consumption.

• Conversion of sugars present in fruits and cereals into alcohol and carbon dioxide hap-pens by yeast. The simple sugar fructose, present in fruits like grapes, is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae during wine making. Similarly, glucose, a monomer of starch in grains like wheat, is fermented into alcohol and carbon dioxide during bread making. Carbon dioxide trapped in the dough during such fermentation is responsible for stretching of the wheat protein glutted providing the unique porous texture to bread on baking.

Preservation methods other than fermentation may affect the nutritional value of some foods adversely. The use of salt, sugar and other chemicals as preservatives in foods are being discouraged due to the risks of health hazards.

In Europe, Africa and Asia, sour milk was produced because of its better stability and other advantages over fresh milk. Cereals, beans, vegetables, fruits, meat, fish, root crops and milk are preserved by one or the other method of fermen-tation throughout the world.

connEct



• Splitting of complex proteins into peptides, peptones and amino acids is facilitated by bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi produce enzymes like proteases and proteinases, which cleave complex protein macromolecules into simpler ones like peptides, peptones and free amino acids. This action of microorganisms not only promotes the growth of bacteria, but also increases digestibility and nutritive value of foods, which are other-wise hard to digest. At the same time, it also helps in the enrichment of flavour and taste of the food material thus increasing its consumer acceptability in the market.

• Hydrolysis of fats/lipids into fatty acids and glycerol occurs by bacteria and fungi. Fats and lipids present in foods are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by the enzyme lipase produced by fermenting organisms. Fatty acids contribute to distinct flavour development in the fermented food.

common Fermented Food ProductsFermented foods have been in use since time immemorial. Their initial production and con-sumption have been linked to China and Russia. Even in India, old literature hasmentioned preparation of dahi and asava (plant extracts) using the fermentation process.

Fermented dairy ProductsFermented milk products are made from either whole or skimmed milk using lactic acid bacteria. Milk is pasteurized (heating at 71.7°C for 15 seconds) or boiled, cooled and pure cul-ture of lactic acid bacterial (starter culture) is added depending on the type of product required. The cultured milk is kept at 32–37°C for 6 to 8 hours (incubation). Lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria from lactose will curdle milk by precipitating milk protein casein. Milk will lose its liquid consistency and appear as set curd. This procedure is commonly used for preparation of curd/dahi, lassi, chhach, yogurt with variation in the type of lactic acid bacteria applied and incubation temperature and time.

We must have observed how the milk is boiled, cooled and added with the dahi/curd, locally known as khatta or jamun. This leftover dahi contains fermenting lactic acid bacteria that

yeast, warm waterand sugar

Flour

Mixing

Finished loafBaking at 180°C

Kneadingto form dough

Dough hooks

Risen dough

Rising at 30–34°C

The yeast is killed and the alcoholproduced during fermentationevaporates – a crust forms andstops carbon dioxide escaping.

Bubbles of carbon dioxidemake the dough rise.

Enzymes from the flourconvert starch to sugar –the yeast ferments the sugar.

Figure 7.2: Process of preparation of bread with the help of yeast



bring about the necessary changes in milk, producing the same quality product. This cycle is broken only when it takes a long time for setting of curd, accumulates gas or releases lot of water during setting or lacks the pleasant acidic flavour. Lassi is prepared from curd/dahi by stirring it and adding either salt or sugar. ‘Chhach’, also known as buttermilk, is a by-product after butter has been churned out from fermented cream.

Yogurt is a popular product in the Western countries. It differs from curd/dahi in the type of lactic acid bacteria used in incubation conditions. It is available in the Indian market in the form of plain, fruit or frozen yogurt. All these products are manufactured commercially by a number of manufacturers, such as Mother Dairy, Amul, Nestle, Danone and Britannia, target-ing a huge Indian market.

Cheese, another European milk product is popular because of its longer shelf-life and better nutritive value. We all have either used or heard of mozzarella cheese and processed cheese slices or cubes which are commonly seen in the Indian market. During cheese-making, pas-teurized milk with added lactic acid bacteria is curdled with rennin-like enzymes and the curd after removal of whey is stored at 10°C for 6 months to a year for ripening. This process facilitates hydrolysis of casein and fats into simpler substances enhancing the nutritive value of the product. One slice of cheese (20 g) contains nutrients equivalent to 100 ml of milk and has better biological value.

Table 7.3 Fermented dairy products and their raw materials

Fermented Product Raw Material MicroorganismsCurd/dahi, lassi, chhach Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactococcus lactis

Lactobacillus sppProbiotic dahi Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactococcus lactis

Lactobacillus sppProbiotic bacteria:

Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus spp

Yogurt Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp bulgaricus, Streptococcus salivarius subsp thermophilus

Probiotic yogurt Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp bulgaricus, Streptococcus salivarius subsp thermophilus Probiotic bacteria: Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus spp

Yakult Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactobacillus casei strain shirotaCheese Milk Lactic acid bacteria: Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus

Bread Wheat Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Soy sauce Soy beans Fungi: Aspergillus oryzae

Lactic acid bacteria: Lactobacillus delbrueckii

Yeast: Zygosaccharomyces rouxii

Idli and dosa Rice and black gram Lactic acid bacteria: Leuconostoc mesenteroides Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus

Pickles Vegetables, cucumber Lactic acid bacteria: Leuconostoc mesenteroides

(cabbage, olives, Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus)Sausage, salami Meat Lactic acid bacteria : Pediococcus acidilactici, Pediococcus pento-

saceu, Lactobacillus plantarum



Benefits of Probiotic Foods

In the early 20th century, a Russian Scientist Élie Metchnikoff wrote in his book Prolongation of Life about the expected benefits of consuming sour milk on human health mainly attributed to the presence of lactic bacilli and its positive effect on the intestinal flora. You may yourself have experienced the helpful effects of an increased intake of curd/dahi/lassi during diarrhoea or gastrointestinal disturbances. It is true that consuming live lactic acid bacteria prevents or reduces the episodes of bacterial intestinal infections. These microorganisms enter the intes-tine and compete with harmful microoganisms and finally eliminate them.

The foods that cannot be consumed in their native state either because of the presence of toxic components or low digestibility have been made palatable and nutritious. Looking at the vast potential of worldwide applications of fermentation in food science, this field has occu-pied an independent status and remains to be explored further. Students can envisage careers in this fast-developing field to generate novel food products to benefit the society.

nAtIonAL HEALtH PoLIcY

A National Health Policy was last formulated in 1983 and since then there have been marked changes in the determinant factors relating to the health sector. Some of the policy initiatives outlined in the NHP-1983 have yielded results, while in several other areas, the outcome has not been as expected.

In 2002, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare introduced an updated health policy. In this policy, they outlined the achievements and drawbacks of the 1983 policy and drew up new plans for the sector. Some of the achievements of the NHP-1983 were:

• Positive changes in incidence of diseases, such as polio, malaria and leprosy.

• Decline in the crude birth rate, crude death rate and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR).

• Improved infrastructure in the form of more beds, centres and health personnel.

Even with the above-mentioned achievements, some of the rates were too high when com-pared with the international community. The NHP-1983 could not address certain newer issues in health, such as HIV/AIDS or lifestyle diseases, such as diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Another major concern was the macro- and micro-nutrient deficiency especially in women and children.

The National Health Policy of 2002 was the second major endeavour towards strengthening the public health care system in India.

national Health Policy, 2017

details of Major Highlights of national Health Policy, 2017

1. Assurance based approach: policy advocates progressively incremental assurance based approach with focus on preventive and promotive healthcare.

2. Health card linked to health facilities: This policy recommends linking the health card to primary care facility for a defined package of services anywhere in the country.

3. Patient centric approach: This policy recommends the setting up of a separate, empow-ered medical tribunal for speedy resolution to address disputes /complaints regarding standards of care, prices of services, negligence and unfair practices. Standard regula-tory framework for laboratories and imaging centres, specialized emerging services, etc.

4. Micronutrient deficiency: It focuses on reducing micronutrient malnourishment and systematic approach to address heterogeneity in micronutrient adequacy across regions.

In some studies, the regular use of probiotics has been found to reduce the effects of other important ailments, such as cancer, tumour growth, hypertension or dia-betes, though more research efforts/trials are required to establish these facts.

The involvement of the fermentation process in food manufacturing has produced a large number of exotic food varieties which have become an indispensable part of our daily diet.

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5. Quality of care: Public hospitals and facilities would undergo periodic measurements and the certifi cation of level of quality. Focus on standard regulatory framework to eliminate risks of inappropriate care by maintaining adequate standards of diagnosis and treatment.

6. Make in India initiative: This policy advocates the need to incentivize local manufac-turing to provide customized indigenous products for Indian population in the long run.

7. Application of digital health: This policy advocates extensive deployment of digital tools for improving the effi ciency and outcome of the healthcare system and aims at an integrated health information system which serves the needs of all stakeholders and improves effi ciency, transparency and citizen experience.

8. Private sector engagement for strategic purchase for critical gap fi lling and for achieve-ment of health goals.

At present, there is no proposal under consideration of the Government to make health as a fundamental right. However. National Health Policy, 2017 advocates progressively incremental assurance based approach with focus on preventive and promotive healthcare.

The National Health Policy 2017 recognizes that improved access, education and empow-erment would be the basis of successful population stabilization. The policy is imperative to move away from camp-based services with all its attendant problems of quality, safety and dignity of women, to a situation where these services are available on any day of the week or at least on a fi xed day.

The process of formulation of the new National Health Policy entailed wide consultation with multiple stakeholders, Regional consultations, approval of Central Council of Health and Family Welfare and Group of Ministers. The Cabinet in its meeting held on 15th March, 2017 approved the National Health Policy, 2017.

A statement showing per capita expenditure on public health in India with regard to other select developing countries in 2014 is given below.

CountryGeneral Government Health Expenditure (GGHE) per capita in

USS 2014

India 23

Thailand 177

China 234

South Africa 275

Mexico 351

Iran (Islamic Republic of) 145

Indonesia 38

Sri Lanka 71

Malaysia 252

Source: WHO: Global Health Expenditure Database, 2014

The National Health Policy 2017 envisages raising public health expenditure progressively to 2.5% of the GDP by 2025.

Activities in north East region

• National Rural Health Mission in North East.

• Northeastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, Shillong: It is a thriving tertiary care medical and teaching institute.

InFo

rashtriya Arogya nidhiSet up in 1997 to provide fi nan-cial assistance to patients living below poverty line who are suff ering from major life threatening diseases to receive medical treatment in government hospitals.



• Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal: Established in the year 1972, it is an institute of regional importance catering mostly to the needs of northeastern region in the field of imparting undergraduate and post graduate medical education.

• LGB Regional Institute of Mental Health, Tezpur, Assam: It was established in the year 1876, is recognized as one of the oldest centres providing quality mental health care and treatment.

• Regional Institute of Paramedical & Nursing Sciences, Aizawl: It was established in 1986 to cater to the education in the field of paramedical, nursing and pharmacy.

• National Programme for Control of Blindness in North Eastern States.

• National Leprosy Eradication Programme.

• National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme.

• National Programme for Control of Fluorosis.

• National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke.

Quality control in Food, drug and Medical devices

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)

• Established under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, which consolidates various acts and orders that have hitherto handled food-related issues in various ministries and departments.

• FSSAI has been created for laying down science-based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

central drugs Standard control organization (cdSco)

• It is the central drug authority for discharging functions assigned to the central govern-ment under the drugs and cosmetics act.

• CDSCO has 6 zonal offices, 4 sub-zonal offices, 11 port offices and 6 laboratories under its control.

Major functions of CDSCO: Regulatory control over the import of drugs Approval of new drugs and clinical trials To safeguard and enhance the public health by assuring the safety, efficacy and quality

of drugs, cosmetics and medical devices.

national Institute of Health and Family Welfare (nIHFW)

• It is an autonomous organization, under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, acts as an apex technical institute as well as a think tank for the promotion of health and family welfare programmes in the country.

• Some of the major thrust areas under NIHFW are as follows: Health and related policies Public health management • Health sector reforms E-Health economics and financing Population optimization Reproductive health



Hospital management

Communication for health

• Training technology

department of AYuSH

• Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) was created in March 1995, and re-named as Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) in November 2003, with a view to pro-viding focused attention to development of education & research in ayurveda, yoga & naturopathy, unani, siddha and homoeopathy systems.

• The department continued to lay emphasis on upgradation of AYUSH educational standards, quality control and standardization of drugs, improving the availability of medicinal plant material, research & development and awareness generation about the efficacy of the systems domestically and internationally

• The department of AYUSH has three subordinate offices: Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicine Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory Pharmacopoeia Commission for Indian Medicine • OnePublicSectorUndertaking Indian Medicine Pharmaceutical Corporation: The company is having a Mini

Ratna Category-II status. • TwoStatutoryOrganizations Central Council of Indian Medicine Central Council of Homeopathy • FiveResearchCouncils Central Council for Research in Ayurveda & Siddha (CCRAS) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM) Central Council for Research in Homoeopathy (CCRH) Central Council for Research in Yoga & Naturopathy (CCRYN) Central Council for Research in Siddha (CCRS) • Eleven educational institutions • National Medicinal Plant Board

department of Health research

• The president notified the creation of the Department of Health Research under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare through an amendment to the Government of India (Allocation of Business) rules, 1961, on 17 September 2007.

• The Department of Health Research was formally launched on 5 October 2007. • The main business allocated to this new department is the promotion and coordination

of basic, applied and clinical research.

National Health Research Policy • The Department of Health Research (DHR) has formulated a draft of National Health

Research Policy. • The main objectives of the National Health Research Policy is to identify priorities for effec-

tive and ethical health research to enable the achievement of the objectives of NHP 2002, NRHM, Bharat Nirman and National Food Security Act as well as global commitments such as MDG and IHR, ensuring that the results of health research are translated into action.



Indian council of Medical research (IcMr)

• Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), the apex body in India for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research, is one of the oldest medical research bodies in the world.

• It was set up in 1911 with the specific objective of sponsoring and coordinating medical research in the country. It was redesignated in 1949 as the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) with considerably expanded scope of functions.

• The council’s research priorities coincide with the national health priorities. All these efforts are undertaken with a view to reduce the total burden of disease and to promote health and well-being of the population.

• The council promotes biomedical research in the country through intramural as well as extramural research.

Intramural research is carried out currently through the council’s 33 Research Institutes/Centres/Units.

Extramural research is promoted by ICMR through setting up centres for advanced research, Task force studies, open-ended research and adhoc projects and fellowships.

department of AIdS control

• National AIDS Control Organization is a division of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare that provides leadership to HIV/AIDS control programme in India through 35 HIV/AIDS prevention and control societies.

• In 1986, following the detection of the first AIDS case in the country, the National AIDS Committee was constituted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. As the epi-demic spread, need was felt for a nationwide programme and an organization to steer the programme.

• In 1992 India’s first national AIDS control programme (1992–1999) was launched, and National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) was constituted to implement the programme.

• This was followed by NACP II in 1999 and NACP III in 2007. During different phases of the programme, the focus shifted from raising HIV/AIDS awareness to behaviour change, from a national response to a more decentralized response and to increasing involvement of NGOs and networks of people living with HIV/AIDS.

• NACP III (2007–2012): Overall goal of NACP-III is to halt and reverse the epidemic in India over the next 5 years by integrating programmes for prevention, care & support and treatment. This will be achieved through a four-pronged strategy:

1. Preventing new infections in high-risk groups with Targeted Interventions (TIs) and scaled up interventions in the general population.

2. Providing greater care, support and treatment to larger number of PLHA.

3. Strengthening the infrastructure, systems and human resources in prevention, care, support and treatment programmes at district, state and national levels.

4. Strengthening the nationwide strategic information management system.

• The specific objective is to reduce the rate of incidence by 60% in the first year of the programme in high prevalence states to obtain the reversal of the epidemic and by 40% in the vulnerable states to stabilise the epidemic.

• Wider access to Anti-Retroviral Therapy has resulted in decline of the number of people dying due to AIDS-related causes



International cooperation

World Food Programme

• India allocates food grains under a Country Programme Action Plan (CPAP) 2008–2012 signed between the Government of India and the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP).

• Allocation of food grains (rice and wheat) have been made by Department of Food & Public Distribution at BPL issue prices for the development schemes to be utilized in various WFP assisted projects in India.

• A total quantity of 165,065 tons of food grains has been allocated during 2008 to 2011. • The Country Programme 2008–2012 is extended up to June 2014 to facilitate the transi-

tion in new country strategy.

Food and Agricultural organization (FAo)

• FAO is one of the largest specialized agencies in the United Nations System founded in 1945 with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition and standard of living by improving agricultural productivity and living conditions of rural population.

• The Committee on World Food Security (CFS) serves as a forum in the United Nations System for review and follow-up of policies concerning world food security, including food production, physical and economic access to food.

• India is a member to both FAO and CFS. Committee on World Food Security (CFS) monitors the progress of implementation of the WFS Plan of Action.

G-20 Matters • A steering committee has been constituted in the Department of Agriculture & Cooper-

ation under the chairmanship of secretary (A&C) to oversee the development, follow-up action on the initiative declared in ministerial declaration endorsed at G-20 Agriculture Ministers meeting held in June 2011.

International Grains council • India is a member of the International Grains Council (IGC), an inter-governmental

forum of exporting and importing countries for co-operation in wheat and coarse grain matters.

• It administers the Grains Trade Convention, 1995.

• IGC has two types of members—Importing Members and Exporting Members.

• India has been included in the category of exporting members in July 2003 and repre-sented in the meetings/session of the council held from time to time.

training ProgrammesTraining is one of the effective and tested tools for performance enhancement as well as upgradation of knowledge and skills of the personnel. Organizational motivation and morale, as reflected in the attitudes and administrative culture, are rendered through relevant and sharply focused effective training programmes.

HEALtH ProbLEMS In IndIA

The health problems of India can be conveniently grouped under the following heads:

1. Communicable disease problems

2. Nutritional problems



3. Environmental sanitation problems

4. Medical care problems

5. Population problems

1. Communicable Disease Problems—Most important amongst are:

(i) Malaria

(a) 1947—annual incidence—75 million cases; 8 lakh deaths

(b) initial success had been spectacular

(c) but re-emerged

(d) little prospect for eradication is near future

(ii) Tuberculosis—Around 5 lakh deaths every year.

(iii) Diarrhoea (a) Major cause of morbidity and mortality especially in children below 5 years. (b) 1.5 million deaths every year (c) Outbreak due to poor environmental conditions

(iv) Leprosy—1.3 million cases in India.

(a) All states and Union Territories report leprosy cases

(v) AIDS—India has the third largest HIV epidemic in the world

2. Nutritional Problems: India has a dual society—A small group is well-fed and a very large group is undernourished.The specific diseases are:

(i) Protein-energy malnutrition (a) Insufficiency of food or food gap. (b) 80% mild and moderate cases (c) 1 to 2% severe cases in pre-school age children

(ii) Nutritional anaemia (a) India has the highest prevalence of nutritional anaemia in women and children. (b) 60% of pregnant women are anaemic. (c) Iron deficiency, Vitamin B

12 deficiency, etc.

(iii) Xerophthalmia (nutritional blindness)

(a) 0.3% of blindness due to deficiency of Vitamin A

(iv) Low-birth weight (a) On average across OECD countries, about 6.5% of live births are recorded as low-

weight births, but this rate varies considerably from country to country.

(v) Iodine deficiency (a) Goitre and other iodine deficiency disorders are highly endemic in sub- Himalayan

region.

3. Environmental Sanitation: This problem is multifaceted and multifactorial. • Lackofsafedrinkingwater • Primitivemethodsofexcretadisposal • Problemsemergingfrompopulationexplosion,urbanizationandindustrialization • Atpresentonlyabout80%ofurbanpopulationandlessthan50%ofruralpopulation

has accessibility to safe drinking water • Wastedisposal—30%ofurbanandlessthan1%inruralareashasaccessibility.



4. Medical Care Problems • India has a national health policy but not a national health service. Existing hospital-based,

disease-oriented health care models have provided health benefits mainly to urban elite. • 80% of health facilities are concentrated in urban areas. • 80% of rural population do not enjoy modern curative and preventative health services. • HFA/2000 and primary health care approach seeks to redress this imbalance.

5. Population Problems • 1 billion population.

• Population growth rate to be 1% by 2000 ad is one the goal of government. As of now, it is1.93%. Increasing population has the inevitable consequences on all aspects of devel-opment especially employment, education, housing, health care, food, sanitation, etc.

WAtEr-rELAtEd dISEASES

Man’s health may be affected by the ingestion of contaminated water either directly or through food; and by the use of contaminated water for purpose of personal hygiene and recreation. The term water-related diseases include the old water-borne diseases. Developing countries carry a heavy burden of water-related diseases, the heaviest being the diarrhoeal diseases. Water-related diseases may be classified as follows:

A. Biological 1. Those caused due to the presence of an infective agent are listed below: (i) Viral: Viral hepatitis A, hepatitis E, Poliomyelitis, rotavirus diarrhoea in infants (ii) Bacterial: Typhoid and paratyphoid fever, bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea, cholera (iii) Protozoan: Amoebiasis, giardiasis (iv) Helminth: Roundworm, threadworm, hydatid disease (v) Leptospiral: Weil’s disease

2. Those caused due to the presence of an aquatic host are listed below:

(i) Snail: Schistosomiasis

(ii) Cyclops: Guinea worm, fish tapeworm

B. Chemical: Chemical pollutants of diverse nature derived from industrial and agricultural wastes are increasingly finding their way into public water supplies. These pollutants include detergent solvents, cyanides, heavy metals, minerals and organic acids, nitrogenous substances, bleaching agents, dyes, pigments, sulphides, ammonia, toxic and biocidal organic compounds of great variety. Chemical pollutants may affect man’s health not only directly, but also indirectly by accumulating in aquatic life (e.g., fish) used as human food. The present concern about chemical pollutants in water relates not so much as to their acute toxic effects on human health as to the possible long-term effects of low-level exposure, which are often non-specific and difficult to detect. Further, some of the new pollutants are not easily removed by conventional water treatment or purification processes. In many developed countries where water-borne communicable diseases have virtually disappeared, more attention is now being paid to chemical pollution.

In addition to the above, water is associated with the following:

• DentalHealth: The presence of fluoride at about 1 mg/litre in drinking water is known to protect against dental problems, but high levels of fluoride cause removal of the dental enamel.

• CyanosisinInfant: High nitrate content of water is associated with methemoglobin-emia. This is a rare occurrence but may occur when surface water from farmland, treated with a fertilizer, gain access to the water supply.



• CardiovascularDiseases: Hardness of water appears to have a beneficial effect against cardiovascular disease.

• Some diseases are transmitted because of inadequate use of water, like shigellosis, trachoma and conjunctivitis, ascariasis, scabies.

• Some diseases are related to the disease carrying insects breeding in or near water, like malaria, filaria, arboviruses, onchocerciasis, and African trypanosomiasis.

While pollution seems to be an inevitable consequence of modern industrial technology, but the problem now is to determine the level of pollution that permits economic and social development without presenting hazards to health. The evaluation of the health effects of envi-ronmental pollutants is currently being carried out as part of the WHO Environmental Health Criteria Programme.

rEProductIVE And cHILd HEALtH ProjEct

First Phase

The objective of the Reproductive and Child Health Project in Sierra Leone for Phase 1 is to assist the recipient in addressing immediate constraints to reduce long-term maternal and mortality rate maternal and under-five mortality. There are two components of the project. The first component of the project is Phase 1 Local Councils (LC) health plans. This component is dedicated to assist the recipient in addressing immediate constraints in reducing long-term maternal and under-five mortality.

• October 1997

• Integrated and holistic approach

• To be implemented through PHCs

• Provide need based, high quality Reproduction and Child Health Programme (RCH) service

• Maximizing coverage by improving accessibility

• It includes safe motherhood and child survival

• NGOs to be involved

• Involvement of indian system of medicine

• Early registration of pregnancy

• Provision for three ante-natal check-ups and three post-natal check-ups.

• To make safe abortion services accessible to all women

• Universal immunization program

Second Phase

RCH Programme which started in the year 1997–98 has ended in March 2005. From 1 April 2005, RCH 2nd phase has begun. The focus of the programme will be to reduce the maternal and child mortality and morbidity with emphasis on rural health care. This time more flex-ibility have been given to the states for planning their own interventions for achieving the goals;accordingly, the states have been requested to make their own project implementation plan with indications for achieving the desired milestones.

Under RCH Phase-II, about 2,000 community health centres are to be made fully opera-tional for emergency obstetric care. Besides this, all CHCs and 50% of the PHCs are to be made functional for providing 24-hour delivery services.



LAtESt dEVELoPMEntS

The US$360 million credit has been approved by the World Bank in August 2006 for the Reproductive and Child Health II Project. It is targeted at improving the health of poor women and children, who live in rural and tribal areas and urban slums. By supporting the expansion and use of essential RCH services, the project aims to accelerate India’s progress towards maternal and child health goals outlined in its national policies and the Millennium Develop-ment Goals (MDGs).

The project is part of the government of India’s multi-billion dollar RCH II Program launched last year and supported by several other donor partners. Among them, the Depart-ment of International Development of the United Kingdom and the United Nations Population Fund will be pooling resources with the World Bank to encourage deeper cooperation among those engaged in the sector and avoid duplication.

national rural Healthcare Mission

• Under the mandate of National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP), it is proposed to increase the expenditure in health sector from the current level of 0.9% of GDP to 2 to 3% of GDP over the next 5 years, with main focus on Primary Health Care.

• The National Rural Healthcare Mission (NRHM) has been launched on 12 April 2005 by Honourable Prime Minister and is being operationalised from the current financial year 2005–06 throughout the country.

• It is for a period of 7 years (2005–2012), that is, for 2 years of Tenth Plan and full Eleventh Plan.

• The main aim of NRHM is to provide accessible, affordable, accountable, effective and reliable primary health care facilities, especially, to the poor and vulnerable sections of the population.

• It also aims at bridging the gap in rural health care services through creation of a cadre of Accredited Social Health Activities (ASHA) and improved hospital care, decentraliza-tion of programme to district level to improve intra and inter-sectoral convergence and effective utilization of resources.

• At the district and village level, the institutional framework of the Total Sanitation Campaign will be integrated with the District Health Mission and Village Health and Sanitation Committee.

• The mission further seeks to build greater ownership of the programme among the community through involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions, NGOs and other stake holders at national, state, district and sub-district levels to achieve the goals of National Population Policy 2000 and National Health Policy.

• It is operational over the entire country with special focus on 18 states, such as 8 empow-ered action group states (Bihar, Jharkhand, M.P, Chhattisgarh, UP, Uttaranchal, Odisha and Rajasthan), 8 northeast states (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura), Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.

Vision of nrHM • Effective health care for rural population especially woman and children throughout the

country.

• Health plan for each village through village health committee of the panchayat.

• It has special focus on 18 states.

• Effective integration of health with sanitation and hygiene, nutrition and safe drinking water.

Despite the prog-ress made in improving health care delivery, India still has very high levels of maternal and child mortality. About 1,36,000 women and 2.4 million children—about a fifth of the world’s total—die every year in India mostly as a result of preventable causes. Large disparities among socioeco-nomic groups persist, population growth remains high in a number of poor states, and there are unmet needs for contraception. ‘These continued efforts will help the Government of India achieve the Millennium Devel-opment Goals of reducing child and maternal mortality, and improve the overall state of health care in India’.

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• 24 hours functional hospital in each block.

• Community health insurance for poor.

Goal of nrHM

• Reduced Infant Mortality Rate (IMR). • Reduced Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR). • Prevention and control of diseases. • Promotion of healthy life style. • Promotion of health care at household level through formal health activist (ASHA). • Full coverage of immunization and access to institutional delivery.

Key Strategies of the MissionThe Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) is envisaged to be a trained female volun-tary community health worker in the eight empowered action group states (Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha), Assam, and Jammu and Kashmir. ASHAs would reinforce community action for univer-sal immunization, safe/institutional delivery, other reproductive and health-related services, new-borne care and prevention of water-borne and other communicable diseases, nutrition and sanitation. ASHAs would be provided with a basic drug kit, including AYUSH drugs. She would also be a depot holder for contraceptives and IEC materials developed for villages.

Primary roles and responsibilitiesASHA will be a health activist in the community who will create awareness on health and its social determinants and mobilize the community towards local health planning and increased utilization and accountability of the existing health services. She would be a promoter of good health practices. She will also provide a minimum package of curative care as appropriate and feasible for that level and make timely referrals.

Is ASHA a Paid Employee?ASHA is not a paid employee. It would not be entitled to any pay or honorarium, but eligible for compensation for services provided under various schemes and programmes of government of India and state governments—for institutional delivery under Janani Suraksha Yojana, for completion of DOTS treatment under National TB Control Programme, promotion of house-hold toilets under Total Sanitation Campaign, etc., under the overall guidance of the District Health Mission.

• StrengtheningofInfrastructure: Additional SC/PHC/CHCs are to be set up to bring the number in line with the current population norm. Repair/renovation of the existing public health facilities is planned, and norms are being developed for support to the states for construction of new buildings and maintenance to the existing buildings.

• Decentralized Planning: Flexible, decentralized planning is the pivot on which the entire concept of the Mission revolves. The planning process under the guidance of the Village Health and Sanitation Committee is to start from the village level.

• InstitutionalArrangementsUnderNRHM: The Mission Steering Group (MSG) has been set up at the Centre chaired by the Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare, with Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission, Ministers of the Panchayati Raj, Rural Development, Human Resource Development, Secretary Expenditure and other senior officials from the central as well as the state governments and 10 health profes-sionals as members.



VArIouS dISEASES

dotS

The internationally recommended TB control strategy is DOTS. DOTS combines fi ve elements—political commitment, microscopy services, drug supplies, surveillance and monitoring systems, and use of highly effi cacious regimes with direct observation of treatment.

Once patients with infectious TB (bacilli visible in a sputum smear) have been identifi ed using microscopy services, health and community workers and trained volunteers observe and record patients swallowing the full course of the correct dosage of anti-TB medicines (treat-ment lasts 6–8 months). The most common anti-TB drugs are isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazin-amide, streptomycin and ethambutol.

A loan of over ` 750 crore has been provided by WHO to India to ensure the success of DOTS strategy.

revised national tb control Programme (rntcP) • It is based on WHO-recommended DOTS strategy (Directly Observed Treatment Short

Course Chemotherapy),which was launched in the country in March 1997 with a soft loan from World Bank.

• The second phase of Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) began in October 2005, with a budget of ` 1,156 crore for 5 years.

• The second phase will focus on standardized implementation of detection, treatment for multi-drug resistant TB cases and inclusion of paediatric drug boxes.

• To eliminate TB, the centre would need to implement the programme as a centrally sponsored scheme, with the provision of quality anti-TB services for the next 2 to 3 decades.

Polio

• A viral disease mainly affects young children. • Virus transmitted by person to person. • Multiplies in intesline from where it can invade the nervous system.

cHArGE Syndrome (coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia choanae)

• A disease that affects many areas of the body. • A mutation in the CHD7 gene is responsible for 60–70% of all charge defects. • Small eyes, nasal passage narrowed or block, deafness and blindness, heart defects,

genital problem, growth retardation, swallowing diffi culties.

Measles

• Highly contagious disease (airborne) transmitted orally through mucus or saliva. • Mainly affects children and can be spread through air due to sneezing or a cough. • Recently WHO declared Brazil free of measles.

Avian Infl uenza (H5N1) (Bird Flu)

• Declared India free from Avian Infl uenza (H5N1) by the deparment of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries.

• This is a virus that causes a highly intectious, severe respiratory diseases in birds.

techtalk

◗ Under the Centre’s Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP), people in all parts of India can now get diagnosed for tuberculosis for free.

◗ The announcement was made by the Union Health Minister Anbumani Rama-doss on the World TB Day. Under the programme, free medicines are given under direct supervi-sion (called Directly Observed Treatment Short course or DOTS) for 2 or 3 months to ensure that patients adhere to the prescription course and do not develop multidrug resistant TB, which is expen-sive and sometimes impossible to cure.

◗ Currently, multidrug- resistant TB accounts for 1 to 3% cases of the 1 to 8 new infec-tions each year.

Free treatment for tb



Swine Flue (H1n1)

• Respiratory disease caused by virus that infacts the respiratory tract of pigs.

• Symptoms – cough, sore throat, body arches, headache, chills and fatigue.

Scrub typhus

• Acute fliness caused by a bacteria called Orientia tsutsugamushi infected by chiggers (Larval mites).

• Himachal Pradesh is an endemic region it has large scrub repetition.

Zika Virus

• Its vector borne diseases by Aedes aegypti.

• The WHO has declared a global health emergency in February 2016 and declared it over on November 2016.

new Ebola Vaccine

• Ebola vaccine pounded 100% protein is a field trial in hard-hit Guinea.

• It is named as rVSV-ZEBOV

Malaria

• It is a protozoan disease.

• Transmitted by certain species of infected female anopheles mosquito.

Stages of disease • ColdStage: Sudden onset of fever with sensation of extreme cold for 15 minute to 1 hour.

• Hot Stage: Temperature may rise to 106°F and patient feels burning for upto 2 to 6 hours.

• SweatingStage: Profuse sweating for 2 to 4 hours. This may repeat every 2 or 3 days.

Species of Malaria Parasite

• Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Quartan malaria. • There are two types of parasites of human malaria—Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum

which are commonly reported from India. • Inside the human host, the parasite undergoes a series of changes as part of its complex

life cycle (Plasmodium is a protozoan parasite). • The parasite completes life cycle in liver cells (pre-erythrocytic schizogony) and

red-blood cells (erythrocytic schizogony). • Infection with falciparum is the most deadly form of malaria.

Reservoir of Infection: Human plasmodia exists only in man.

Incubation Period: After the bite by an infective mosquito, the first appearance of clinical signs will be there within 20 days.

Environmental Factors: India’s geographical position and climatic conditions are favourable for transmission of malaria.

• Season: Malaria is a seasonal disease. Maximum prevalence is from July to November.

• Temperature: Optimum temperature for malaria parasite is between 20°C and 30°C.

◗ The annual increase of tuberculosis in India has shown a downward trend in the last 3 years, according to Union Health Minister Dr Anbumani Ramadoss in February 2006.

◗ Before 3 years, there were about 2 million new cases of TB annually, which has come down to 1.8 million.

◗ Stating that the WHO had appre-ciated the steps taken by the country to control TB, he attributed the drop in cases to the revised national TB control programme.

◗ The mortality rate of TB cases had dipped from 29 to 4%, while the success rate stood at 84%.

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• Humidity: It has a direct effect on the life of the mosquito, not on parasite.

• ARHof60%ismustformosquitotohaveitsnormalspanoflife.WhenRHishigh,mosquitoes are more active and they feed more voraciously.

• Rainfall: Rain provides opportunity for breeding of mosquitoes and may give rise to epidemics of malaria.

Malaria control/EradicationNational Malaria Control Programme in 1953.

• Spraying of DDT twice a year in endemic regions. It results highly successful.

• Malaria incidence reduced from 75 million cases in 1953 to 2 million cases in 1958.

• 8 lakh deaths due to malaria.

• 1958: This program was elevated to National Malaria Eradication Programme with assistance from WHO.

• It was world’s largest programme against a single disease and continues to be most comprehensive and multifaceted programme.

• 1965: Incidence of malaria reduced to 1 lakh and death due to malaria completely eliminated.

resurgenceIn 1970s, malaria bounced back with vengeance due to three factors.

1. Mosquitoes developed resistance against insecticides like DDT.

2. Plasmodium became immune to widely prescribed drugs like chloroquine.

3. Administrative failures, likes hortage of insecticides, antimalarial drugs, inadequate gadget provision, etc.

4. Third world countries espoused to the cause of malaria eradication without understand-ing the epidemiological rules of the game, like inadequate surveillance, inadequate coverage of insecticides, etc.

Steps by Government of IndiaWith the help of WHO, a Modifi ed Plan of Operation for the Eradication of Malaria (MPOEM) was initiated in 1977.

Enhanced Malaria control Project (EMcP)World bank assistance has been operative in 1,045 Primary Health Centers (PHCs) of 100 districts in 8 states and 19 urban areas since 30 September 1997. Selection of PHCs was based on:

• Annual Parasite Incidence (API) of more than two for last 3 years.

• P. Falciparum being more than 30% of total malaria cases.

• 25% or more population of PHC being tribal.

AIdS

Acquired Immuno-Defi ciency Syndrome (AIDS), caused by human immune-defi ciency virus.

How does it affect? It breaks down the body’s immune system, which leaves victim vulner-able to a host of life threatening opportunistic infections, neurological disorders, etc. AIDS is the last stage of HIV infection.

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Malaria in India as of August 2006

◗ Malaria has claimed 275 lives in the northeastern Indian state Assam so far this year, record high in past few years.

◗ Minister of State, for Health and Family Welfare, Panabaka Lakshmi, told the Indian Parliament in a written reply that 85,633 malaria cases have been reported this year by 25 July, 2006 compared to 67,885 last year.

◗ About 690 people had died in the past 6 years since 2001 with 472,965 cases reported.


Section A: unit II – Progression of Science and technology1. 372

What is HIV? HIV is a protein capsule containing two short strands of genetic material (RNA) and few enzymes. HIV 1 and HIV 2 are the two types of HIV.

Mode of transmission • Sexual Transmission

• Blood Contact

• Maternal: Foetal Transmission

Incubation Period: Few days to 6 to 10 years for full-blown AIDS.

Initial Symptoms: Fever more than 1 month; weight loss more than 10%; diarrhoea more than a month.

Tests: 1st Test: ELISA—a sensitive test.2nd Test: Western BLOT test; a highly specifi c test—detects specifi ed antibody to viral core

protein.

HIV Infections in India—nAco Figures

• The National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) says that the estimated number of people living with HIV AIDS in the country is 5.206 million by the end of 2005.

• In a clarifi cation to newspaper reports on HIV infections in the country, NACO says that the estimated fi gure 5.206 million was on the basis of data collected in the age group of 15 to 49 years and new-born children.

• These estimates have been approved by the expert group and have been adopted by the NACO. NACO says that the estimated fi gure is in agreement with the UNAIDS estimate.

• However, the UNAIDS 2006 Global Report on HIV/AIDS says that estimated number of people with the epidemic in India is 5.7 million with wide range from 3.4 to 9.4 million.

• NACO says that UNAIDS estimation has considered all the age groups instead of only 15 to 49 years and new born. The AIDS control organization further said that this type of estimation has been done by the UNAIDS for the fi rst time using various assumptions.

• The AIDS control organization further says that these assumptions need to be further studied and reviewed by the technical committee before commenting on the infl ated fi gure.

• This clarifi cation was made by NACO in May 2006.

unresolved Issues in HIV/AIdS remedial Efforts

• Most individuals and families living with HIV/AIDS are not benefi ting from ongoing remedial efforts.

• At least half of the individuals at risk of contracting HIV are out of the reach of current preventive programs. Prevention remains a fundamental fl aw of ongoing global program efforts. The incidence of HIV continues to rise because of a steady cohort of at-risk population that eventually contracted the virus.

• Community-based systems of care are not yet a major focus of HIV/AIDS program efforts. Today, most active HIV/AIDS programming occurs at a national level. A com-munity-based system of care will bring HIV/AIDS remedial efforts closer to individuals and families in urgent need of assistance. Policy makers and technical experts should seek ways of transforming international and domestic AIDS remedial efforts into com-munity-driven and community-based initiatives.

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3 by 5 Strategy

This WHO strategy aims to set out in clear detail how life-long antiretroviral treat-ment can be provided to 3 million people living with HIV/AIDS in poor countries by the end of 2005. Core principles include urgency, equity and sustainability.

◗ Rising link between HIV and TB. When immune system breaks down, TB becomes active and person becomes contagions.

◗ HIV-positive indi-viduals: 30 to 50 times more likely to develop TB.

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AIdS and tb



• Lack of access to anti-retroviral therapy and other forms of care remains a major problem. The international community must successfully resolve the current anomaly whereby millions of people die because they cannot be provided with available life saving medicines. A global movement to dramatically improve access to life saving medicines and supportive care would require specific initiatives that unite research and generic pharmaceutical companies in the urgent task of making anti-retroviral therapy medicines available to those in need, and unite countries to share the vision to save lives suffering from this diseases.

• Implement universal access strategy to prevent treatment, and support care. The way forward in universal access is to move beyond the rhetoric to specific strategies on how best to meet the needs of 38.6 million people worldwide who currently live with HIV/AIDS. To be adopted, universal access strategies should be measurable, have timelines, indicate unambiguous responsibility centres, and have dedicated financial and technical resources.

national AIdS control organization

• The Government of India launched a comprehensive National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) from April 1992.

• NACP II commenced with effect from April 1999 and is currently operative. This phase of the programme was launched to achieve two objectives:

1. To reduce the spread of HIV infections; and

2. To strengthen the capacity of central and state governments to respond to HIV/AIDS on a long-term basis.

• The programme implementation has been completely decentralized to states and UTs.

• By December 2004, it was estimated that there were about 5.134 million persons infected with HIV in India with no state free from the virus.

• However, because of our large population base, India presently ranks as the second country in the world, next only to South Africa with large number of persons having HIV infections.

Leprosy

• A chronic infections disease caused by the bacteria M. leprae.

• It affects mainly peripheral nerves and also affects skins, muscles, eyes, bones, internal organs, etc.

Characteristics

• Hypopigmented patches

• Partial or total loss of cutaneous sensation

• Presence of thickened nerves

Mode of Transmission:

• It can be transmited through droplet infection, that is, aerosols containing bacteria.

• It can be transmitted through person-to-person contact, for example, skin-to-skin touch or through clothes linen, etc.

Incubation Period

• Has a long incubation period, an average of 3–5 years.



Leprosy Situation as on March 2006 • The year 2005–06 started with 1.49 lakh leprosy cases on record as on 1 April 2005

giving Prevalence Rate (PR) of 1.34 cases per 10,000 population. • As on 31 March 2006, leprosy cases on record comes down to 0.95 lakh giving preva-

lence rate of 0.84 cases per 10,000 population. Less than 1 case per 10,000 population is considered as the level of elimination as a public health problem.

• New leprosy cases detected during the year 2004–05 were 2.60 lakh giving the Annual New Case Detection Rate (ANCDR) of 2.34 per 10,000 population.

• New cases detected between April 2005 to March 2006 were 1.61 lakh, which gives a projected ANCDR of 1.43 per 10,000 population during 2005–06. This shows a reduc-tion of 39% in new case detection over the previous year.

A total of 24 States/UTs had achieved the elimination level by March 2005. Two other states achieved elimination level in September and November 2005 respectively, bringing the total to 26 States/ UT that have attained the level.

• The status as on 31 March 2006 is that there are 6 states, such as Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal with PR between 1 and 2 per 10,000 population. These 6 states with 41% of the country’s population now contribute 62% of the country’s case load.

• As on 31 March 2006, a total of 439 districts (73.7%) achieved elimination, whereas only 1 district have PR more than 5/10,000. This district is located in Delhi catering to migratory patients attending bigger hospitals.

national Leprosy control Programme • 1955: National Leprosy Control Program was launched.

• 1982: National Leprosy Eradication Programme was launched with assistance of WHO.

• Its aim is to make the disease non-infectious by 2000 ad.

• The chief component of the programme is MDT.

2005: Elimination of Leprosy at National Level.

2012: Special action plan for 209 high endaine districts in 16 states started.

Multidrug therapy • Leprosy patients treated with MDT are cured within 12 months.

• Patients are no longer infectious to others after the first dose of MDT. In other words, transmission of leprosy is interrupted.

Leprosy Eliminated from India • Union Health Minister Anbumani Ramadoss announced on 30 January 2006 that with

the prevalence rate dropping to 0.95 cases per 10,000 population, leprosy has been elim-inated from India.

• In numbers, leprosy cases in the country dropped from 1.49 lakh in April 2005 to 1.07 lakh on 31 December 2005.

• New leprosy cases detected between April and December were 1.27 lakh, which was 35% lower as compared to 2004.

• By March 2005, 337 districts out of 596 districts in the country had achieved incidence rate of less than 1 case per 10,000 and by the end of 2005, the number rose to 408 districts.

MLEC (Modified Leprosy Elimination Campaign) January 1998

Searchers: One male health workers, 1 female health work-ers and 1 volunteer will visit 500 people (50 families) in 6 days.

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◗ List of suspects will be sent to district medical officers.



• Delhi, however, continues to have a prevalence rate of 2.11 per 10,000. Only two other union territories and one state—Chandigarh (2.03), Dadra and Nagar Haveli (2.44) and Chhattisgarh (2.44) exhibit the same phenomenon. Six states—Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh—account for 41% of the country’s population, but 60% of the leprosy cases.

Dengue

• It is caused by virus.

• It causes break bone fever.

• Epidemics are explosive and often start during the rainy season when the breeding of mosquitoes.

• It is most common in tropical area.

• 30–60 m infections each year

Reservoirs: Both man and mosquito.

• Aides mosquito infective from an infected person.

• 8–10 days incubation period mosquitoes becomes infective.

Symptoms

• After bite 3 to 5 day’s incubation period

• Sudden chill, high fever intense headache, muscle and joint pain

Control Measure: Mosquito controls

Vaccines: No vaccine availableSevere Form of Dengue: Dengue haemorrhagic fever-infection with more than one dengue virus.

Indian ProgrammeThere has been a decline in Dengue/DHF incidence after 1996 outbreak in Delhi. However, during 2001, outbreaks have been reported from Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Gujarat.

The strategy for prevention and control of Dengue/DHF includes:

• Surveillance for disease and vectors

• Early diagnosis and prompt case management

• Vector control through community participation and social mobilization

• There is no separate programme for prevention and control of Dengue/DHF and states tackle the problem out of their own resources. Need-based assistance, however, is being provided for outbreak containment out of resources available under NAMP.

Magnitude of the Problem • During 1996 a severe outbreak of dengue/DHF occurred in Delhi wherein about 10,252

cases and 423 deaths were reported.

• Till date, more than 80 outbreaks have been reported from 16 states/UTs.

Poliomyelitis

Poliomyelitis is an acute viral infection caused by an RNA virus. It is primarily an infection of the human alimentary tract, but the virus may infect the central nervous system in a very small percentage. About 1% of cases resulting in varying degrees of paralysis and possibly death.



Mode of Transmission: FAECAL-ORAL ROUTE. This is the main route of spread in the developing countries. The infection may spread directly through contaminated fingers where hygiene is poor, or indirectly through contaminated water, milk, foods, flies and articles of daily use. Children can get it by drinking well water tainted by sewage, or simply by picking up a ball that rolled through a gutter choking with human waste.

Droplet Infection: This may occur in the acute phase of disease when the virus occurs in the throat. Close personal contact with an infected person facilitates droplet spread. This mode of transmission may be relatively more important in developed countries where faecal transmis-sion is remote.

Incubation Period: Usually 7 to 14 days (range 3 to 35 days).

Prevention: Immunization is the sole effective means of preventing poliomyelitis. Both killed and live attenuated vaccines are available and both are safe and effective when used correctly. It is essential to immunize all infants by 6 months of age to protect them against polio. Two types of vaccine are used throughout the world:

1. Inactivated (Salk) Polio Vaccine (IPV)

2. Oral (Sabin) Polio Vaccine (OPV)

the Global Polio Eradication Initiative • In 1988, the forty-first world health assembly, consisting then of delegates from 166

member states, launched a global initiative to eradicate polio by the end of the year 2000.

• Overall, in the 15 years since the global polio eradication initiative was launched, the number of polio-infected countries was reduced from 125 to 7.

• Widely endemic on five continents in 1988, polio is now found only in parts of Africa and South Asia.

• In 2002, 1919 cases were reported, compared to 483 in 2001. This increase can be attributed to an epidemic in India, and a further increase in cases in Nigeria.

Pulse Polio ImmunizationGovernment of India decided to implement the strategy of national immunization days, that is, pulse polio immunization, beginning in 1995 to achieve polio eradication by the year 2000. All government departments were involved in this campaign. The district collectors functioned as nodal officers in all districts of the country. A total of 6.5 lakh booths were set up in the country for administering the oral polio vaccine. In the first phase, government observed pulse polio immunization on the two days on 9 December 1995 and on 20 January 1996. On these two days, Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) was given to all children 0 to 3 years of age in the entire coun-try regardless of previous immunization. Over 8.7 crore children received OPV on 9 December 1996 and over 9.3 crore on 20 January 1997.

Polio Virus in India

• In July 2006, the head of the World Health Organization’s polio eradication team has warned that India could re-infect the rest of the world with polio if a new outbreak of the disease is not rapidly brought under control.

• Because of the unexpected surge in cases there—with 121 cases recorded by the end of July, up from 12 in the same period last year—India is now the only country in the world where the incidence of polio is growing.



• India is now responsible for most of the exported cases of the virus in the world today. Five countries have major outbreaks of polio and all those countries were infected by the Indian virus—Nepal, Bangladesh, Angola, Namibia and Congo.

• Nationwide, India has reported 155 cases this year, up from 25 in the same period last year. Epidemiologists working on the polio campaign in India have been particularly disheartened by these figures because in 2005 the incidence of the disease had dropped for the third consecutive year, and there was growing optimism that eradication was imminent.

• And so this year, India must repeat its consuming effort yet again, with special focus on Uttar Pradesh and other regions still trying to extinguish the last cases. Resistance has persisted where services are weakest and distrust of public officials deepest.

• In warm or tropical climates, many similar viruses can attach to the same receptors in the intestine as the polio virus does, making it even harder to immunize a child. It can take up to 10 vaccine doses, spaced months apart.

What Ails India? • In 2001, after years of aggressive mass immunizations, there were 239 new cases in the

country—down from about 200,000 in the early 1980s.

• The number of infected districts in India more than doubled from 63 in 2001 to 159.

• Because of India’s long borders with Bangladesh and Nepal, the epidemic also threat-ened these polio-free countries.

Table 7.4 Developments in countries in eradication of polio

Country Till 31 July 2007 Total in 2006

Nigeria 138 1124°India 124 676°DRC 27 13°Pakistan 11 40°Myanmar 11 0°Somalia 8 35°Angola 6 2°Afghanistan 5 31°Niger 5 11°Chad 2 1°Nepal 0 5°Cameroon 0 2°Bangladesh 0 18°Kenya 0 2°Ethiopia 0 17°Namibia 0 18°Indonesia 0 2°Yemen 0 1°



• By the end of 2002, the South-East asia region accounted for 84% of the global polio burden.

• India had 1509 newly diagnosed cases in 2002—a vast majority of 1197 in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh accounted for 68% of the polio cases worldwide.

• Oral vaccine, given as drops, was part of a government population control scheme.

• The polio outbreak has also exposed a religious, or communal, health divide. Only 17% of Uttar Pradesh’s population is Muslim, but 59% of its polio cases last year were among Muslims.

• Although the rumour was repeated in Hindu communities too, health offi cials say that it gained greatest currency among Muslims, who in Uttar Pradesh tend to be landless labourers with lower literacy rates and a greater mistrust of the BJP-led government in the centre.

• Investigations into the 2002 epidemic demonstrated that a combination of low routine immunization coverage and an insuffi cient scale, number and quality of polio campaigns had led to a rapid accumulation of susceptible children, especially in the state of Uttar Pradesh.

Avian Flu

• The World Health Organization is warning that an outbreak of avian fl u poses a serious threat to the South-East asia region. Avian fl u was thought to infect birds only until it jumped the species barrier for the fi rst time in 1997.

• It has been known for some time now that a wide range of infl uenza viruses circulate in wild birds. However, only two types of avian fl u have ever been known to infect humans. These are two subtypes of the infl uenza A virus known as (H5N1) and (H9N2).

cause of Avian Flu

• The virus causing avian infl uenza is an Infl uenza A of the family Orthomyxoviridae.

• Infl uenza A viruses infecting poultry can be divided on the basis of their pathogenic-ity (ability to cause disease). The very virulent viruses cause Highly Pathogenic Avian Infl uenza (HPAI) with mortality in poultry as high as 100%. In the whole world, there have been only 19 reported primary isolates of such viruses from domestic poultry since 1959.

• Other AI viruses cause a much milder disease (low pathogenic avian infl uenza, LPAI). Signs of sickness are much less evident or even absent and mortality is much lower.

How does it Spread to Humans? H5N1 has been caught by people handling poultry in situations where they are exposed to both live and dead birds and their faeces. Because of the approach of the lunar new year, which is signifi cant in many asian countries, there is a high demand for poultry, and for noodle soup with raw eggs, which travellers should also avoid.

H5n1 VirusIt is highly contagious and lethal for birds, but in its current form, it does not infect humans. Of the few viruses that have crossed the species barrier to infect humans, H5N1 has caused several deaths. WHO says that it is a matter of time before H5N1 mutates to infect and spread easily among humans. Symptoms in humans ranges from fl u-like fever, cough, sore throat and mus-cle aches to eye infections, pneumonia, and severe respiratory diseases. At the moment, there is little or no immune protection. The virus is sensitive to detergents and easier to destroy other viruses. Soap kills the fat contained in the virus’s outer layer that enters and infects living cells.

InFo

◗ Bird fl u or avian infl u-enza is a contagious viral infection which can aff ect all species of birds. In intensive poultry rearing sys-tems, young fattening turkeys and laying hens are usually the most aff ected species.

◗ It is known that wild waterfowl present a natural reservoir for these viruses and can be responsible for the primary introduc-tion of infection into domestic poultry.

What is bird Flu?



new bird Flu Vaccine developed

• The Harbin Veterinary Research Institute in northeast China has discovered a new and more effective bird flu vaccine. This new vaccine can also protect China’s huge poultry population against another poultry killer known as Newcastle disease.

• The government of China in an official statement hailed it as the world’s first live vaccine against bird flu and Newcastle disease. It has also been stated that in addition to being injected, the vaccine can be administered orally, nasally or by spraying.

dIAbEtES

India is home to over 20% of the total cases worldwide. With such a huge population of diabetic patient, our country is the diabetes capital of the world.

• Diabetes is a disorder of metabolism the way our bodies use digested food for growth and energy. Most of the food we eat is broken down into glucose—the form of sugar in the blood. Glucose is the main source of fuel for the body. After digestion, glucose passes into the blood, where it is used by cells for growth and energy. For glucose to get into the cells, insulin must be present. Insulin is a hormone produced by pancreas—a large gland behind the stomach.

• In people with diabetes, however, the pancreas either produces little or no insulin, or the cells do not respond appropriately to the insulin that is produced. Glucose builds up in the blood, overflows into the urine and passes out of the body in the urine. Thus, the body loses its main source of fuel even though the blood contains large amounts of glucose.

types of diabetes

There are many types of diabetes, but its main two types are:

1. Type 1 diabetes

2. Type 2 diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes: It is an autoimmune disease. An autoimmune disease results when the body’s system for fighting infection (i.e., the immune system) turns against an organ of the body. In diabetes, the immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. Type 1 diabetes is prevalent among children.

Type 2 Diabetes: It is the most common form of diabetes. About 90 to 95% people have type 2 diabetes. About 80% of type 2 diabetics are overweight. Most of type 2 diabetics are adults. In type 2 diabetics, pancreas usually produces enough insulin; but for unknown reasons, the body cannot use the insulin effectively, a condition known as insulin resistance.

Why is diabetes considered So dangerous?

Diabetes, if remains undetected or untreated, can lead to long-term complications. Diabetes can affect nearly every organ in the body. It can cause:

• Heart diseases after smoking, dicbeles is the major cause of heart diseases in India

• Blindness

• Kidney failure

• Foot amputation

• Poor wound healing

◗ A strain of bird flu harmful to humans has been found in Siberia. Thousands of birds have died here in an outbreak of the diseases.

◗ Laboratory experts have found the H5N1 strain in sam-ples from the Novo-sibirsk region, where an outbreak of bird flu was reported in July 2005. In a similar development, a suspected outbreak of bird flu potentially lethal to humans has been discovered near the Tibetan capital Lhasa.

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bird Flu Strain Found in Several Parts of the World



IMProVInG WoMEn’S HEALtH In IndIA

India has made considerable progress in social and economic development in the recent decades, as improvements in indicators such as life expectancy, infant mortality, and literacy demonstrate the condition. However, improvements in women’s health, particularly in the north, have lagged behind gains in other areas. India is one of the few countries where males signifi cantly outnumber females, and its maternal mortality rates in rural areas are among the world’s highest. Infectious diseases, malnutrition, and maternal and perinatal causes account for most of the disease burden. Females experience more episodes of illness than males and are less likely to receive medical treatment before the illness is well advanced. Because the nutritional status of women and girls is compromised by unequal access to food, by heavy work demands, and by special nutritional needs (such as for iron), females are particularly susceptible to illness, particularly anaemia. Women, especially poor women, are often trapped in a cycle of ill health exacerbated by childbearing and hard physical labour.

Women’s health and nutritional status is inextricably bound up with social, cultural and economic factors that infl uence all aspects of their lives, and it has consequences not only for the women themselves but also for the well-being of their children (particular ly females), the functioning of households and the distribution of resources. This report examines the indi-cators of women’s health status in India analyzes the factors affecting women’s well-being and identifi es workable strategies for improving the health and nutrition of India’s girls and women. The report’s conclusions—that focused efforts to improve the health and overall status of females will provide substantial benefi ts in terms of human welfare, poverty allevi-ation, and economic growth—mirror the consensus found in the growing body of literature in the fi eld.

Source: World Bank Publication

An overview of Women’s Health

Since the turn of the century, India’s sex ratio has become increasingly favourable to males. This is in contrast to the situation in most countries, where the survival chances of females have improved with increasing economic growth and declining overall mortality. In India, excess female mortality persists up to the age of 30—a symptom of a bias against females. But there are wide disparities in fertility and mortality among states and, within states, between rural and urban areas. The substantially unfavourable levels of these indicators in the northern states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh in relation to the most southern states which refl ect marked social and demographic contrasts between the ‘Hindi belt’ and the rest of India. The southern state of Kerala, for instance, has achieved fertility and mortality levels approaching those of industrial countries.

Infant and Young child Mortality Although young child mortality has declined signifi cantly over the past two decades, over 30% of all deaths in India occur among children under 5 years of age and despite their innate biological advantages, more girls than boys die. During the past decade, the gap between the mortality rates of young boys and girls even widened.

Maternal Mortality Maternal mortality in India, estimated at 437 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, results primarily from infection, haemorrhage, eclampsia, obstructed labour, abortion and anaemia. Lack of appropriate care during pregnancy and childbirth, and especially the inadequacy of services for detecting and managing complications, explains most of the maternal deaths.

techtalk

◗ The Harbin Veterinary Research Institute in northeast China has discovered a new and more eff ective bird fl u vaccine. This new vac-cine can also protect Chinas huge poultry population against another poultry killer known as Newcastle disease.

◗ The Government of China in an offi cial statement hailed it as the world’s fi rst live vaccine against bird fl u and Newcastle dis-ease. It has also been stated that in addition to being injected, the vaccine can be admin-istered orally, nasally or by spraying.

new bird Flu Vaccine developed



MorbidityReliable data on mortality and morbidity in pregnancy are scarce; and for female morbidity in general, they are almost non-existent. The limited studies available states that high morbidity and malnutrition among girls and women. Emerging evidence indicates that the prevalence of reproductive tract infections is considerably higher than previous figures suggested and that the spread of HIV/AIDS is a concern. Iron deficiency anaemia is widespread among Indian girls and women and affects 50–90% of pregnant women.

Fertility Female mortality and morbidity rates are linked to overall fertility levels in India, that is 3.4 children per woman. Childbirth closely follows marriage, which tends to occur at young ages—30% of Indian females between 15 and 19 years are married. Childbearing during ado-lescence poses significantly greater health risks than it does during the peak reproductive years and contributes to high rates of population growth. Indian women also tend to have closely spaced pregnancies. Some 37% of births occur within 2 years of the previous birth, endanger-ing both the health of the mother and the survival of the infant and older siblings.

Occupational and Social Influences on Health

Women in India, especially in agricultural areas, are expected to perform a variety of strenuous tasks within the household, on family lands and in some regions, for wages. These occupations often have serious consequences for undernourished females, including adolescents, whose bone structure is not yet fully developed and who may be required to carry heavy loads or to adopt unnatural postures for prolonged periods. Another problem is exposure to heavy smoke from kitchen fires, which causes a variety of respiratory difficulties. Women are also suscepti-ble to unusually high rates of physical assaults, such as rape, burning, and beating.

The poor health of Indian women is a concern on both national and individual levels. It affects the children who will be India’s next generation of citizens and workers. It reduces pro-ductivity, not only at the household level but also in the informal and formal economic sectors. Improving women’s health is integral to social and economic development. In addition, it is economically efficient since interventions to improve women’s reproductive health are among the most cost-effective available.

tHE rottErdAM conVEntIon

• The Rotterdam Convention entered into force on 24 February 2004.

• Canada blocked the addition of a carcinogenic type of asbestos to a global list of toxic chemicals recently; a move that environmentalists said could undermine efforts to pro-tect people and the environment.

• Recently, 14 other chemicals were added to the Rotterdam Convention’s list of 37 which requires exporting countries to warn potential buyers about their toxicity and advise them on safe usage.

• However, chrysotile asbestos is the first chemical whose proposed addition to the list ran into opposition. Chrysotile, or white asbestos, is one of three types of asbestos that research shows is carcinogenic.

• The other two carcinogenic types of asbestos—blue and brown asbestos—are both on the prior informed consent list.



• Toxic pesticides and other hazardous chemicals kill or seriously sicken thousands of people every year. They also poison the natural environment and damage many wild animal species. Governments started to address this problem in the 1980s by establish-ing a voluntary Prior Informed Consent procedure (PIC). The PIC required exporters trading in a list of hazardous substances to obtain the prior informed consent of import-ers before proceeding with the trade.

• In 1998, governments decided to strengthen the procedure by adopting the Rotterdam Convention which makes PIC legally binding. The Convention establishes a first line of defence by giving importing countries the tools and information they need to identify potential hazards and exclude chemicals they cannot manage safely. If a country agrees to import chemicals, the Convention promotes their safe use through labelling standards, technical assistance and other forms of support. It also ensures that exporters comply with the requirements.

Table 7.5 Science and technology medical area

S.No. New Technology Used/Impotent

1. Development of Nano Robotics Medical nanorobotics exploits nanometer-scale components and phenomena with robotics to provide new medical diagnostic and interventional tools. Here, the architecture and main spec-ifications of a novel medical interventional platform based on nanorobotics and nanomedicine, and suited to target regions in-accessible to catheterization, are described. The robotic platform uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for feeding back infor-mation to a controller responsible for real-time control and navi-gation along preplanned paths in the blood vessels of untethered magnetic carriers, nanorobots, and/or magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) loaded with sensory or therapeutic agents acting like a wireless robotic arm, manipulator, or other extensions necessary to perform specific remote tasks. Unlike known magnetic target-ing methods, the present platform allows us to reach locations deep in the human body while enhancing targeting efficacy us-ing real-time navigational or trajectory control.

2. Bio-electronic Medicine In this blog, Margot Puerta reports on the ’Bioelectronic medicine: Technology Targeting Molecular Mechanisms’ symposium which took place in June. This three-day meeting had the aim of developing the field of bio-electronic medicine and brought together many leading scientists and industry leaders from around the globe. Technology is changing the world, including the world of pharmacological therapies that target molecular mechanisms. These therapies are expensive, dif-ficult to administer, often toxic and may be accompanied by lethal side effects. Through a convergence of molecular medicine, neuroscience and bioengineering, bioelectronic medicine seeks to develop cures that does not require drugs or rely on them less heavily.

(continued )



S.No. New Technology Used/Impotent

3. Telerobotic This chapter reviews issues and needs in telerobotics. A telerobot is defined for our purposes as a robot controlled at a distance by a hu-man operator, regardless of the degree of robot autonomy. Sheridan (1992c) makes a finer distinction, which depends on whether all robot movements are continuously controlled by the operator (manually con-trolled teleoperator) or whether the robot has partial autonomy (teler-obot and supervisory control). By this definition, the human interface to a telerobot is distinct and not part of the telerobot. Haptic interfaces that mechanically link a human to a telerobot nevertheless share simi-lar issues in mechanical design and control and the technology survey presented here includes haptic interface development.

4. Fluorescent Carbon Nano Dots Fluorescent carbon dots (CDs) are a new class of carbon nanomaterials and have demonstrated excellent optical properties, good biocompat-ibility, great aqueous solubility, low cost, simple synthesis, etc. Since their discovery, various synthesis methods using different precursors have been developed, and are mainly classified as top-down and bot-tom-up approaches. For the mechanistic origin of CDs photolumi-nescence, three mechanisms have been proposed, such as quantum confinement effect, surface state and molecule state. CDs have pre-sented many applications, and this review article mainly focuses on the development of CDs based on fluorescent sensors in the recent five years. The sensing mechanisms, sensor design and sensing properties to various targets are summarized. A broad range of analysis including cations, anions, small molecules, macromolecules, cells and bacteria have been discussed. In addition, the challenges and future directions for CDs as sensing materials are also presented.


cHAPtEr At A GLAncE

• We need food to live that is to carry on with all life process. Food provides energy, helps in repairing damaged parts of cells and tissues and also makes news material necessary for growth and reproduction.

• In order to be healthy and stay energetic, we need to take proper food. Our food should be such that it takes care of our daily energy needs.

• The requirement for energy varies with age and occupation as growing children need more energy, so do pregnant women and nursing mothers. Other examples related to energy requirements are as follows:

Age groupEnergy Requirement

(kilo joule)

5 years 6,000

11 years 9,000

18 years 11,000

Adult 9,600

Adult (heavy work) 12,000

Adult (very heavy work) 16,000

• The major components of food are—carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. These are called



nutrients. Besides these, water is an important con-stituent of our food, and makes up for two-thirds of our body weight.

• A diet is balanced if it contains all the nutrients which are essential for the body to grow and repair itself and also contains balanced range of vitamins and miner-als including iron, zinc, etc.

• All solar heating devices are designed to facilitate collection of as much energy of sunlight as possible. Solar cooker is one of the chief examples.

• National Rural Health Mission is based on establish-ing a fully functional, community owned, decentral-ized health delivery system with intersectoral conver-gence at all levels to ensure simultaneous action on a wide range of determinants of health like water, sani-tation, education, nutrition, social and gender equality.

• National Health Policy of 1983 was framed after the commitment of Alma Ata Declaration, which was tar-geted to ‘Health for all by 2000’, and it was modified in 2002.

• NHP-2002 majorly focused on public health accord-ing to the socio-economic circumstances of the coun-try. In this policy, the aim was to increase the utiliza-tion of public health facilities by 75%, to eradicate polio, hepatitis, kala-azar, etc.

• The ICDS schemes have expanded to cover about 421.89 lakh children in the age group of 0–6 years and 92.81 lakh pregnant and lactating mothers.

• Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls in age group 11–19 years with weight of less than 35 kg. In this programme, free food grains will be provided to each girl per month.

• ASHA programme is expanding across states and has particularly successful in bringing back people to the public health system and has increased the utilization of outpatient services, diagnostic facilities, institu-tional deliveries and inpatient care.

• ASHA aims to train health personnel in basic new-born care resuscitation and look into prevention of hypothermia and infection; early initiation of breast feeding and basic new-born resuscitation.

• Infant and young child feeding emphasizes promo-tion of early initiation of breast feeding within 1 hour of delivery and excusive breast feeding till 6 months.

• School Health Programme aims to keep children free from physical and mental health concerns.

• The programme targets school going children and adolescents in the age group 6–18 years.

• Universal Immunization Programme was introduced in 1978 as Expanded Immunization Programme and gained momentum in 1985.

• Under the programme, Government of India is pro-viding vaccination to prevent seven vaccine prevent-able diseases, such as, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, measles, severe form of childhood tuberculosis and hepatitis B.

• Pulse Polio Immunization Launched in 1995. Under this, children in the age group of 0–5 years are admin-istered polio drops.

• On 24 February 2012, WHO removed India from the list of countries without active endemic wild polio virus transmissions.

Section A: unit II – Progression of Science and technology1.384



cHAPtEr End EXErcISE

PrEVIouS YEArS’ QuEStIonS

Prelims Questions

1. Consider the following statements (2018) 1. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 replaced

the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954.

2. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is under the charge of Director General of Health Services in the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.




2. Consider the following statements: (2017) 1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmit-

ted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.




3. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (2016)

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.

2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.

3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.

4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.


(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only

(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 3 and 4 only

4. ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to (2015)

(a) Immunization of children and pregnant women

(b) Construction of smart cities across the country

(c) India’s own search for the Earth—like planets in outer space

(d) New Educational Policy

5. Consider the following minerals: (2013) 1. Calcium 2. Iron

3. Sodium

Which of the minerals given above is/are required by human body for the contraction of muscles?

(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, and 3

6. Which of the following processes in the bodies of liv-ing organisms is a digestive process? (2010)

(a) Breakdown of proteins into amino acids

(b) Breakdown of glucose into CO2 and H

2O

(c) Conversion of glucose into glycogen

(d) Conversion of amino acids into proteins

7. Consider the following statements about probiotic food: (2008)

1. Probiotic food contains live bacteria which are considered benefi cial to humans.

2. Probiotic food helps in maintaining gut fl ora.


(a) 1

(b) 2

(c) 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Assertion (A): In human body, liver has important role in fat digestion.

Reason (R): Liver produces two important fat- digesting enzymes. (2008)

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct expla-nation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false.

(d) A is false but R is true

9. In the human body, which structure is appendix attached to?



(a) the large intestine (b) the small intestine

(c) the gall bladder (d) the stomach

10. In human beings, normally in which one of the fol-lowing parts, does the sperm fertilize the ovum? (2007)

(a) Cervix (b) Fallopian tube

(c) Lower part of uterus (d) Upper part of uterus

11. Which one of the following is not a digestive enzyme in the human system?

(a) Trypsin (b) Gastrin

(c) Ptyalin (d) Pepsin

12. Which one of the following is the correct sequence in the order of decreasing length of the three structural parts given below of small intestine in the human body? (2007)

(a) Jejunum-Duodenum-Ileum

(b) Ileum-Duodenum-Jejunum

(c) Jejunum-Ileum-Duodenum

(d) Ileum-Jejunum-Duodenum

13. Consider the following statements: (2006) 1. Caffeine, a constituent of tea and coffee is a diuretic.

2. Citric acid is used in soft drinks.

3. Ascorbic acid is essential for the formation bones and teeth.

4. Citric acid is a good substitution for ascorbic acid in our nutrition.


(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

14. Consider the following statements with reference to human body: (2006)

1. The common bile duct releases its contents into stomach.

2. The pancreatic duct releases its contents into duodenum.


(a) 1 (b) 2


15. Which one among the following is not a good source of nutritional calcium?

(a) Rice (b) Ragi

(c) Skimmed milk (d) Egg

16. Assertion (A): All proteins in our food are digested in small intestine only.

Reason (R): The protein-digesting enzymes from pancreas are released into small intestine. (2005)






1. Non-function of lachrymal gland is an important symptom of deficiency of Vitamin A.

2. Deficiency of Vitamin B1 can lead to indigestion and heart enlargement.

3. Vitamin C deficiency can lead to pain in the muscles.

4. Deficiency of Vitamin D causes increased loss of Ca++ in urine.

Which of the statement given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

18. Assertion (A): Fatty acids should be a part of the bal-anced human diet. (2004)

Reason (R): The cells of the human body cannot syn-thesize any fatty acids.





19. With reference to normal human beings, consider the following statements: (2003)

1. In response to the presence of HCI, secretin is pro-duced from the duodenum.

2. Enterogastrone is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of fatty acids.

Which of these statements is/are correct?

(a) 1 (b) 2


20. Which one of the following statements is/are correct? (2003)



(a) Milk contains none of the B-vitamins.

(b) Vitamin-A (retinal) deficiency leads to dry and scaly skin.

(c) One of the symptoms of scurvy is pain in the joints.

(d) Vitamin-B (thiamine) deficiency can lead to heart failure.

21. Assertion (A): Human diet should compulsorily con-tain Glycine, Serine and Tyrosine.

Reason (R): Essential amino-acids cannot be synthe-sized in the human body. (2002)





22. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (2001)

List-I (Substance)

List-II (Physiological Role)

A. Ptyalin 1. Converts angiotensinogen in blood into angiotensin

B. Pepsin 2. Digest starch

C. Retina 3. Digest proteins

D. Oxytocin 4. Hydrolyses fats

5. Induces contraction of smooth muscles

Codes:

A B C D (a) 2 3 1 5

(b) 3 4 2 5

(c) 2 3 5 1

(d) 4 3 2 1

23. Lathyrism is caused by excessive consumption of (1999)

(a) kesari dal (b) mustard oil

(c) polished rice (d) mushrooms

24. Consumption of fish is considered to be healthy when compared to flesh of other animals because fish con-tains (1998)

(a) polyunsaturated fatty acids

(b) saturated fatty acids

(c) more carbohydrates and proteins

(d) blood, blood group and circulatory system

25. A married couple adopted a male child. A few years later, twin boys were born to them. The blood group of the couple is AB positive and O negative. The blood group of the three sons is A positive, B posi-tive, and O positive. The blood group of the adopted son is (2011)

(a) O positive

(b) A positive

(c) B positive

(d) Cannot be determined on the basis of the given data

26. What is the pH level of blood of a normal person? (2008)

(a) 4.5–4.6 (b) 6.45–6.55

(b) 7.35–7.45 (d) 8.25–8.35

27. Which is the name of the vessel that delivers the nutrient rich blood from the stomach and small intes-tine to the liver? (2006)

(a) Left hepatic artery (b) Hepatic vein

(c) Right hepatic artery (d) Hepatic portal vein

28. With reference to the blood in a normal person, which one of the following statements is correct? (2002)

(a) Compared to arteries, veins are less numerous and hold less of the body’s blood at any given time.

(b) Blood cells constitute about 70% of the total vol-ume of the blood.

(c) White Blood Cells (WBCs) are made by lymph nodes only.

(d) The blood has more platelets than WBC.

29. A man whose blood group is not known meets with a serious accident and needs blood transfusion imme-diately. Which one of the blood groups mentioned below and readily available in the hospital will be safe for transfusion? (2001)

(a) O, Rh- (b) O, Rh+ (c) AB, Rh- (d) AB, Rh+

30. The blood glucose level is commonly expressed as (2000)

(a) mm Hg (b) milligram per decilitre

(c) parts per million (d) gram per litre



Main Questions

1. Discuss the extent, causes, and implications of the ‘nutrition transition’ said to be underway in India. (About 250 words). (2011)

2. Write a short note in Omega-3 fatty acids in our food. (About 50 words) (2009)

3. Write a short note on PFCs and liquid breathing. (About 30 words) (2008)

4. ‘Decline in the sex ratio in India is an alarming sign for India’s future social development’. Discuss. (About 250 words)

5. Write a short note on MTP Act. (About 20 words) 2000 (Paper-II)

6. Why is the HIV considered so dangerous? Why has the spread of the virus proved so difficult to con-tain, especially in the poorer countries of the world? (About 250 words) Marks 30 (1997)

7. What is Polio? Name its few features and how it can be prevented. (About 150 words) Marks 15

(1996) 8. What is HIV? What does it cause? (About 25 words).

Marks 3 each (1995) 9. What is AIDS? Describe its salient features. (About

250 words). Marks 30

10. What is ELISA? What is it used for? (About 20 words) Marks 2 (1994)

11. What are the diseases caused by iodine deficiency? What steps are being taken to tackle the problem in India? (About 250 words) Marks 30 (1993)

12. What is DPT vaccine? What is it used for? (About 20 words) Marks 2

PrActIcE EXErcISE

1. At which one of the following stages of mitosis do the centromeres divide?

(a) Beginning of anaphase

(b) Beginning of telophase

(c) End of metaphase

(d) End of prophase

2. Match List-I (important nutrients for man) with List-II (their natural sources) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List-I List-IIA. Vitamin A 1. Gooseberries

B. Thiamine 2. Ragi

C. Iron 3. Cereals

D. Calcium 4. Jaggery

5. Carrot

Codes: A B C D (a) 5 3 2 4

(b) 5 3 4 2

(c) 1 3 5 4

(d) 3 5 4 1

3. The hormone responsible for the secretion of milk in mothers is

(a) Adrenalin (b) Lactogenic hormone

(c) ACTH (d) Luteinizing hormone

4. Which of the following statements are true in relation to transpiration and water movements in plants?

1. Removing all the leaves from a plant will reduce the flow of water up the stem.

2. Covering both sides of leaf with a plastic film will reduce both stomatal and cuticular transpiration.

3. Injecting detergents (which lower the surface ten-sion of water) into the xylem of tree-trunk could prevent water from reaching the upper branches.

4. Through most of its route in a plant, water moves by diffusion either along cells walls or across proto-plasts.

Select the correct answer from the codes given below:

Codes: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. If algae suddenly disappear from the water bodies, then all the other aquatic organisms like fish, prawns and protozoans will die. This is because of



(a) lack of food

(b) lack of shelter

(c) lack of food and oxygen

(d) read algal mass increasing the oxygen demand


List-I List-II

A. Agar 1. Fungus

B. Penicillin 2. Alga

C. Octopus 3. Mollusc

D. Spider 4. Insect

5. Arachnid

Codes:

A B C D (a) 1 2 3 4

(b) 2 1 3 4

(c) 1 3 5 4

(d) 2 1 3 5


List-I List-IIA. Impulses from the

nasal organs1. Forebrain

B. Impulses from the eye

2. Midbrain

C. Impulses from the ears

3. Hindbrain

D. Impulses from the sensory organs of skin

Codes: A B C D (a) 1 2 3 3

(b) 2 1 3 1

(c) 1 2 2 3

(d) 2 1 3 3


List-I List-IIA. Ephenephrine 1. Pituitary

B. Oestrogen 2. Adrenal

C. Oxytocin 3. Pancreas

D. Glucagon 4. Ovaries

5. Testes

Codes:

A B C D (a) 2 1 5 3

(b) 2 4 1 3

(c) 1 4 2 3

(d) 1 5 3 4

9. The process of phagocytosis is related to

(a) ingestion of fluids

(b) digestion of parts of the cell

(c) cellular ingestion of solid material

(d) renovation of cellular components

10. In which of the following is the diaphragm present? 1. Arthropods 2. Aves 3. Mammals 4. Reptiles

Codes: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4

11. Ginger is a (a) modified root (b) rhizome (c) tuber (d) bulb

12. Desert plants would be characterized by (a) vivipary (b) aerenchyma (c) aerial roots (d) sunken stomata

13. Absence or inadequacy of proteins in human diet will produce

1. weakening of body’s defences against infections

2. impairment of body’s growth

3. impairment of hormones needed by the body

4. impairment of the cell’s ability to convert heat into energy



AnSWEr KEYS

Prelims Questions

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (a)21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (b)

Practice Exercise

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (a)

Codes: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

14. Which of the vitamin promotes conversion of inor-ganic phosphorus to organic compounds in the bones?

(a) A (b) B

(c) E (d) D

15. Carcinogenic chemicals mostly belong to the class of compounds called

(a) sulphones

(b) phenols

(c) aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons

(d) alcohol

16. Arrange in descending order of calorific values in the following foods items:

1. Sugar 2. Cheese

3. Potatoes 4. Apples

5. Carrots

Codes: (a) 2, 1, 3, 5, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5

(c) 4, 1, 3, 5, 2 (d) 1, 2, 4, 3, 5

17. Arrange in ascending order of calorific value

1. Milk 2. Butter

3. Sugar 4. Ice cream

5. Eggs

Codes: (a) 1, 5, 4, 3, 2 (b) 1, 4, 5, 3, 2

(c) 4, 1, 3, 5, 2 (d) 5, 1, 2, 3, 4

18. Why do we feel drowsy after a heavy meal?

(a) The biological clock is upset.

(b) The body muscles are fatigued.

(c) The hypothalamus produces melatonin to induce sleep.

(d) Brain receives less oxygen as blood rushes to supply oxygen and nutrition to the contracting stomach and intestines.

19. Which one of the following helps man to form vitamin D through the reaction of sun’s ultraviolet rays on the skin?

(a) Cholecalciferol (b) Ergocalciferol

(c) Cholesterol (d) 7-dehydrocholesterol

20. Why is sprouted gram considered more nutritious?

(a) Seeds are storehouses of energy.

(b) Germinating seeds produce enzymes which are a rich source of protein.

(c) Seeds have plenty of amino acids and glucose.

(d) Sprouted gram in not more nutritious; it is just an old wives’ tale that it is more nutritious.

21. Owls and lorises can see and hunt things in the near dark. Which of the following features help the ani-mals to do so?

1. A large proportion of rod cells

2. Wide pupils to let in as much light as possible into the eyes

3. The membrane, ‘tapetum lucidum’ on the retina

4. Echo-location

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4



HIntS And EXPLAnAtIonS

Prelims Questions

1. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an autonomous body established under the Ministry of Health, Family Welfare and Govern-ment of India. The FSSAI has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which is a consolidating statute related to food safety and reg-ulation in India. It is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the regulation and supervision of food safety.

2. Statement 1: Zika virus is transmitted to people pri-marily through the bite of an infected Aedes species mosquito (Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus). These are the same mosquitoes that spread dengue and chikun-gunya viruses.

Statement 2: Zika can be passed through sex from a person who has Zika to his or her partners. Zika can be passed through sex, even if the infected person does not have symptoms at the time.

3. Statement 3 and 4 are wrong because there is no mention of eggs or unpolished rice or millets in the official release document.

Statement 1 and 2: There are two components of the National Nutrition Mission as follows:

1. Information, Education and Communication (IEC) Campaign against malnutrition

2. Multi-sectoral Nutrition Programme.

4. Mission Indradhanush was launched by Union Health Minister J.P. Nadda on 25 December 2014. It aims to immunize all children and preventable diseases namely diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles and hepatitis B by 2020. In addition to this, vaccines for Japanese Encephali-tis (JE), rotavac and Haemophilus influenza type B (HIB) are also being provided in selected states.

5. Sodium plays essential roles in muscle contrac-tion because of their importance in nerve function. Nervous system communicates with your muscles through structures called neuromuscular junc-tions, and the activation of a nerve triggers muscle contraction.

6 Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pep-sinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydro-chloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymo-

trypsin in the intestine. Dietary protein is degraded into the amino acids and their derivatives are then absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract.

9. Vermiform Appendix is attached to the large intestine.

12. Ileum - 4 m; Jejunum - 2.5 m; Duodenum - 25cm

13. The term diuretic implies that the substance increases the amount and frequency of urination.

Vitamin C is also known as Ascorbic Acid or antiscor-biutic acid.

14. The common bile duct releases its content into duo-denum (small intestine). The bile duct from the liver and the pancreatic duct from the pancreas pour their fluids (bile and pancreatic juice) into the duodenum by the common bile duct.

17. Lachrymal glands are also known as tearglands. It secrets tears that act as “Lubricants to the Cornea”.

Vitamin A deficiency causes stopping of this secre-tion. It leads to dryness of cornea and ulceratin known as Xeropthalmia. It also leads to night blindedness.

18. Fats and oils are also known as triglycerides. A tri-glyceride molecule is made up of three fatty acid molecules covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule. Fatty acids differ in number of carbon atoms and the number of double bonds presents. Fatty acids have two major categories – Saturated Fatty Acids and unsaturated fatty acids. Fats have high calorific value. The average diet of 3000 calories may derive 40% of the calorie value from fats. Fats give twice the energy provided by carbohydrates. Few fats cannot be syn-thesized by our body and are called Essential fats. The most important of these is unoleic acid (all vege-table oils contain unoleic acid except coconut oil).

19. Secretin: It is released from S-cells of the duodenum when pH < 4.5 (in presence of HCl). Primary func-tion is to increase water and bicarbonate secretion from pancreas and bile ducts.

Enterogastrone : A hormone, obtained from intestinal mucosa, that inhibits gastric secretion and motility. Secretion of enterogastrone is stimulated by exposure of duodenal mucosa to dietary lipids.

20. Milk contains Vitamin B1, B

2, B

6, B

12.

21. Essential aminoacids : Humans must include ade-quate amount of amino acids in their diet. These



‘essential’ aminoacids cannot be synthesized from other precursors. These are Histidine, Isolencine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Thre-onine, Tryptophan and Valine. So Glycine, serine and tyrosin are non-essential aminoacids. They can be synthesized in the body. So they need not to be supplied in the diet.

22. Ptyalin (a-amylase) is found in he mouth. It is an enzyme which helps in breadown of starch into malt-ose. It works in the basic medium.

Pepsin is the principal proteolyic enzyme of the stomach and digests proteins into peptides. The site of action of pepsin is stomach. Pepsionogen is the active precursor of pepsin and is considered as proen-zyme or zymogen.

23. Lathyrism: It attacks on central nervous system. Early symptoms include walking difficulties, unbear-able cramps and leg weakness. Total paralysis is the final visitation of the disease known as Lathyrism.

It occurs by eating lathyrus peas (containing a toxin). There is no cure for Lathyrism.

24. Fish contains polyunsaturated fatty acids having high rate of reduction which increases the transportation of oxygen in human body. Fishes and lower level

of saturated fatty acids than meat sources of protein such as chicken, beef, pork etc. In beef and pork it is 4–10% and in chicken 25–30%. But in fish is above 50%. Fish also contains long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 series which are not found in other food sources.

25. Couple with AB positive blood group consist of A+ and B+ gene and with O negative blood group consist of O-gene. A + gene is dominant over O-gene which results into A + blood group is one child. B+ blood group in other child. Only these two possibilities can be possible from above cross. So the rest of the blood group O + will be of the adopted son.

27. Hepatic Vein – From liver to main vein Hepatic Artery – From main artery to liver.

28. The blood has more platelets than WBC. Platelets are to the tune of 1.5 – 4.5 lakhs/cm of blood while WBCs are to the tune of 4000–1000/ cm of blood.

29. Blood group O, Rh will be safe for transfusion because O blood group does not have any antigen. So there is no chance of coagulation on transfusion with any blood group.

30. Normal blood glucose level 9–15 mg/100 ml of blood.


Unit IIIRecent Research and Development

in Science and Technology

Chapter 1: Modern Science and Technology



❍ Understand the process of development of modern science and technology

❍ Discuss the infl uence of various products of modern technology on human life

❍ Learn about the integral role of modern science in shaping human life

RobotICS

A robot is a human device which is made from the advance version of using physics, chemistry and biology reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the execution of a variety of tasks.

The characteristic that a robot can be reprogrammed to handle a variety of tasks makes it a fl exible device for all the human beings. Hence, the study of robotics includes design, selec-tion of materials of proper quality for the components, fabrication and that of various motors required for moving the components, design of electronic circuits, computers and computer programming, etc.

Consequently the study involves various disciplines, such as mechanical engineering, mate-rial science, electronics, computer science, computer engineering, and control systems to name a few. Depending on the area of application, the study also includes disciplines such as biol-ogy, medical science, psychology, agriculture, mining, outer space engineering, etc.

types of Robots

Basically there are two types of robots:

1. Fixed Robot: A fi xed robot is attached to a stationary platform. It is analogous to a human standing or sitting at one fi xed location while doing his work with his hands.

2. Mobile Robot: A mobile robot passes all the abilities to move from place to place. Mobility is given by providing wheels or legs or other crawling mechanisms.

A mobile robot can be given a human shape but the actual shape has nothing to do with the actual functions of the robot. Wheeled locomotion is good for smooth terrains. For rugged terrain, legged locomotion is preferable. A mobile robot should have at least three wheels or legs for stability. However, two-legged robots are also not uncommon provided they have suffi cient balancing mechanism.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Info

The manufacturing systems of robots are called Flexible Manufacturing Sys-tems (FMS).

Karel Capek fi rst introduced the word ‘robot’ and Sir Isaac Asimov is the one who coined the term ‘robotics.’ According to Asi-mov, robotics is the science of dealing with robots.

1CHAPTER

Modern Science and Technology


Section A: Unit III – Recent Research and Development in Science and Technology1.396

Components of Industrial Robots

The components of an industrial robot are:

• Manipulator • Controller

• Endeffector • Sensors

• Locomotion device

Figure 1.1: Industrial robotic arms

Manipulator A manipulator is a component which has several joints and links. This is analogous to human arm. The number of joints and links to be provided depends on the type of work required from the robot.

The number is related to the number of independent motions, that is, number of degrees of freedom. A general-purpose industrial robot must have six degrees of freedom, which means that it has six joints and six links. The joints are generally of two types—revolute joint and prismatic joint. Revolute joint gives the rotationary movement to the arm, whereas prismatic joint allows movement in a straight line.

Arbitrary orientation of the arm, that is, its capacity to move anywhere, can be obtained only by three mutually perpendicular rotary joints and not otherwise.

Prismatic joints in contrast give more rigidity which in combination with revolute joints can perform the simplest to complex tasks.

Depending upon the number of linear joints, the manipulator is categorized into the follow-ing three different types:

1. Cartesian Robot Manipulator: This type of robot manipulator has three linear joints and three rotary joints. The movements of three linear joints are in mutually perpendic-ular directions. It has high degree of mechanical rigidity but accuracy (i.e., capable to reach a specific point more accurately) is less.

2. Cylindrical Robot Manipulator: This type of robot manipulator consists of two linear joints and one rotary joint. It is best suited for pick-and-place operations. The mechan-ical rigidity is slightly lower than that of Cartesian robot and work space (i.e., set of all points that can be reached by the robot manipulator) is larger than Cartesian robots.

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Sophia is the first social humanoid robot developed in 2015, Hong Kong.

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Chapter 1 – Modern Science and Technology 1.397

3. Spherical Robot Manipulator: This type of robot manipulator consists of one linear and two rotary joints. This has larger work space and lower degree of mechanical rigid-ity when compared to cylindrical robots.

Based on the linear and the rotary joints, robots can be classified as follows:

1. Horizontal Articulated Robot: It has two rotary joints and one vertically moving linear joint. This type of robot has smaller work space than spherical robot but larger than Cartesian or cylindrical robot. This is appropriate for assembly operations.

2. Vertical Articulated Robot: It has three rotary joints and resembles a human arm.

end effector Analogous to human palm and fingers, this component helps to pick, hold and transfer objects from one position to another or perform the required tasks. This can be like spray painting gun or welding gun or electromagnetic pick-up device or vacuum suction mechanism. The designer can use his imagination and ingenuity in deciding how the end effector is to be fabricated.

Locomotion Device The power of movement like muscles in human beings is given by motors. There are basically three types of motors depending upon the source of energy—electric, hydraulic or pneumatic.

For giving rotary motions, electric motors are generally used. Even linear motion can be achieved by using lead-screw mechanism if necessary. Hydraulic and pneumatic drives can be used to give both rotary and linear motions using hydraulic or pneumatic motors or cylinders, respectively.

ControllerThis is exactly the brain of the robot. Digital computers form a major part of the controller. They are preferred as they can do functions like collecting information, making decisions and implementing task. The controller possesses five important functional characteristic of human brain as mentioned below.

• It can easily grasp the information when fed in the coded form.

• It is capable of giving out the processed information.

• It is capable of storing information for any length of time without loss in accuracy and can recall the required information.

• It is capable of doing calculations within a fraction of a second.

• It is also capable of taking logical decisions.

The controller of the robot directs and controls the movement of the manipulator and end effector. This is where robotics has grown significantly with the help of artificial intelligence.

Sensors Sensors are nothingbutmeasuring instrumentswhichmeasurequantities such as position,velocity, force, torque, proximity, temperature, etc., and provide inputs to the controllers for performing meaningful tasks.

A Robot SySteM

A robot system is an arrangement of the five components of the robot interface properly so that the components work in a coordinated fashion for the effective and efficient functioning of the robot.



Industry Applications

Work in an industry can be broadly divided into four major categories. Robots can be advantageously used in all these types of jobs.

1. Pick and Place Operation: There are certain types of industrial jobs in which an object is required to be picked up from a specified position and placed in a particular position. A robot which performs the pick-and-place operation is called pick-and-place robot. Pick-and-place robots are used for machine loading and unloading, palletising, stacking, general materials handling.

2. Point-to-Point Operation: In the pick-and-place operation, the robot is expected to pick up an object from an initial position and place it at a final position. The initial and final positions can be different when the operation is repeated.

There are operations in which work is required to be performed at several different locations as in the case of the operation involved in drilling holes for a printed circuit board.

A printed circuit board must have a very large number of tiny holes drilled very accu-rately in exactly the specified positions. Doing such a job manually will usually lead to an inaccurate product. A robot can be gainfully employed in doing the drilling operation as it will perform the operation very accurately.

Point-to-point robots are used in spot welding, gluing, drilling, other similar operations.

3. Continuous Path Operation: In the first two categories of operations, the path tra-versed between two points, or the velocity with which the end effector moves along the path is unimportant since the robot is not expected to do any job while moving between two points.

However, there are certain operations to be performed in an industry, wherein the path taken is important and the velocity with which the end effector moves along the path is also important. In this event, we have a continuous path operation.

Spraypaintingthewallsofaroom.Thepaintingisnotexpectedtobedonecontin-uously along the wall from one corner to the other since no paint is to be applied to the doors and windows.

If we assume that the robot moves along a straight line along the wall to be painted, and if we assume that the paint is sprayed at a constant volume per unit time in order to apply a uniform coat of paint on the wall, the robot has to move at a constant velocity. A robot which performs an operation of this type is called continuous path robot.

The applications of continuous path robots are in paint spraying, seaming, welding, cutting, inspection, other similar operations

4. Assembly Operation: The assembly operation is an imporatnt task for any industry. In making a final part, a large number of component parts of different sizes and shapes must be put together properly. A robot which performs the assembly operations is called an assembly robot. The robot must be capable of identifying the required parts, deter-mine its position and orientation so that the right object can be picked up with the right orientationinordertojoin/attachitwiththeotherrequiredcomponent.Sometimestwohands are required to do a certain task. In this event two robot manipulators can be used. However, a good coordination between the two robots is essential.

A continuous path robot can be used for inspection of the inside surface of a motor cage for the presence of any burrs. The crank shaft of an engine has a very odd shape and are to be deburred after they are cast. This deburring operation can be performed by a continuous path robot. The crank shafts are placed on a conveyor belt which is moving and TV cameras are placed conveniently far above the con-veyor belt to look at the crank shafts and determine the position and orienta-tion of the crank shaft, thus enabling a robot to pick up a crank shaft and lead it to a machine. When the crank shaft is properly held by the machine, a continuous path robot performs the deburring operation.

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Chapter 1 – Modern Science and technology 1.399

Advantages of using Robots in Industries

IncountriessuchasJapanandtheUSA,whicharetechnicallyadvanced,thenumberofrobotsin use at present in industrial and commercial applications is increasing at the rate of about 35% per annum.

Reduced Cost of productionThe cost of maintaining a robot is less than the average cost of maintaining a human being when the fringe benefi ts are taken into account. Robots do not get any of the fringe benefi ts such as no cost on social security, workman’s compensation, vacations/holidays, medical and sick leaves, maternity benefi ts, or retirement pay. Moreover, human beings are subject to fatigue and lack of attention, particularly when doing repetitive work. Robots work without any fatigue. Frequently robots seem to repay their entire cost (capital cost and cost for auxiliary equipment including installation and training costs) within 12 months.

Increased productivity Robots can be designed to work faster than human beings. For example, a robot does straight welding at the rate of 75 cm per minute while a human being does only 25 cm per minute.

Two typical spray painting robots can complete the painting of an automobile inside and out with two coats (wet-on-wet is now in use) in 90 seconds and work 20 hours per day. Even the best human spray painter takes as much as 15 to 20 minutes to complete the same job.

Improved production Quality

• With robots, the accuracy of positioning is greater. The speed of operation is another advantage. There are cases where the weld has to be completed before the pieces distort due to the heat of the welding. With controlled accuracy and speed, welds that were diffi cult to perform earlier are now possible. Another example is in die casting where the casting cycle must be strictly adhered to.

• The robot is assisted by measuring instruments, and therefore, the fi nal product is produced accurately and meets the qualities prescribed.

• Therefore, almost all the items produced by the robot pass the quality inspection test and the number of items rejected is practically nil.

• This improved quality of production will reduce the cost of production.

• When a human being does the job manually, the quality of items produced will not always conform to the required specifi cations. It is estimated that when items are manu-factured manually, the items that are rejected (because of failing in the quality inspection tests) are in the range of 30%–50%.

operation in hazardous and hostile environments Robots can operate in any situation either uncomfortable or dangerous for the human being to work in. The human will therefore be glad to let the robot replace him, even at the cost of creating unemployment.

Some examples are—loading and unloading of hot furnaces workingwith toxic paintsdoing welding operations where unhealthy or toxic fumes will be produced handling radioac-tive chemicals working in deep mines working deep under the ocean working in outer space working in polar regions fi re-fi ghting.

Info

For example, through assem-bly operation, a toothed wheel is to be picked up by the robot. Using a TV camera, the robot gets the picture of each component and compares it with the picture of the toothed wheel already stored in the memory of the computer. If the present picture and the stored picture of the required component match, the robot decides that the required component has been identifi ed. Otherwise, it looks at the picture of a diff erent compo-nent. This operation is repeated until the required component is found.


Section A: unit III – Recent Research and Development in Science and technology1.400

Improved Management Control Computer-controlled robots can carry out pre-programmed procedures with greater accuracy. In addition, they can record in the memory of the computer what is being done.

The inventory of all the shop fl oors can be maintained in the memory of the computer. Thereby, there is an improvement in scheduling, planning and monitoring operations.

occupational Safety and Health administration Standards Since a robot obeys the commands without protest, it will meet the occupational safetyand health administration standard. A human being will often violate the safety and health administration precautions (for example, by not wearing a protective helmet, not wearing protective goggles, etc). Due to the above-mentioned advantages, robots are being used increasingly in industrial applications.

Application of Robots at home environment

Robots that are used at home are called home robots or personal robots. In technologically advanced countries, there are three types of home robots that are in use.

1. As Atoy or As a Companion: The fi rst type is the one that can be used as a toy or as a companion to play a game, such as checkers (draughts) or chess.

As an example of a toy-robot, we can think of doll which can be commanded to dance, walk, and sing a song, or laugh and cry.

A child can hold the hand of a toy-robot and walk and the toy-robot walks along, takes a turn whenever the child takes a turn and stops when the child stops.

One can play a game of chess with the help of a computer. If needed, the computer and the video terminal can be replaced by an actual robot with hands and fi ngers playing on an actual chessboard. When the computer actually decides the best possible move, it can command the robot to physically make the move on the real chessboard.

2. Entertainment-Purpose Robot: The second type of home robot is the one used for entertainment purposes. Since this is an entertainer, any of the tricks adopted by anentertainer (a magician, for example) can be used by the robot.

Sucharobotcanbeusedathomewhenthereisagatheringofguestsoritcanbeusedin a supermarket to attract customers.

3. Home Robot Resembling an Industrial Robot: The third type of home robot resem-bles an industrial robot in the sense that it has manipulators with the help of which it can handle objects.

This is a mobile robot mounted on wheels and controlled by a computer. It can be fi t-ted with several sensors in order to enable it to intelligently perform certain operations. It can be commanded to perform certain chores such as fetching a newspaper from a certain point to another, taking a breakfast tray from the kitchen to a specifi ed room to give to children who are busy studying. A home robot can be controlled to do several chores at home.

• Itcanbecommandedtotakecertainthingsfromoneplacetoanother.

• Itcanbeprogrammedandcommandedtohelpachildinhisstudies.

• Ahomerobotcanalsobedesignedtoactasanescortandtakechildrenfromhometoschool and bring them back safely; the robot will permit children to cross streets only when it is safe to do so.

techtalk

Robots work 98% of the time at assigned tasks (reserving 2% of the time for overall maintenance and repair). In other words, robots work almost 24 hours per day, 7 days a week and 12 months a year. A human can work only in shifts of 8 hours per day.

Info

Increased produc-tivity means more work is completed on schedule. Quality of production is a very important fac-tor in any manufac-turing industry and robots provide the required quality of production.



• Thehomerobotcanalsobecommanded(afterproperdesign,ofcourse)todoseveralother chores such as fetching a glass of water, or cleaning a room with a vacuum cleaner.

Application of Robots in non-manufacturing Areas

Someoftheapplicationsofrobotsinnon-manufacturing(non-industrial)areasaredescribedbelow.

• SheepShearing:One of the most interesting applications of robots is in sheep shearing. An electric clipper is carried by the robot arm and follows the contours of the sheep’s body.

Sensorsontheclipperdeterminethedistancetotheskinofthesheepwithinanaccu-racy of 0.005 inch (0.0125 cm). Motors on the robot are fast enough to move the clipper out of the way when the animal moves, so that the sheep is not injured.

• Agricultural andForestryApplications:Robots with vision and other sensors are potentially capable of handling many agricultural tasks.

Fruit picking, asparagus harvesting, potato digging, and similar activities are being performed by robots. Robot technology could be applied to forestry for tree felling and wood gathering.

• RadioactiveMaterials Handling: Nuclear energy experiments require handling of radioactive chemicals which can be successfully managed by robots.

This relieves the human being from doing such tasks which are hazardous, like han-dling radioactive materials in a nuclear power station. Robots can also be helpful in the disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear plants and in maintenance work, periodic inspections and disassembly of nuclear plants.

• Robots in Sports: In an experiment in real-time intelligent control, scientists have developed a ping-pong playing robot. To make the problem simple, to start with, the rules for playing the game and the dimensions of the ping-pong table are modified. The robot incorporates sensors and processing techniques as well as the techniques needed tointelligentlyplantherobot’sresponseinafractionofsecondavailable.Sensorsmea-sure, among other quantities, the ball’s trajectory, the velocity of the ball and the spin of the ball. Based on the measurements, the controller determines the force and angle with which the paddle should hit the ball. Having this information, the robot arm carrying the paddle successfully intercepts the ball and sends it to the other side. Further work is being done to improve the system so that the game can be played on a standard table using standard rules of the game.

• Mining: It is hazardous to work in a mine where the earth from above is prone to collapse. Robots will be very valuable in performing mining operations.

• Construction Work: Robots can be used in reinforcement-bars assembly, bridge painting, inner and outer finishing of high-rise buildings, cleaning outer walls, painting, finishing concrete floors, and spraying concrete on tunnel walls.

• Defence:Robots can gather up the wounded and reduce casualties by replacing tank crew members or by doing field refuelling and loading guns in combat zones.

Robots could also be used in dangerous surveillance missions. If the enemy uses Biological, Chemical or Nuclear (BCN) weapons, robots are in a better position to withstand the attack.

• RobotSentries:ArobotsentrydevelopedintheUSAcandetect,within45mradius,the presence of anything or anybody that moves around.

Robotic olympics The first inter-national Robot Olympics was held in Glasgow, Scotland. Over 50 robots from Britain, USA, Russia, Japan, France, Mexico, India, Canada, and Germany took part in the exhibi-tion. The Robot Olympics will be held every two years alternating between Glasgow and other venues in various countries. Two-legged robots rocking from side to side, wheeled robots that can avoid obstacles, robots that crawl with a screw-driver were some of the tasks these exhibits could perform. The events included contests in wall-climbing, obsta-cle avoidance, javelin throw and similar activities.

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• UnderseaExploration:The record depth to which a man has gone down into the ocean is only 100 m and that too with the help of special suits and special breathing apparatus.

Seventypercentoftheearth’ssurfaceisoccupiedbytheocean.Thelargeareaoftheocean has depths ranging from 2 to 6 km. With submersible robots fitted with mechani-cal arms and vision capability, it is possible to explore deep undersea waters and collect valuablematerial.Sucha robot,calledSCARAB,wasused toretrieve theblack-boxof the ill-fated Air India Jumbo which exploded and went down into the ocean several years ago.

Robots could help in underwater construction. They could also be used for mining of the ocean-floor minerals. A miniature robotics submarine with TV camera and powerful lights can inspect deep sea fauna at much lower costs compared to similar operations with human beings. Robotic submarines are also used to inspect underwater structures, pipelines and power cables.

• RobotsinFireFightingandDisasterRelief:Robots which can move, climb a ladder and lift or transfer human beings and objects would be very useful in relieving humans of dangerous tasks such as fire fighting. They could also be used in remote controlled searches for missing people, and remote surveillance of disaster conditions.

• RobotsinSpaceExploration:Spaceexplorationandspaceresearchofferawidefieldof application for robots. Robots could help in assembling structures in outer space and in the operation of outer space factories. Robots can maintain and service thousands of man-made celestial bodies already orbiting the earth. Planetary exploration becomes an easy task when robots are sent to other planets.

The Russians had sent a self-propelled mobile robot’ called Lunakhod to the moon. This robot explored the surface of the moon, took lunar-earth samples, subjected them to chemical and X-ray analysis and sent the results of the experiments to Earth.

TheVoyagerIImissionofUSAwassuccessfulpartlybecauseofthetwoon-boardrobots that were helping with various operations of the mission.

Medical Applications

Orthotics and Prosthetics: Robots have been valuable in the areas of orthotics and prosthetics. Prosthetics is a medical speciality concerned with the artificial replacement of missing parts of the human body. In cases of persons who have lost their arms or legs due to amputation, artificial legs or arms can be provided and the manipulator can be controlled using robotic principles.

Measuring the EMG (electromyograph) signals from the unamputated part of the body and processing the electromyograph signals, the actual command given by the brain can be under-stood and this information can be used in controlling the artificial limb.

Orthotics is concerned with providing exo-skeletal structures on an invalid arm or leg or in cases where the invalidity has been caused by the loss of nervous control due to paralysis. The exo-skeletallimbcanbecontrolledasinthecaseoftheartificiallimb.Someprosthesesandorthoses can be controlled by voice commands.

EverydayCareandNursing:Robots can also be helpful in everyday care and nursing of the disabled people or the bedridden elderly and thereby reduce the burden of the attendants. A robot being developed by the Transition Research Corporation, called HelpMate, can pick up the correct tray at the nurse’s voice command and deliver it to the patient’s bed.

Brain Surgery: Surgeons are experimenting on the use of robots in brain surgery. Initialexperiments were conducted not on real patients, but on a water melon. Tiny pellets were

There are several advantages of the robot performing surgery. When a surgeon is operating on an HIV patient, he need not have the fear of infection as he does not go anywhere near the patient. For exam-ple the surgeon sit-ting in Coimbatore can manipulate the telesignals and perform laparo-scopic surgery on a patient in New York through a robot.

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inserted into a water melon and the Computer Assisted Tomography (CAT) image located these pellets precisely in three dimensions, which were communicated to the robotic arm in tool coordinates. The robotic arm was able to penetrate into the water melon at the correct depth and locate the pellets.

Based on this success, surgeons have used the robotic arm on patients and successfully performed operations. The robotic procedure reduces the time on operating table by more than 50% and thus diminishes the resultant trauma. Probe placement can be made to an accuracy of 0.002ofaninch(0.004cm).

Long-Distance Surgery: This is twenty-fi rst century telemedicine. As a patient lays unconscious on an operating-table, the doctor-in-charge could sit more than 800 kilometres away, directing a remote-controlled robotic arm inside the patient’s abdomen.

For example an experimental heart valve surgery was done recently in East Carolina University,USAusingamoresophisticatedroboticsystemcalled‘daVinciSurgicalSystem,’which, controlled by a computer, can grasp tissue, cut and sew stitches deep inside the body. Though it hasn’t yet been used long-distance, it is believed that by having a robot do the bulk of an operation is perhaps less than a decade away.

Microrobotics

Microrobotics is currently being developed in Japan. Robots are being designed tiny enough for several of them to be accommodated in a capsule which a patient could swallow. With nominal external controls, these robots will perform operation such as cleaning blocked arteries inside the patient’s body.

Microrobots could one day be released in the fi elds where they will chase and destroy pests and fungus.

Robotic Walking frame

Elderly people with walking problems could soon be benefi tted from the electronic frame, which acts as a second pair of eyes and legs, audibly warning the user of impending collisions.

Scientists link Animal brain Cells with a Robot

A team of researchers from universities in the United States and Italy has created a fi sh on wheels. Actually, the researchers took part of the brain of a lamprey, an aquatic parasite, and connected it to a mobile robot, producing what they call an ‘artifi cial animal.’ It was the fi rst time that the animal brain cells and a robot had communicated in two directions.

Researchers were able to control the motion of a two-wheeled robot by connecting it to the brain stem of the sea lamprey. Scientists removed the lamprey’s brain stem and part of its spinal cord and placed them in a salt solution. Electrodes were then attached to the brain stem and connected to the robot. The lamprey’s brain cells received a signal from light sensors in the robot, and the cells sent signals back to the robot. Depending on the placement of the electrodes on the brain tissue, the robot moved towards or away from the light, or in a circle.

Linking a life form and a machine may have practical benefi ts, like better prosthetic devices for humans. The goal of scientists is to create a tool that will hopefully help to understand how the brain works.

Scientists link Animal brain Cells with a Robot

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The Personal Adaptive Mobility (PAM) robot also tells people when they come to a junction or if they are about to encounter a door.

The robot developed by scientists at Trinity College, Dublin, uses laser and sonar sensors to guide the robotically steered wheels. Powered by an electric battery, it could be the answer to the thousands of accidents which occur each year with standard walking frames.

The laser range finder has a 180° sweep and when it is unreliable, such as in front of glass doors, six sonar sensors take over.

Itcanbeusedintwomodes—‘manual,’whichactsasastandardwalkingframebutissuesaudiblewarnings,while‘aggressive’actuallycontrolsthesteeringandnavigatessafelyaroundobstacles.

CategoryofRobot

Nameoftherobot Country Description

Humanoid Entertainment Robots

ASIMO Japan • ItsmanufacturedbyHonda• Asimo—ItstandsforAdvancedStepinInnovative

Mobility—first became available for rental in 2000. It is considered as one of the world’s most advanced humanoids. It can walk, even jog, wave, avoid obstacles and carry on simple conversations.

• The130-cm-tallbubble-headedAsimolookslikeareal-life child in a white space-suit as it has grown smaller and lighter in size with innovations over the years.

QRIO Japan • Itisanotherhumanoidrobot.

HOAP Japan • HOAPRobotSeries(HumanoidforOpenArchitecturePlatform): It is manufactured by Fujitsu company.

TOYOTA Japan • TOYOTApartnerrobotismanufacturedbyToyota.

MIURO Japan • MIURO which turns an iPod music player into a scurrying boombox-on-wheels was manufactured by ZMP, Japan. This was unveiled during Japan’s Robot of the Year award ceremony held in Tokyo in 2007. The robot had three assembly-line mechanical arms which quickly but accurately analysed camera data of little square pieces scattered randomly on a swiftly moving conveyor belt. The arms picked up the items, using suction cups that blew air in and out at their tips. They then worked together to neatly place them in rows in boxes. They are already being used at food and pharmaceutical plants, where sanitation is critical and human error must be avoided.

Matsushita’sHOSPIROBOT

Japan • Matsushita’sHOSPIROBOT,cancarryaround400vialsofblood. The Hospi robots are being used during night shifts at facilities that test blood samples collected from hospitals during the day.

(Continued)

Table 1.1 Various examples of manufactured robots



CategoryofRobot

Nameoftherobot Country Description

Androids ACTROID Japan • Androidsarerobotsdesignedtostronglyresemblehumans.• ACTROIDisarealisticfemalerobotdemonstratedmost

prominently at Expo 2005 in Japan.

Mobility Robot

WILL-I6R III Japan • ItisdevelopedbyWasedaUniversityandTMSUK,Japan.

i-FOOT Japan • ItisdevelopedbyToyota,Japan.

i-REAL Japan • ItisdevelopedbyToyota.

MURATA Boy Japan • ItisdevelopedbyMurataManufacturingCo.Ltd.,Japan.

MOBIRO Japan • AwheelchairlikerobotfromToyota,Japan.Thatwouldoffer bed-to-bed services to people, including the elderly andthesick,justlikecarstakepeople‘door-to-door.’

Industrial Humanoid Robots

HRP-3 PROMET Mk-II Japan • ItsmanufacturedbyKawadaIndustries,designedbyYutakaIzubuchi.

FANUC Robot Japan • FANUCRobot-unveiledduringJapan’sRobotoftheYearAward Ceremony in 2007.

Other Robots

Robot Description

Animal(fourlegged)Robots • AIDOisacommercialroboticdogmanufacturedbySonyElectronics,Japan.

Social Robots • PaPeRo

• PARO, a robot baby seal intended for therapeutic purposes.

Guard Robots • GUARDROBOD1ismanufacturedbySohgoSecurityServices.

• BANRYUismanufacturedbySanyoandTMSUK,Japan.

DomesticRobots • SMARTPALV,ismanufacturedbyYaskawaElectricCorporation,Japan.

• TWENDY-ONE, is developed by Waseda University, Japan.

• TPR-ROBINA, is manufactured by Toyota, Japan.

Rescue Robots • T-53ENRYU,manufacturedbyTMSUK,Japan.


non-Japanese CompaniesThe deeper long-term financial resources and strong domestic market enjoyed by the Japanese companies enabled the Japanese companies to dominate the world robot market. Only a few non-Japanese companies managed to survive in this market, which includes

• Adept Technology

• Staubli-Unimation

• TheSwedish-SwisscompanyABB(ASEABrownBoveri)

• The Austrian manufacturer igm Roboter systeme AG

• TheGermancompanyKUKARobotics



SupeRCoMputeR: WoRLD AnD InDIA

In present era supercomputers are made up of thousands of connected processors, and their speed has grown exponentially over the past few decades. The fi rst supercomputer, released in1964,wascalledtheCDC6600.Itusedasingleprocessortoachieve3millioncalculationsper second. While that may sound impressive, it is tens of thousands of times slower than an iPhone.

SummitIBM

Sunway TaihuLightNRCPC

SierraIBM

Tianhe-2NUDT

ABCIFujitsu

Piz DaintCray

TitanCray Inc.

SequoiaIBM

TrinityCray Inc.

CoriCray Inc.

122,300.0

Computational performace [in TeraFLOPS]

The Top 10 SupercomputersComputational performance of the most powerful Supercomputers (as of June 2018)

93,014.6

71,610.0

61,444.5

19,880.0

19,590.0

17,590.0

17,173.2

14,137.3

14,014.7

TheSummitconsistsofover36,000processorsfromIBMandNvidiathatcanperform200quadrillion calculations per second. In comparison to any typical computer can do in 30 years Summitwillbeabletoaccomplishinjustanhour.

Summittakesup5,600squarefeetoffloorspaceandhasnearly200milesofcable.Ituses4,000gallonsofwaterperminutetostaycoolandconsumesenoughpowertorun8thousandhomes.

Supercomputersareusedforfunctionslikeforecastingweatherandclimatetrends,simu-latingnucleartests,performingpharmaceuticalresearchandcrackingencryptionkeys.Someinitial projects ondeck forSummit include researchingpossible genetic predispositions tocancer or opioid addiction.

Note: In the meeting of Supercomputer Conference 2018 held on 11 to16 November, inMiddleAmericaatTexasState,thelistof500Supercomputerwaslaunchedinwhichfourcomputers were from INDIA.

Super Computers in India

Pratyush(Worldrecord45thrank): The latest supercomputer at IITM,Pune “Pratyush” isaCray-XC40LC[LiquidCooled]Systemwith3315nodesrunningIntelXeonBroadwell

Info

power of a SupercomputerIt is measured in terms of what scientists call fl oating point operations per second, or fl ops.

CRAY XMP14 — 60 mega fl ops



In January 2018, India’s first super-computer is launched at Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune.

ConneCtE5-2695processorswithapeakperformanceof4,006TFLOPSandatotalsystemmemoryof414TB.Thesystemiscomposedof18ComputecabinetsandusesCray’sAriesNOCwithDragonflyInterconnectnetworktopology.Inaddition,thesystemconsistsof16IntelKNL7210 accelerator nodeswith a peak performance of 42.56TFLOPS and a totalmemory of1.5TB.

TheentiresystemoperatesonCray’scustomizedLinuxOS,calledCrayLinuxEnviron-ment. The cluster supports architecture specific compilers from Cray as well as Intel and open-sourceGNU compilers. System also hosts architecture specific parallel libraries likeOPENMP,MPI,libsci,IntelClustersoftwareetc.ApplicationslikeGFS,WRF,ROMS,CFSare available on the system for weather forecasting. To facilitate users with parallel program development, DDT parallel debugger and profiler is enabled on the system. The system uses PBSProasWorkloadManager.

Mihr(Worldrecord73rdrank): Mihir is the fastest supercomputer in India with a maximum speed of 6.8 petaflops at a total cost of INR438.9Croreworking at NationalCenter forMedium Range Weather Forecast (NCMRWF) Noida.

SRECC(WorldRecord488thrank):FunctioningatIndianInstituteofScience

PARAMYuvaII: Unveiled on 8 February 2013, this supercomputer was made by Centre for DevelopmentofAdvancedComputinginaperiodofthreemonth.Itperformsatapeakof524TFLOPS,about10timesfasterthanthepresentfacility,andwillconsume35%lessenergyas compared to the existing facility. Param Yuva II used for research in space, bioinformatics, weather forecasting, seismic data analysis, aeronautical engineering, scientific data processing and pharmaceutical development. Educational institutes like the Indian Institutes of Technology and National Institutes of Technology can be linked to the computer through the national knowledge network. This computer is a stepping stone towards building the future petaflop-range supercomputers in India.

SAGA:SAGAbuiltbyISRO,iscapableofperformingat450,000gigaflop/s(450teraflop/s).It uses about 400NVIDIATeslaC2070GPUs and 300NVIDIATeslaM2090GPUs foracceleration and 400 Intel IntelQuadCoreXeonCPUs and 330 Intel IntelHexCoreXeonCPUsforproceesing.StorageCapacityis120TeraBytes.

EKA: EKA is a supercomputer built by the Computational Research Laboratories withhardware provided by Hewlett-Packard. This is developed by Tata sons. It is capable of performing at 132800 gigaflop/s or 132 teraflop/s.

VIRGO: Indian Institute of Technology, Madras has a 91.1 teraflop/s machine called Virgo. It isrankedas364intheTop500November-2012list.Ithas292computernodes,2masternodes,4storagenodesandhastotalcomputingpower97TFlops.AccordingtoLinpackPerformance,Virgo is the fastest cluster in an academic institution in India. In terms of performance, it has anExpand(Rmax)of91.126TFandExpand(RPeak)of97.843TF.Thecomputingefficiencyis932Expand(MFlop/Watt).Asof2012,Virgoisat224thpositionintheworld(Top500),5thranked energy efficient machine in the world and 1st ranked energy efficient machine in India.

Vikram-100: Inaugurated on 26 June 2015, by Prof. U. R. Rao at the Physical Research Laboratory, the Vikram-100 is a High Performance Computing (HPC) Cluster (named after eminentscientistDrVikramSarabhai)withmorethan100teraflopsofsustainedperformance.Currently, the Vikram-100 HPC is 13th fastest supercomputer in India.

Cray XC40:SERCIISchasprocuredthesupercomputerXC40fromCrayInc.Itwasupfortrials up to 25 January 2015.



Table 1.2 Supercomputer in India

Name Description

Flosolver It was developed by National Aerospace Laboratory in Bengaluru in 1990. • 1990–Flosolver–Mk3–30megaFlop/s.• Flosolver was used for studying air flow while designing aircrafts.

DRDO’sPACE Processor for Aerodynamic Computation and Evaluation developed by Hyderabad-based Advance Numerical Research & Analysis Group (ANURAG). It can have speed up to 100 mega flops but no cooling arrangements required as in CRAY XMP.

Param • IndianSupercomputerthatalreadymadeamarkintheworldmarketisC-DAC’sPARAM(Centrefor Development of Advanced Computing—Pune).

• 1stmodel—Param8000developedin1991.Thespeedwas1billionflops,,i.e.,1gigaflop.Subsequently,itwasupgradedtoParam8600andParam9000.Now,thelatest,Param10,000canperform 100 billion calculations per second.

• According to C-DAC director, Param 10,000 can be scaled up to teraflop (1000 b calculations/sec).ThistechnologyisavailableonlywithJapanandtheUSA.

• It can meet the country’s need for seismic data processing for oil exploration, remote sensing, medical imaging, etc.

• National information centre is planning to use Param 10000 to set up national information infrastructure so as to take technology down to common man.

Annapurna • ThescientistsattheInstituteofMathematicalSciences(IMSc)inChennaihavedevelopedIndia’sSeventhfastesthigh-performancecomputationcluster.AtaneventattheInstitute,AnnapurnawasunveiledbySrikumarBanerjee(Chairman,AtomicEnergyCommission)inAugust2010.

• With1.5terabytememoryand30TBstorageclustercapacity,thesupercomputerissettohelpresearchers with computation and statistical analysis in the fields, such as condensed matter physics and lattice gauge theory. The Annapurna cluster project is a ` 6 crore ($1.3 million) investment which should bolster India’s research efforts. Annapurna boasts of some powerful technical specifications.

• 1024cores—IntelNehalem2.93GHzchips • 1.5TBmemory • 30TBstorage• Atpeakspeedsof12teraflops,Annapurnaisrankedasthethirdfastestclusteramongthebroad-basedscientificinstitutionsinIndiaafterIISc,BengaluruandTataInstituteofFundamentalResearch, Mumbai.

• ThisisIMSc’sfourthhighperformancecomputingcluster,theotherthreeknownasKabru,Vindhya, and Aravalli are still operational. The Garuda grid, India’s national computing grid that connects45institutesinIndia,usesIMSc’sKabru.

PARAM Anant • PARAMAnantisalow-costsupercomputingsolutionbasedonC-DAC’suniqueopenframearchitect for scalable and high-performance computing that incorporates well-known Cluster of Workstations (COW) and Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) concepts.

• ThecoresupercomputingtechnologiesforthePARAMAnantarederivedfromC-DAC’s100GFPARAM10000installedattheNationalParamSupercomputingFacilitylocatedatPune,whichis a culmination of over 10 years of C-DAC’s expertise in the development of supercomputers for scientific and engineering applications.

• Theentiresystemincludingthecomputenodes,networkelementsandthesystemsoftwareareupgradeable at the system, component and technology levels to suit the needs of the users.

(Continued)



India Joins Teraflop Club

• The exclusive coterie of nations who have designed and built their own supercomputers capable of one teraflops or more—one trillion floating point operations a second—has another applicant for membership, i.e., India.

• TheUnionMinisterforInformationTechnology,ArunShourie,inApril2003inaugu-ratedtheBengalurubasedTerascaleSupercomputingFacilityoftheCentreforDevel-opment for Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and dedicated the nation’s most powerful ‘desi’supercomputer,theteraflop‘ParamPadma.’

• The ParamPadma achieved its one teraflop number-crunching peak speedwith 248processorsdistributedin64parallelnodes.Itaddressedaprimarystorageofover10terabytes that could be scaled up to 22 terabytes.

• Thegovernmenthadsanctionedamulti-croreproject to setupanational ‘i-Grid’of10 Param Padma machines to create an information backbone for collaborative work among Indian institutions in biotechnology, bioinformatics, genomics, seismic explora-tion, weather forecasting and other computation intensive tasks.

Latest Developments

Forthefourthstraighttime,theBlueGene/LSystemdevelopmentbyIBMandDOE’sNationalNuclearSecurityAdministration(NNSA)andinstalledatDOE’sLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory in Livermore, California, claimed to be on top of the list. The BlueGene/L reached a Linpack benchmark performance of 280.6 TFlop/s (teraflops or trillions of calculations per second).Twoothersystemsexceededthelevelof100TFlop/s—theupgradedCrayXT4/XT3at DOE’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ranked second with a benchmark performance of 101.7TFlop/s; andSandiaNationalLaboratory’sCrayRedStorm system, ranked third at101.4TFlop/s.

LIght AMpLIfICAtIon by StIMuLAteD eMISSIon of RadIaTIon (LaSER)

Laser is an optical device which produces an intensive beam of coherent, monochromatic light. All the waves travel in phase, which makes the laser beam intensely energetic. It can travel over great distance without being spread.

Table 1.2 Supercomputer in India

Name Description

ParamNet-II • PARAMNet-IIistheprimeinterconnectfabricforconnectingcomputenodes,fileserversandgraphics nodes in C-DAC’s high performance computing cluster PARAM Padma with a peak computing power of one teraflop, one of the most powerful supercomputers deployed for high performance technical and business computing applications in Asia Pacific region.

• C-DAChasforgeditsdecadesofhardwaretechnologydevelopmentexpertise,inthestate-of-the-artareasofVLSIDesign,HighSpeedNetworkingandDigitalSystemAreaNetwork(SAN)PARAM Net-II.

• PARAMNet-II,withultralowlatencyandhighbandwidth,offersthebestprice/performanceratiofor interconnecting high performance clusters of workstations, servers, personal computers and single-board computers.



Technique-intense beam of light (either visible, ultraviolet or infrared), produces single wavelength. All wave travel in phase and this makes the laser beam’s intensity energetic. It is monochromatic-red laser beam has only red light. It can travel over great distance without being spread.

formation of Laser

Ordinary light sources do not make photons of the same wavelength. It is because the sources of their energy—hot molecules vibrating randomly—do not move together at exactly the same rate in the same direction at every moment.

Laser light sources do not depend on the random motion of heated molecules. They origi-nate in the precise motion of electrons moving from one exact orbit to another. These orbits are determined by the atomic structure of the laser material itself.

Ray of light

Optical fibre

Figure 1.2: Transmission of ray of light through optical fi bre

Applications of LASeR

Communication—High energy and highly directional in nature, optical laser is widely used in optical fi bers. Information can be transmitted much faster than the electrical signals in metal cables.

Medicine— It is used as surgical tools for cutting tissues. Usage of laser causes no bleeding, lower possibility of infection, and less damage to the nearby cells. The precision is the most crucial aspect. Laser is used in retina surgery. It is also used for rectifying Myopia. It can be used in cosmetic surgery, can stop bleeding of stomach ulcer, treatment of kidney stone, etc.

Computers—Laserenhancesthespeedofcomputing.Supercomputersuselasers.Itisalsoused in the manufacture of ICs and laser printers.

LIgHT dETECTIon and RangIng (LIdaR)

LIDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging. It is based on the same principle like the radar. Light is transmitted from the instrument which is changed by the interacting object. However, a part of light also gets refl ected. Once it is received by the instrument it is analysed. The change in the properties of light provides the features and properties of the target object with which the emitted light had interacted. The range of the instrument can be identifi ed by recording the travel time of light from the source to the interacted object.

LIDARs may be of three types, such as Range Finders, Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) and Doppler LIDAR. As the name suggests, the Range Finders are used for identifying the distance of the object (target) from the instrument. On the other hand, DIAL is being used to measure chemical concentrations by using two different laser wavelengths. The difference in

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In 1913, the Danish Physicist Neils Bohr pointed out that atoms can exist in a series of states and each state has a certain energy level. When an atom is at a lower energy level, it can absorb energy and move to the higher energy level. The atoms can be raised to the excited state by applying energy. After the source of excitation is removed, the atoms fall back to their lower energy level and give out the surplus energy as radiation. If the emitted radiation is in the form of visible light, the light will be of the same wavelength (that is colour).

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Info

◗ Ruby laser◗ Gas laser◗ Optical laser◗ Electron laser

Different types of Lasers



the intensity of the returned signals is analysed to find concentration of the molecule. Finally, the Doppler LIDAR is used to record the velocity of the object or target. If the target is moving away from LIDAR, the wavelength is long while if the object is moving towards the LIDAR the wavelength is short.

• $500/mi2, 106 points/mi2, or 0.05 cents/point

• Extensive, automated, geometric filtering to remove tree canopy (Virtual deforestation)

• 30,000 points per second at ~15 cm accuracy

Figure 1.3: Light detection and ranging

A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialised GPSreceiver. Airplanes and helicopters are the most commonly used platforms for acquiring LIDAR data over broad areas. LIDARs may be topographic and bathymetric. Topographic LIDAR typically used a near-infrared laser to map the land, while bathymetric LIDAR uses water-penetrating green light to measure seafloor and riverbed elevations.

optICAL fIbRe

Fibre optics is a transmission system based on the concept of Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of light and employs transmission of data in the form of pulses of light. It employes glass fibres, usually 120 micrometers in diameter. Each fibre consists of a glass core, about 50 micrometers in diameter surrounded by a glass optical cladding. They make use of TIR to confine light within the core. The core has a high refractive index than the cladding. Even if the cladding does not carry light, it is nevertheless an essential part of the fibre. The cladding keeps the value of the critical angle constant throughout the whole length of the fibre. As early as in 1960 when lasers were used as a source of coherent light, interest was generated for using light as a carrier of information. Use of optical fibres as a practical transmission medium for large distances were very few, but in 1970 it became feasible to use optical fibres as a practical transmission medium.

Essentially, there are two types of fibres:

1. Step-indexfibre(multimode,singlemode).

2. Graded-index fibre.

Step-Index fibre

Multimode fibreSuchfibresaresuitableforlocalareanetworks(LANs)becauseitcancarryenoughenergyto support all the subscribers to the network. In a LAN, the distances invloved, however, are small. Little pulse spreading can take place and so the effects of dispersion are unimportant. Any ray of light can travel down the fibre. In fact, because of the wave nature of light, only certain ray directions can actually travel down the fibre. These are called Fibre Mode. In a multimode fibre, many different modes are supported by the fibre.



Lightentersfibre

Ray oflight

Light reflects offtransparent wall

Hightransparencyglass

Light leavesthe fibre

Figure 1.4: Optical fibre

Single-mode fibreSincethecoreinverysmallsinglemodefibrecansupportonlyonemode.Thisiscalledthe‘LowestOrderMode’.Theenergycarriedbyasinglemodefibreismuchlessthanthatcarriedby a multimode fibre.

graded-Index fibre

In these fibres, rays of light follow sinusoidal paths. This means that low-order modes (i.e., oblique rays) stay close to the centre of the fibre, whereas high-order modes spend more time near the edge of the core. Low-order modes travel in the high index part of the core therefore travel faster, whereas high-order modes spend predominantly more time in the low index part of the core therefore travel faster. Although the paths are of different lengths, all the modes travel the length of the fibre in tandem, and therefore, they all reach the end of the fibre at the sametime. This eliminates multimode dispersion and reduces pulse spreading.

In addition to glass optical fibres, plastic can also be used for making fibres. Plastic fibres are usually made of polymethyl methacrylate, polystyrene or polycarbonate. These fibres are cheaper to produce and are found to be more flexible than glass fibres, but their greater atten-uation of light restricts their use to much shorter distance.

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pulse Spreading

The data which is carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy following each other rapidly. There is a limit to the highest frequency. In other words, it is pertinent to know the quantity of pulses per second which can be sent into a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the other end. This is because of a phenomenon known as pulse spreading which limits the band width of the fibre.

types of pulse SpreadingPulse spreading is caused due to dispersion which may be of two types, namely chromatic dispersion and modal dispersion. Chromatic dispersion, in fact, is the variation of refractive index with the wavelength or the frequency of light. Like in prism, light rays of varying wavelengths travel through optical fibres at different speeds. On the other hand, modal dispersion is a phenomenon in which rays travel almost parallel to the centre line of the fibre and reach the end of fibre much earlier. The more zig-zag rays take a longer route as they pass along the fibre and therefore reach the end of the fibre later. Thus, Total Dispersion = Chromatic Dispersion + Multimode (Modal) Dispersion.

Therefore, a pulse which starts off as a narrow burst of light gets wider because some com-ponents race ahead while the others lag behind. Pulse spreading limits the maximum frequency (bandwidth) of signal which can be sent along a fibre.

Advantages and Disadvantages of optical fibres

Advantages • Optical fibres are able to carry signals with much less energy loss than copper cables and

with a much higher bandwidth.

• Optical fibres are lighter and thinner than copper or conventional cables.

• Optical fibres are immune to electromagnetic interference from radio signals, car ignition systems, lightning, etc.

• Optical fibres can be routed safely through explosive or flammable atmospheres.

• It is nearly impossible to eavesdrop on fibre optic system without being easily detected. Because of the absence of current flow through the fibre, intrusion into the system is alsoprevented.Secretinformationcannotberoutedtounwantedreceivers,norcanfalseinformation be fed into the data system.

• There is no chance of spark flash.

• Optical fibre networks consume much less energy than copper cable networks.

• Optical fibres avoid cross-talk or noise.

Disadvantages

• Though the raw material is sand, yet optical fibres are more expensive per metre than copper.

• Optical fibres cannot be joined as easily as copper cable and requires additional.

• Popular ligh-emitting sources are restricted to very low power devices.

• The ways in which light source can be modulated are limited.

• Because of low-power sources, the distance between repeater amplifiers must be rela-tively short for high-data rates demanded in some system.



fibre optic Sensors

Sensing devices are tiny in structure but need ultra purematerials and very sophisticatedmanufacturingfacilities.Semiconductors,certaingases,microbes,chainpolymersandotherselect materials are deployed in the tiny gadgets to act as sensors. The Chandigarh-based Central ScientificInstrumentsOrganization(CSIO)hasdevelopedavarietyofsensorsbasedonthefi bre optic technology. In fact, fi bre optic sensors are highly sensitive, have high bandwidth and can work over a wide temperature range. They are immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), and toxic and hazardous environment. Moreover, these sensors can be interfaced with fi bre optic data links facilitating the dual purpose of effective communication and in-situ sensing.

fibre amplifi ers

Fibre amplifi ers are optical amplifi ers based on optical fi bres as gain medium. In most cases, the gain medium is a glass fi bre doped with rare earth ions, such as erbium (EDFA = erbium-doped fi bre amplifi er), neodymium, ytterbium (YDFA), praseodymium, or thulium. This active dopant is pumped (Provided with energy) with light from a laser, such as a fi bre-coupled diode laser; in almost all cases, the pump light propagates through the fi ber core together with the signal to be amplifi ed.

Erbium fibre amplifi ersFibre amplifi ers based on erbium-doped single-mode fi bres (EDFAs) are widely used in long-range optical fi bre communication systems for compensating the loss of long fi bre spans.

Fibre amplifi ers based on ytterbium- or neodymium-doped (double-clad) can be used to boost the output power; which may vary from 1 um laser sources to high levels of up to several kilowatts.

Neodymium-based amplifi ers can also be used in the 1.3-um spectral region, but with less favorable performance.

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Major projects Related to optical fibres

fibre optics Link around the globe (fLag)The project was completed in 1997 linking the UK to Japan by complex underwater optical fi bre cable system. It spans over 28800 kms. FLAG is able to carry 120000 circuits as 64-kb/s chanels on two fi bre pairs. The FLAG Network Operation Centre (FNOC) is located at Fujairah in UAE. It provides round the clock network surveillance. The project involved $1.5 billion.

South africa far East (SafE)The SAFE optical fi bre submarine cable system connects India with the African continent and the few eastern countries. Stretching a total distance of 28,800 km, the SAFE cable system has a total capacity of 80 gigabytes and provides a great boost to the international telecom traffi c throughout the African and South East Asian region. With its only landing point on the Indian subcontinent at Kochi, SAFE cable has other landing points at Cape Town in South Africa, Bay Jocote in Mauritius and Penang in Malaysia. One of the major benefi ts of the project is that it is controlled and maintained by the individual operators, such as VSNL in India. The $600 million project consists of two parts. One is a 15000 km link between South Africa and Europe with landings at 10 western and southern African countries. The second is a 13800 km link from South Africa to Malaysisa.

Major projects Related to optical fibres

techtalk



Thulium fibre amplifi ersThulium-dopedfluoridefibres(TDFA=thulium-dopedamplifier),pumpedaround1047or1400nm,canbeusedforamplificationinthetelecomS-bandaround1460–1530nm,orevenaround 1.65 um. Combined thulium-erbium amplifi ers can thus provide optical amplifi cation in a very wide wavelength range.

Praseodymium fibre amplifi ersFibre amplifi ers have a lower performance compared with that of erbium-doped amplifi ers. They can be based on praseodymium-doped fl uoride fi bres (PDFA = praseodymium-doped amplifi er), which are pumped around 1020 nm (a relatively inconvenient pump wavelength) orat1047nm.

SupeR ConDuCtIVIty

Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain materials at extremely lowtemperatures, characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance and the exclusion of the interior magnetic fi eld (the Meissner effect).

The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as the temperature is lowered. However, in ordinary conductors such as copper and silver, impurities and other defects impose a lower limit. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of copper shows a non-zero resistance. The resistance of a superconductor, on the other hand, drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electrical current fl owing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefi nitely with no power source. Like ferromag-netism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It cannot be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.

Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of materials, including simple elements,like tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys, and some heavily-doped semiconductors. Superconductivitydoesnotoccurinnoblemetalslikegoldandsilver,norinmostferromag-netic metals.

As of 2001, the highest critical temperature found for a conventional superconductor is 39 Kformagnesiumdiboride(MgB

2).

principle of Superconductivity

The electrical resistance of a metal or alloy is a function of temperature. It decreases with decrease in temperature. Whentemperaturereaches‘absolutezero’forcertainmetals/alloys,the resistance becomes almost zero. But keeping this temperature is an extremely costly affair.

Applications

• For transmission of power, it can save up to 30% power. • It can store energy in large solinoids without loss of power. • SuperconductormagnetscanbeusedinMHDpowergeneration. • Superconductormagnetsareusedinfusionexperiments. • It can make trains run at 500 km/hr at lower cost than fl ights. • Superconductorantennas—veryminiatureandsensitive—candetectveryweaksignals. • Thin fi lms of super conductor can be used in geo-physics, meteorology, etc.

Info

In 1986, the discov-ery of a family of cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials known as high-tem-perature super-conductors, with critical temperatures in excess of 90 K, spurred renewed interest and research in superconduc-tivity for several reasons. As a topic of pure research, these materials represented a new phenomenon not explained by the current theory. And, because the superconducting state persists up to more manageable temperatures, more commercial appli-cations are feasible, especially if materi-als with even higher critical temperatures could be discovered.



Super Conductor in India 1987 – Programme Management Board was constituted for development of Super Conductors.

1991 – National Super Conduc-tivity Science and Technology Board constituted.

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◗ Around 65 projects started.

◗ CSIR, IIT, DAE, IIS, etc., conduct research.

LaRgE HadRon CoLLIdER (LHC)

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s largest and most powerful particle collider and the largest single machine in the world.

It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.

It addresses some of the most fundamental questions of physics, advancing the understand-ing of the deepest laws of nature by trying to recreate the conditions of the Big Bang.

It lies in a tunnel27km incircumference, asdeepas175mbeneath theFranco-SwissbordernearGeneva,Switzerland.

objectives of LhC

One of the main objectives of the LHC is to prove or disprove the existence of the theorized Higgs Boson. LHC will help answer some of the fundamental open questions in physics, concerning the basic laws governing the interactions and forces among the elementary objects, the deep structure of space and time, and in particular the interrelation between quantum mechanics and general relativity, where current theories and knowledge are nuclear or break-down altogether. Data is also needed from high-energy particle experiments to suggest which versions of current scientific models are more likely to be current.

Design of LhC

The LHC is the world’s largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of 27 km, at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 m underground.

The 3.8-m wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly usedtohousethelargeelectron-positroncollider.ItcrossestheborderbetweenSwitzerlandand France at four points, with most of it in France.

Surfacebuildingsholdancillaryequipment,suchascompressors,ventilation equipment,control electronics, and refrigeration plants.

The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beamlines that intersect at four points, each containing a beam, which travels in opposite directions around the ring.

About 1232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path while an additional 392 quadruple magnets are used to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the chances of interaction between the particles at the four intersection points, where the two beams cross. In total, over 1600 superconducting magnets are installed.

The LHC is the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature.

Detectors

Seven detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located underground in large cavernsexcavated at the LHC’s intersection points.

TheATLASexperimentisalargeandgeneral-purposeparticledetector.Itwillbeusedtolook for signs of new physics, including the origins of mass and extra dimensions.

• TheCompactMuonSolenoid (CMS), another general-purposeparticle detector,willhunt for the Higgs boson and look for clues to the nature of dark matter.

• ALICE study a fluid form of matter called quark-gluon plasma that existed shortly after the Big Bang.



• LHCb will try to investigate what happened to the missing antimatter when equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created in the Big Bang.

• TOTEMshares intersectionpoint IP5with theCompactMuonSolenoid(CMS).Thedetector aims at measurement of total cross section, elastic scattering, and diffractive processes.

• MoEDAL aims to directly search for the magnetic monopole (MM) or dyon and other highlyionizingStableMassiveParticles(SMPs)andpseudo-stablemassiveparticles.

LHCf is a special-purpose experiment for astroparticle (cosmic ray) physics.

LhC Computing grid It was constructed as part of the LHC design, to handle the massive amounts of data expected for its collisions. It is an international collaborative project that consists of a grid-based computer network infrastructure.

CeRn

CERNistheFrenchacronymoftheorganizationcalled‘ConseilEuropeenpourlaRechercheNucleaire,’ or ‘EuropeanCouncil forNuclearResearch’ which was established in 1952 by 12 European governments for the aim of commemorating a world-class fundamental physics research organization in Europe.

Info

Hadron: In particle physics, a hadron is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force (in a similar way as molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons protons and neutrons.

Collider: A collider is a type of a particle accelerator with two directed beams of particles. In particle physics, colliders are used as a research tool. They acceler-ate particles to very high kinetic energies and let them impact other particles

Atom

Electron Gluon

Quarks

Proton

Protons

Higgsboson

Neutron

Proton

Nucleus

Neutron

Figure 1.5: Higgs boson diagram D

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On 5th April, 2015 the LHC restarted after a two-year break during which it was extensively upgraded to run at its full specifi ed operating energies of 7 TeV per beam (14 TeV).

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More recently, CERN has become a centre for the development of grid computing, hosting among others the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) and Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Computing Gride projects. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point (CIXP), one of the two main inter-net exchange points in Switzerland.

ConneCtobjectives of CeRn

It is one of the world’s largest and most respected centre for scientific research with the objective of finding out what the universe is made of and how it works. At CERN, the world’s largest and most complex scientific instruments are used to study the basic constituents of matter—the fundamental particles. By studying what happens when these particles collide, the physicists learn about the laws of nature.

Various Experiments: The instruments used at CERN are particle accelerators and detectors. The accelerators boost beams of particles to produce high energies before they are made to collide with each other or with stationary targets. The detectors observe and record the results of these collisions.

The CERN’s main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics research.

Numerous experiments have been constructed at CERN by international collaborations to make use of them. It is also the birthplace of the WorldWideWeb. The main site at Meyrin also has a large computer centre containing very powerful data- processing facilities primarily for experimental data analysis and the necessity to make them available to researchers else-where. It is historically celebrated as a major wide area networking hub.

Figure 1.6: The globe of science and innovation in CERN research center, home of large Hadron Collider

CeRn’s Mission

The CERN shall provide for collaboration among the European states in nuclear research ofapurescientificandfundamentalcharacter.The CERN shall have no concern with workformilitaryrequirements and the results of its experimental and theoretical work shall be published or otherwise made generally available.

CERN shall organize and sponsor international cooperation in research, promoting contacts between scientists and knowledge sharing with other laboratories and institutes. This includes dissemination of information, and the provision of advanced training for research workers, which continue to be reflected in the current programmes for technology transfer, education and training at many levels.

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• Research:Seekingandfindinganswerstoquestionsabouttheuniverse

• Technology:Advancing the frontiers of technology

• Collaborating: Bringing nations together through science

• Education: Training the scientists of tomorrow

particle Accelerators

Sinceitsinception,CERNhascreatedseveralparticleaccelerators.Atpresent,CERNoperatesa network of six accelerators and one deccelerator. All the machines in the chain functions to increase the energy of particle beams before delivering them to experiments or to the next more powerful accelerator. The currently operating accelerator machines are as follows:

• Two linear accelerators named Linac 2 and Linac 3 accelerate protons and generate low energy particles.

• Taking ions from the ion linear accelerator, the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) acceler-atesitbeforetransferringthemtotheProtonSynchrotron(PS).Thisacceleratorstartedworking in 2005 after the reconfiguration from the previous Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR).

• TheProtonSynchrotronBoosterisinvolvedtoincreasetheenergyofparticlesgeneratedby the proton linear accelerator before they are transferred to other accelerators.

• The28GeVProtonSynchrotron(PS)worksasa feeder to themorepowerfulSuperProtonSynchrotron(SPS).

• TheSuperProtonSynchrotron(SPS),circularacceleratorwithadiameterof2 kmisbuilt in a tunnel and it is fully operational since 1976. The function of this accelerator is todeliverenergyof300GeVandwasgraduallyupgradedto450GeV.Since2008,SPSis used to inject protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

• Tostudyunstablenuclei,theOn-LineIsotopeMassSeparator(ISOLDE)isused.

• The decelerator and Antiproton Decelerator (AD), is used to reduce the velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of the speed of light for antimatter research.

• The compact linear collider test facility is used to study the feasibility of the future normal conducting linear collider project.

• At present, majority of the activities at CERN involves the experiment on Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

Scientific achievements

The list of few important achievements in particle physics made by CERN is as follows.

• The discovery of neutral currents (one of the ways in which subatomic particles can interact by means of the weak force) in the Gargamelle bubble chamber in 1973.

• ThediscoveryofWandZbosons(elementaryparticles)in1983.In1984,CarloRubbiaandSimonvanderMeerwerehonouredwithNobelprizeinPhysicsforthisdiscovery.

• The determination of the number of light neutrino (an electrically neutral elementary particle emitted during a beta decay) families at the Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP).

• The creation of antihydrogens (the antimatter counterpart of hydrogen) in 1995. • The discovery of direct CP (charge parity) violation in 1999. • The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen in 2010. • Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15 minutes in 2011.

Recently in March 2015, the Union Government has given signal to the long-standing demand of Indian scientists to make India an associate member of CERN. An associate member of CERN is represented in the council, which is responsible for the crucial decisions of the organization.

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◗ In July 2015, Pakistan became the first non-European country to be an associate member of the CERN.



• A boson (particle that follows Bose-Einstein statistics) with mass around 125 GeV/c2 consistent with long-sought Higgs boson in 2012.

• In 1992, the CERN scientist Georges Charpak was awarded Nobel Prize for Physics for his invention and development of particle detectors. In particular, the multi-wire propor-tional chamber that detects charged particles and photons.

• TheWorldWideWebistheproductofCERNproject‘ENQUIRE’startedbytwosci-entists named Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and Robert Cailliau in 1990. In 1991, the fi rst website was activated by CERN.

CeRn’s Structure

• The CERN council is the highest authority of the organization and has responsibility for all important decisions. It controls the CERN’s activities in scientifi c, technical and administrative matters. The council approves programmes of activity, adopts the budgets and reviews expenditure.

• The CERN is run by 20 European member states, each of which has two offi cial delegators to the CERN Council. One represents his or her government’s administra-tion, the other represents national scientifi c interests. Each member states has a single vote and most of the decisions require a simple majority, although in practice the council aims for a consensus as close as possible to unanimity.

• ThecouncilisassistedbytheScientificPolicyCommitteeandtheFinanceCommittee.

• The Director General, appointed by the Council, usually for fi ve years, manages the CERN Laboratory. He is assisted by a Directorate and runs the laboratory through a structure of departments.

Members

Foundedin1954by12members,theCERNLaboratoryissituatedattheFranco-Swissbordernear Geneva. It was one of the Europe’s fi rst joint ventures and now it has 22 member states. IsraeljoinedCERNasafullmemberon6January2014,becomingthefirstandtheonlynon-Europeanmember.Since2002,Indiahasreceivedobserverstatus.Recently,Indiabecametheassociate member of CERN with 36th serial number.

fASt neutRon ReACtoR

Russia has invited India to join it in developing the next generation nuclear reactors and to participate in its fast-reactor research project. The multipurpose fast reactor project, known by the Russian acronym MBIR, is coming up at the Intemationaol Research Centre in Dimitrovgrad located in the Ulyanovsk region in Russia.

A fast neutron reactor/fast reactor is a type of reactor in which nuclear fi ssion chain reac-tion is sustained by fast neutrons. These reactors do not need any neutron moderator, like water to serve its purpose in thermal reactors. Fast reactors are benefi cial as it can help in the reprocessing and deactivation of radioactive waste material and produce energy as well. MBIR, the fast reactor project follows the closed fuel cycle. Transitioning to closed fuel cycle which is based on fast neutron reactors can solve fi ve essential problems, such as safety, competitiveness, shortage of fuel, reprocessing and refabricating the used nuclear fuel and radioactive waste. It also addresses the non-proliferation of fi ssion materials and weapon technologies.

techtalk

The-main purpose of the MBIR is to conduct large number of reactor studies for Generation-4 nuclear systems. The MBIR’s design includes three independent loops that can be used to test diff erent coolants like gas, lead, molten salt and others.



India’s position on fast neutron Reactor

• The country is currently developing breeder reactors which will be fuelled by the country’s vast thorium deposits.

• The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is the latest Indian design for a next-generation nuclear reactor.

• Russia has also offered India a new breed of reactor units, such as the VYER-Toi (typical optimized,enhancedinformationdesign)forthethirdandfourthunitsofKudankulamproject in Tamil Nadu.

aRTIfICIaL InTELLIgEnCE (aI)

Artifi cial intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. John McCarthy, who coined the term in1956attheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,definesitas‘thescienceandengineeringof making intelligent machines.’ It is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy.

artifi cial Intelligence Includes

Games playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers

Expert systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)

Naturallanguage: programming computers to understand natural human languages

Neuralnetworks:Systemsthatsimulateintelligencebyattemptingtoreproducethetypesofphysical connections that occur in animal brains.

Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli.

Currently, no computer exhibits full artifi cial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior).

Therearetwomainlinesofresearch: • Biological, based on the idea that since humans are intelligent. AI should study humans

and imitate their psychology or physiology.

• Phenomenal, based on studying and formalizing common sense facts about the world and the problems that the world presents to the achievement of goals.

• The two approaches interact to some extent.

AdvantagesofArtificialIntelligence: • Machines can be used to take on complex and stressful work that would be otherwise

performed by humans.

• Machines can complete the task faster than a human assigned to do the same task. Use of robotics to discover unexplored landscape, outer space and also be useful in our home activities.

• Less danger, injury and stress to humans as the work is done by a artifi cially intelligent machine. Aiding of mental, visually and hearing impaired individuals

• Used for games to create an atmosphere where you don’t feel like you are playing against just a machine.

Info

AI Research Are in two Main Areas

Biological: Based on the idea that since humans are intelligent, AI should study humans and imitate their psychol-ogy or physiology.

Phenomenal: Based on studying and formalizing common sense facts about the world and the problems that the world presents to the achievement of goals.



Figure 1.7: Female robot holding serving tray

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disadvantages of artificial Intelligence

It lacks the human touch. Its human qualities are sometimes ignored. It has ability to replace a human job. It gives rise to humans feeling insecure and may have the fear of losing their job. Human capabilities can be replaced using a machine and therefore can foster feelings of inferiority among workers and staff. Artificial Intelligence can malfunction and do the opposite of what they are programmed to do. It has may corrupt the younger generation. There is no filtering of information. The type of technology can be misused to cause mass scale destruction.

artificial Intelligence and World

The development in the field of Artificial Intelligence have been started from 2010 at the rate of 60% in which top five countries are as following;

America: Companies like IBM, Microsoft, Google, Facebook and Amazon have invested more than 10 billion dollars on Artificial Intelligence which has grown this market in America and made it top most country in this field.

Britain: Deepmind technology has been established to promote the Artificial Intelligence in the country.

Japan: The country has published more than 11 thousands Research Paper on Artificial Intelligence.

Germany: The country is making efforts to become the Hub of Artificial Intelligence.

China: Planning to become a Centre of highest level innovation in Artificial Intelligence by the year of 2030.

augmEnTEd REaLITy (aR)

touchscreen technology

A touchscreen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area and acts as an input device in computers, personal digital assistance and mobile phones. The input is usually by touching the display of the device with a finger or hand. Touchscreens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus.

The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables a user interact directly with what is displayed, rather than indirectly with a cursor controlled by a mouse or touchpad. Second, itallowstodosowithoutrequiringanyintermediatedevicethatwouldneedtobeheld in the hand. They also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances, such as the personal digital assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices, mobile phones and video games.

Note: India is making hardcore effort to become top country in the Field of Artificial Intelligence in upcoming 20 years.



Touchscreen component manufacturing and product design are no longer encumbered by legalities with regard to patents and the manufacturing of touchscreen-enabled displays on different devices is wide spread and the costs are cutting down globally.

With the growing acceptance of many kinds of products with an integral touchscreen inter-face, the marginal cost of touchscreen technology is routinely absorbed into the products that incorporate it and is effectively eliminated. As typically occurs with any technology, hardware, and software has suffi ciently matured and been perfected over more than three decades to the point where its reliability is proven. As such, touchscreen displays are found today in airplanes, automobiles, gaming consoles, machine control systems, appliances, and hand-held display devices.

ipad

The iPad is a tablet computer designed and developed by Apple. It is marketed as a platform for audio and visual media such as books, periodicals, movies, music, and games, as well as web content. A typical iPad weighs about 700 grams, where its weight intermediately lies around the most contemporary smartphone and laptop device. Apple introduced their new gadgetcalled‘iPad’inthemonthofApril2010.

Adam

AdamisatabletPCmadebyanIndiancompanycalled‘NotionInk’.Adamhasgeneratedenormous buzz on tech websites and gadget blogs ever since an early prototype was fi rst demonstrated at theConsumerElectronicsShow (CES), theworld’s largest consumer techtrade show conducted in the month of January, 2010. The Adam tablet is the fi rst device in the world to integrate two breakthrough power saving components—NVIDIA’s Tegra 2 chip and a Pixel Qi screen. These two features help together to achieve twice the battery life and performance of the iPad. The chip provides an edge over the iPad with its ability to play full high-defi nition videos and fl ash on the web browser. It can offer the performance of a computer with the power consumption of a cellphone.

Info

In 1971, the fi rst ‘touch sensor’ was developed by Doctor Sam Hurst. This sensor was called the ‘Elograph.’ Touchscreens have subsequently become familiar in everyday life. Companies use touchscreens for kiosk systems in retail and tourist settings, point of sale systems, ATMs, and PDAs, where a stylus is sometimes used to manipulate the user interface and to enter data. The popularity of smartphones, PDAs, portable game consoles and many types of informa-tion appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of touchscreens.

Figure 1.8: Graphs and charts being demonstrated on the screen of a touch-pad

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DIgItAL SIgnAtuRe

A digital signature is an electronic signature that can be used to authenticate the identity of the sender of a message or the signer of an electronic document, and to ensure that the original content of the document is unchanged. Digital signatures are easily transportable, it cannot be imitated by someone else and can be automatically time-stamped. The ability to ensure that the original signed message arrived means that the sender cannot easily repudiate it later.

Digital signatures rely on certain types of encryption to ensure authentication. Encryption is the process of taking all the data that one computer is sending to another and encoding it into a form that only the other computer will be able to decode. Authentication is the process of verifying that the information is coming from a trusted source. These two processes work hand in hand for digital signatures.

Working principals of Digital Signature

Assume that you were going to send the draft of a contract to your lawyer in another town. You want to give your lawyer the assurance that it was unchanged from what you sent and that it is really from you.

1. You copy and paste the contract into an e-mail note. 2. Using special software, you obtain a message hash (mathematical summary) of the

contract. 3. You then use a private key that you have previously obtained from a public-private key

authority to encrypt the hash. 4. The encrypted hash becomes your digital signature of the message. (Note that it will be

different each time when you send a message).

At the other end, your lawyer receives the message.

1. To make sure it’s intact and from you, your lawyer makes a hash of the received mes-sage.

2. Your lawyer then uses your public key to decrypt the message hash or summary. 3. If the hashes match, the received message is valid.

Significance

A digital signature authenticates electronic documents in a similar manner a handwritten signature authenticates printed documents. This signature cannot be forged and it asserts that a named person wrote or otherwise agreed to the document to which the signature is attached. The recipient of a digitally signed message can verify that the message originated from the person whose signature is attached to the document and that the message has not been altered either intentionally or accidentally since it was signed. Also, the signer of a document cannot later disown it by claiming that the signature was forged. In other words, digital signatures enable the ‘authentication’ and ‘non-repudiation’ of digital messages,assuring the recipient of a digital message of both the identity of the sender and the integrity of the message.

A digital signature is issued by a Certification Authority (CA) and is signed with the CA’s private key. A digital signature typically contains the owner’s public key, the owner’s name, expiration date of the public key, the name of the issuer (the CA that issued the digital ID), serial number of the digital signature, and the digital signature of the issuer.

India is one of the nations that have the Digital Signature Legislation in place. This Act grants digital signatures that have been issued by a licensed Certifying Authority in India the same status as a physical signature. Digital signatures deploy the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) technology.

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process of Checking the Validity of Digital Signature

◗ User A sends a signed document to user B.◗ To verify the signature on the document, user B’s application fi rst uses the certifi cate authority’s public key to

check the signature on user A’s certifi cate.◗ Successful de-encryption of the certifi cate proves that the certifi cate authority created it. ◗ After the certifi cate is de-encrypted, user B’s software can check if user A is in good standing with the certifi cate

authority and that all of the certifi cate information concerning user A’s identity has not been altered.◗ User B’s software then takes user A’s public key from the certifi cate and uses it to check user A’s signature. If user

A’s public key de-encrypts the signature successfully, then user B is assured that the signature was created using user A’s private key, for the certifi cate authority has certifi ed the matching public key.

If the signature is found to be valid, then we know that an intruder did not try to change the signed content.

process of Checking the Validity of Digital Signature

techtalk

CLouD CoMputIng

Cloud computing is a technology that uses the internet and central remote servers to maintain data and applications. Cloud computing allows consumers and businesses to use applications without installation and access to their personal fi les at any computer with internet access. This technology allows for much more effi cient computing by centralizing storage, memory, processing, and bandwidth.

A cloud can be private or public. A public cloud sells services to anyone on the internet. Currently, Amazon web services is the largest public cloud provider. A private cloud is a pro-prietary network or a data centre that supplies hosted services to a limited number of people. When a service provider uses public cloud resources to create their private cloud, then the result is called virtual private cloud. Regardless of the private or public cloud, the ultimate goal of cloud computing is to provide easy, scalable access to computing resources and IT services.

Categories of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is a general term for anything that involves delivering hosted services over the internet. These services are broadly divided into the following three categories:

1. Infrastructure-as-a-Service(IaaS)

2. Platform-as-a-Service(PaaS)

3. Software-as-a-Service(SaaS)

1. InfrastructureasaService(IaaS): Infrastructure as a service is a provision model in which an organization outsources the equipment used to support operations, including storage, hardware, servers, and networking components. The service provider owns the equipment and is responsible for housing, running and maintaining it. The client typ-icallypaysonaper-usebasis.IaaSlikeAmazonwebservicesprovidesvirtualserverto start, stop, access, and confi gure their virtual servers and storage. In the enterprise, cloud computing allows a company to pay only for the capacity which is needed, and bring more online as soon as it is required. As a matter of fact, this pay-for-what-you-use model resembles the way electricity, fuel and water are consumed and it is also some-times referred to as utility computing.



Figure 1.9: Illustration of cloud computing and network concept

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ThecharacteristicsandcomponentsofIaaSareasfollows:

• Utilitycomputingserviceandbillingmodel

• Automationofadministrativetasks

• Dynamicscaling

• Desktopvirtualization

• Policy-basedservices

• Internetconnectivity

2. PlatformasaService(PaaS): Platform as a service is a way to rent hardware, operat-ing systems, storage and network capacity over the internet. The service delivery model allows the customer to rent virtualized servers and associated services for running exist-ingapplicationsordevelopingandtestingnewones.PaaSisanoutgrowthofSoftwareasaService(SaaS)—asoftwaredistributionmodelinwhichthehostedsoftwareappli-cations are made available to customers through the internet. The PaaS has severaladvantages for developers and they are as follows:

(i) WithPaaS,theoperatingsystemfeaturescanbechangedandupgradedfrequently.

(ii) Geographically distributed development teams can work together on software development projects.

(iii) Servicescanbeobtainedfromdiversesourcesthatcrossinternationalboundaries.

(iv) Initial and ongoing costs can be reduced by the use of infrastructure services from a single vendor rather than maintaining multiple hardware facilities that often perform duplicate functions or suffer from incompatibility problems.

(v) The overall expenses can also be minimized by unification of programming devel-opment efforts.

Onthedownside,PaaSinvolvessomeriskof‘lock-in’ifofferingsrequireproprietaryservice interfaces or development languages. Another potential pitfall is the flexibility of offerings which may not meet the needs of some users whose requirements rapidly evolve.

3. SoftwareasaService(SaaS):Softwareasaserviceisasoftwaredistributionmodelinwhich the applications are hosted by a vendor or service provider and made available to customers over a network, typically the internet.

SaaSispredominantlyusedasaprevalentdeliverymodelthatsupportwebservicesand service oriented architecture (SOA)mature and new developmental approaches,such as Ajax tend to be popular nowadays. Meanwhile, broadband services has become popular and available to support user access all around the globe.

Thebenefitsof theSaaSmodel include,easieradministrationandautomaticupdatesincluding patch management, and all the users will have the same version of software for easier collaboration and global accessibility. Force.com and GoogleApps are the biggest real-timeexamplesofSaaS.

A simple example of cloud computing is Yahoo mail or Gmail, etc. One does not need a software or a server to use them. What a consumer would need is an internet connection and they can start sending emails. The server and email management soft-ware is available on the cloud (Intenet) and is totally man-aged by the cloud service provider Yahoo, Google, etc. The consumer gets to use the software alone and enjoy the benefits.

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Microsoft India, on 5 May 2015, launched a cloud comput-ing-based solution, Edu- Cloud. Edu-Cloud would serve as the backbone for digital classrooms and virtual learning, starting with those for 14,000 students and teachers of Sri Chaitanya Schools in Hyderabad and Bengaluru.

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types of Clouds

Five different types of Cloud systems are described below.

1. Public Cloud: Public cloud is cloud computing in the traditional mainstream, whereby resources are dynamically provisioned to the general public on a fi ne-grained, self-ser-vice based on the internet, via web applications/web services, from an off-site third-party provider who bills on a fi ne-grained utility computing basis.

2. PrivateCloud: The Private cloud is infrastructure operated solely for a single organiza-tion, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally. They have attracted criticism of users because they still have to buy, build, and manage them, and thus do not benefi t from lower up-front capital costs and less hands-on man-agement. It essentially lacks the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept.

3. Community Cloud: Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organi-zations from a specifi c community with common concern (security, compliance, juris-diction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally.

4. Hybrid Cloud: Hybrid cloud is a kind of composition of two or more clouds (private, community, or public) that remain as unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefi ts of multiple deployment models.

5. TheIntercloud:Theintercloudisaninterconnectedglobal‘cloudofclouds’Itisanextensionoftheinternetcalledthe‘networkofnetworks’.

CLouD SeeDIng

The Cloud seeding is known for an artifi cial way to induce moisture in the clouds so as to cause a rainfall. In this process, either silver iodide, potassium iodide or dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) is dumped onto the clouds causing rainfall.

Application of Cloud Seeding

• The method can be used to cause signifi cant amount of rainfall over a specifi ed area especially in locations where rain scarcity is duly high.

• It can be developed as an effective tool to monitor and safeguard from the vagaries of the monsoon weather on agriculture, where the timely rain is duly needed as it is important for the crops to sustain life.

• Timely and ambient rain results in maximum farm yield. Thus it helps in boosting the local economy and feeding people.

Challenges of Cloud Seeding

• SeveralexperimentshavebeenconductedacrossIndiatoprotectthedroughtaffectedareas. However, they were not very effective and gave mixed results.

• It is not fool proof as different type of clouds may exist over a region and same type of seeding may not be effective for all.

• Moreover seeded clouds may actually travel to another location and do not cause precip-itation on the intended location by questioning its effectiveness.

• There are environmental consequences like spreading of harmful chemicals in the atmosphere.

techtalkCloud service versus traditional hosting A cloud service has three distinct characteristics that diff erentiate it from traditional hosting:

◗ It is sold on demand on hourly basis.

◗ It is customized, a user can have as much or as little of a service as they want at any given time.

◗ The service is fully managed by the pro-vider (For consumer, it only requires a personal computer and Internet access).

Signifi cant innovations in virtualization and distributed computing, as well as improved access to high-speed Internet and a weak economy, have accelerated interest in cloud computing.



1 Silver iodide is released intothe atmosphere by a propane flame, mostlywith the help of a jet, rocket or ground propellers

The particles act as a base for water vapour to settle on

3

The water vapour crystalli and falls

2 The iodide particles riseinto the clouds, causing themoisture to freeze

as snow or rain4

Figure 1.10: Steps of cloud seeding

• If cloud seeding is not controlled properly, then it may result in undesirable weather conditions like flooding, hailstorms, etc.

• Eventually, the cost for implementing cloud seeding technology is very expensive.

nAnoteChnoLogy

Nanotechnology is the study of controlling matter on an atomic and molecular scale, i.e., at a size of 1–100 nanometer (1 billionth of a metre), and it involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanoscience is the behavioural study of matter at atomic and molecular scale.

Manipulating matter at atomic scale is challenging as matter behaves differently at such small scales and its forces become more important here. Therefore, nanotechnology involves developing capabilities to exercise control over matter at small scales under such constraints.

background

Thefirstuseoftheconceptsfoundinnanotechnologywasin‘There’sPlentyofRoomattheBottom,’ a talk given by American physicist Richard Feynman in 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed. Theterm‘nanotechnology’wasdefinedbytheJapanesescientist,Prof.NorioTaniguchiin1974.

The idea was explored much more deeply by Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices. He wrote the book Engines of Creation in 1986, which is considered to be the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Eric Drexler described the large variety of possible applications for nanotechnology. However, he called for an attention to one major practical challenge that must be overcome by scientists if nano-technology is to become practical, which is a device that can provide control over matter at atomic scales.

◗ The Maharashtra government has decided to conduct cloud seeding exper-iment for the next three years to fight frequent droughts in Vidarbha region.

◗ This programme will be coordinated by the Indian Institute of Tropical Mete-orology and is part of the large-scale experiment of Earth Science Ministry to understand how clouds and aerosols interact and influence climate.

◗ The Karnataka government has also taken up cloud seed-ing experiment as a serious factor and it is called Project Varshadhari.

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Nanotechnology got started in the practical sense in the early 1982s with the invention of theScanningTunnelingMicroscope (STM).TheAtomicForceMicroscope (AFM)wasinventedsixyearsaftertheinceptionofSTM.Inthecourseoftheseinventions,carbonnano-tubes were invented.

Applications of nanotechnology

Practical nanotechnology is the ability to manipulate (with precision) matter on previously impossible scales, presenting possibilities which many could never have imagined it. Therefore, it seems unsurprising that few areas of human technology are exempt from the benefits which nanotechnology could potentially bring.

Figure 1.11: Lab on chip that integrates laboratory functions on nano chip

Potential Benefits

• Medicine: Nanotechnology can be used in medical diagnosis. Nano-sized robots can be used for precise delivery of drugs to intended locations in the body. They can be used to repair damaged and diseased tissues.

• InformationandCommunication: Nanotechnology can help create highly efficient computer systems. Nano-sized semiconductor devices (transistors) in computers can be used to increase both memory and speed by several orders. More data can be stored in smaller space. Because of the smaller size, energy consumption and heating is also relatively less.

• Energy: Nanotechnology can make energy production, distribution and consumption more efficient and therefore, it more eco-friendly and less costly. For instance, solar cells with nanotechnology are being developed. These solar cells are even used today. Fuel cells can be made more efficient. Nanotechnological approaches could lead to a huge reduction in energy consumption.

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• Environment: Nanotechnology can be put to use in filtration systems with the help of with the help of nano-scale particles. Nano-filtration increases the efficiency to absorb contaminants and is comparatively inexpensive when compared to traditional precip-itation and filtration methods. Low-cost water purifiers that use nanotechnology are already available in the market.

• Industry: Cleaner and more efficient manufacturing processes can be invented. New types of catalysts can increase the efficiency of industrial processes. Nanotechnology can help produce lighter and stronger materials. Automobiles made from lighter and stronger nano-materials can be lighter, require less energy, pollute less and therefore, more eco-friendly. This technology can be used in aircrafts and spacecrafts as well.

• Security, Intelligence andMilitary: Nanotechnology can help detect narcotics and finger prints of suspects in crime. Novel devices and techniques based on nanotech-nology can be invented for uses by intelligence and security agencies in surveillance, investigations, espionage, etc.

Implications

Though nanotechnology is expected to provide many benefits to mankind, there are potential risks that can broadly be grouped into three areas that are as follows:

1. Health Issues: The extremely small size of nanomaterials means they are much more readily taken up by the human body than large-sized particles. Nano-sized particles may overload immune system and trigger inflammatory reactions. Nano-sized particles may cause toxicity. Non-degradable or slowly degradable nanoparticles can accumulate in organs. Nanoparticles may interfere with biological processes inside the body.

2. EnvironmentalIssues: Nanoparticles may cause nano-pollution. Nano- pollution is a generic name for all waste generated by nano-devices or during the nanomaterials man-ufacturing process. This kind of waste may be very dangerous because of its side effects. It can float in the air and might easily penetrate animal and plant cells causing unknown effects.

3. Societal Issues: As all the latest technologies are usually available first to the better offsegmentsofsociety,nanotechnologymayresultincreationofa‘nano-divide’(justlike digital divide). However, nanotechnology makes the production of technology, for example, computers, cellular phones, health technology, etc., are cheaper and therefore, accessible to the poor. Nanotechnology can quicken the pace of life and this may cause social change.

Long TERm EvoLuTIon (LTE)

LongTermEvolution(LTE)isa4GwirelessbroadbandtechnologydevelopedbytheThirdGeneration Partnership Project (3GPP), an industry trade group. 3GPP engineers named the technology‘LongTermEvolution’becauseitrepresentsthenextstep(4G)inaprogressionfromGSM(GlobalSystemforMobileCommunication),a2GstandardtoUMTS(UniversalMobileTelecommunicationsService),the3GtechnologiesbaseduponGSM.

LTE provides significantly increased peak data rates, with the potential for 100 Mbps down-stream and 30 Mbps upstream, reduced latency, scalable bandwidth capacity, and backwards compatibilitywithexistingGSMandUMTStechnology.Thefuturedevelopmentscouldyieldpeak throughput on the order of 300 Mbps.



The upper layers of LTE are based upon TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which will likely result in an all-IP network similar to the current state of wired communications. LTE will support mixed data, voice, video and messaging traffic. LTE uses OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) and in later releases, MIMO (Multi-pleInputMultipleOutput)antennatechnology.Thehighersignaltonoiseratio(SNR)atthereceiver enabled by MIMO, along with OFDM provides improved coverage and throughput, especially in dense urban areas.

Launched2005up to

3 Mbps

Launched2009up to

21 Mbps

Launched2010up to

42 Mbps

Launched2011up to

75 Mbps

Launched2012up to

150 Mbps

Launched2015up to

220 Mbps

4G

4G

3G

LTE

LTE

LTEAdvanced

Theworld’sfirstpubliclyavailableLTEservicewas launchedbyTeliaSonera inOsloandStockholmon14December2009.LTE is thenaturalupgradepath forcarrierswithGSM/UMTSnetworks,butevenCDMAholdoutssuchasVerizonWireless,wholaunchedthefirstlarge-scale LTE network in North America in 2010, and Au Mobile company in Japan has announced that they will migrate to LTE. Therefore, LTE is anticipated to become the first truly global mobile phone standard, although the use of different frequency bands in different countries will mean that only multi-band phones will be able to utilize LTE in all countries where it is supported.

Althoughmarketedas4Gwirelessservice,LTEasspecifiedinthe3GPPRelease8and9documentseriesdoesnotsatisfytherequirementsfor4GsetforthbytheITU-Rorganization.TheLTEAdvancedstandardsatisfiestheITU-Rrequirementstobeconsidered4G.

moBILE numBER PoRTaBILITy (mnP)

Mobile number portability (MNP) enables the mobile telephone users to retain their mobile telephone numbers when changing from one mobile network operator to another.

MNP is implemented in different ways across the globe and its operation is as follows:

• Recipient-Led Porting: This conforms to the International and European standard wherein the customer wishing to port his/her number to contact the new provider ( Recipient) who will then arrange necessary process with the old provider (Donor).



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• Donor-ledPorting:TheUnitedKingdomandIndiadonotimplementaRecipient-Ledsystem, here a customer wishing to port his/her number is required to contact the donor to obtain a Porting Authorisation Code (PAC) which he/she then has to give to the recip-ient. Once having received the PAC, the recipient continues the port process by con-tacting the donor. This form of porting has been criticized by some industry analysts as being inefficient. It has also been observed that it may act as a customer deterrent as well asallowingthedonoranopportunityof‘winning-back’thecustomer.Thismightleadto distortion of competition, especially in the markets with new entrants that are yet to achieve scalability of operation.



LIgHT EmITTIng dIodE (LEd)

Life on earth is dependent on three things, such as the complex carbon-based molecules, water, and light (the carrier of energy from the sun). Luckily, our planet had all these three matters andapproximately3billionyearsago,theearthcame‘alive’.Therewouldbenolifeonearthhad there been no light. For quite a long time, human beings could only work during the daytime when the sun rode across the sky brining warmth and light. During the nights, there was only light during the full moon.

People probably discovered fi re by accident and the fl aming torch gave that crucial degree of freedom from the darkness of the night and safety from the fear of unseen dangers. In 1800, anEnglishScientistHumphryDavy,made thefirst electric light.WhenDavyconnected apiece of carbon with the help of wires to a battery (which he himself invented), the carbon glowed, producing light. But this carbon fi lament would burn up soon. The revolution came in 1879, when Thomas Alva Edison discovered that the carbon fi lament could glow for more than1500hoursinanoxygen-freebulb.Severalscientistsworkedfortheimprovementoftheelectric bulb but it was William David Collidge who in 1910 invented the Tungsten fi lament incandescent bulb with even longer life and could be used by the masses.

LEDs have come a long way and will be the future of lighting for some years to come. LEDs don’t have fi laments that will burn out. They also don’t get hotter compared to ordinary bulbs. Light from LEDs is solely because of the movement of electrons inside the semiconduc-tor material from which they are made. Also, they have a lifespan that surpasses the life of an incandescent bulb by thousands of hours.

Concerns about LeD’s

The LED contains lead, arsenic and a dozen other potentially dangerous substances. The LEDs is all about next-generation lightning. There are several types of LED that contains approximately up to 8-9 lines of the amount of lead, a known neurotoxin, other type contains low lead but large amount of nickel that causes allergic reactions. The amount of copper found in LED can cause environmental threat.

Mobile portability in Indian ContextIn India, MNP has been launched, which is absolutely donor-led. Only the terminology is changed from PAC to UPC (Unique Porting Code). In India, the MNP was launched all over the country from 20 January 2011. To shift, send an SMS from your phone to 1900. Your present company will reply with a unique porting code (UPC). Use that code while fi lling out a detailed form for the company you want to shift to. Within 48 hours, that company will take over all your cell services. The fees is about ` 19. Your cell number will be switched off for one hour, all bills after that are paid to your new company. You will have to remain with the new service provider for at least 50 days before you can shift again. While you can shift from a GSM service to CDMA or vice versa, you cannot shift from one state to another. If you do, roaming kicks in, just like it does right now. In case of a post-paid number, there shouldn’t be any dues. For a prepaid number, carry forward of any balance to the new service provider is not permitted. When you port your number, you also need to change your SIM. Apart from retaining the same number, the process is same as acquiring a new connection.

Mobile portability in Indian Context

techtalk

The nationwide mobile number portability came into force in India from 3 July 2015. Nationwide mobile number portability means that one can now move from one part of the country to another without having to change the number. Not only can one change the mobile operator but can also retain the same number while shifting from one provider to other.

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Applications of LeD

Their long life, low power requirements and availability in many colours make the LED bulbs suitable for all applications requiring any kind for illumination.

You may have seen the uses and applications of LEDs in real-time. It is widely used in the display of digital clocks, watches and in indicators to exhibit when an electronic device is ON or OFF. These LEDs are also used in house-hold appliances. The flashing sign boards and traf-fic lights are powered by LEDs. The LEDs also make our TV screens come alive by forming complex images. In the backlit LED-LCD TV, these tiny LEDs have replaced the tubes that used to light them up and have brought in a new generation of slim televisions. The use of LEDs in the automobiles industry is increasing so more for its aesthetic appeal.

LIquId CRySTaL dISPLay (LCd)

Way back in 1888, a chemist Friedrich Reinitzer, while conducting some experiments on a cholesterol-basedsubstancediscoveredthatthesubstancehadtwomeltingpoints.At145.5°C,the solid melted into a cloudy liquid. The cloudiness disappeared suddenly at 178.5°C turning the substance into a clear transparent liquid. The German physicist Otto Lehmann was convinced that the cloudy liquid was a new state of matter quite different either from a solid oraliquidandthusnamedit‘liquidcrystal’illustratingthatitwassharingsomeimportantproperties of both states. A French theoretical physicist named Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, later worked on liquid crystals and polymers, which led him to win appreciation in the form of the Nobel prize in 1991.

Working of LCD

It is observed that liquid crystal molecules respond to an electrical voltage and an appropriate voltage could change the relative orientation of the molecules. This then alters the optical characteristics of the bulk liquid crystal material sharply. In fact, an electric current passing through the liquid crystal could cause its molecules to align so that no light passes through

• Heavy alloy heat sink acts as radiator• 6-12 small LED discrete points of light• One shade of bluish/white• One beam spread• Grey or black or yellow bulb colour• Most are non-dimmable• Dimmer compatibility issues• No published dimmer lists• 40-60 lumens per watt• No credentials, poor output quality• Lower light output than existing bulb• Only residential grade available (3 hours/day)• Wattage increased for more light• Price increases as quality improves

• Lighter heat sink using air cooling• Single chip-on-board optic/light engine for lamps and luminaires• Improved similarity to halogen/incandescent• Multiple beam spreads available• White bulb more visually appealing• Most are dimmable down to 5%-20%• Dedicated LED dimmers and improved dimmer compatibility• Comprehensive dimmer listings• Controllable, colour changing light• 80-100 lumens per Watt• Many are now certified energy star or DLC and/or have lighting facts label• Professional/retail grade (24 hours/day)• Wattage decreases as lumens/Watt improves

LED in 2008 LED in 2015

Figure 1.12: Comparison of description of LEDs in 2008 and 2015



them.Sotheonethingthatchangesaboutthematerialiswhetheritreflectsorabsorbslight.We can think of the liquid crystal behaviour to be like the shutter of a camera that either allows light falling on it to pass through it or blocks the light. We can put a colour fi lter in front of the liquid crystal to change the colour from black to other shades as we like. We can make all the colours of the rainbow by property that is being used in making LCDs for TV monitors or any screen.

Applications

Longer life, low power requirements and the ready availability of LCDs make them suitable foralmostalldisplayapplications.Someofthesearedigitalwatches,digitalcameradisplays,TVs, gaming devices, computer monitors, mobile phone screens, aircrafts, automobiles, medical instruments and indicators on various appliances.

ComPaCT fLuoRESCEnT LIgHT (CfL)

A CFL (Compact Fluorescent Light) is also known as compact fl uorescent light bulb or an energy saving light bulb. It is a type of fl uorescent lamp that screws into a standard light bulb socket.

A CFL has two parts:

1. Gas fi lled tube (or bulb)

2. Magnetic/Electronic ballast

The electricity fl ows through the ballast. The electrical energy from the ballast fl ows through the gas causing it to give off ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light then excites the white phosphor coating on the inside of the tube. This excited white phosphor coating emits visible light.

OLED

What does itstand for?

Organic light-emittingdiode

Light-emitting diode Liquid crystal display Plasma

2015 2007 2004 1997

OLED uses small organiccompounds, each the sizeof an individual TV pixel,that light up as a specificcolour when fed withelectricity. Each diodelights up independently.

Efficiency: It’s lighter,thinner and more energyefficient than any otherTV. OLED TVs offer bettercolor regardless of whereyou are in the room.

Quality: LED TVs aremuch slimmer than LCDTVs and many considerthe picture qualitysuperior.

Popularity: It’s the mostwidely manufactured andpurchased TV display.

Now? Nothing, through aplasma TV may be idealin a darker room, where atoo-bright TV could causeeye strain.

An LED TV is actually atype of LCD television.The major difference isthat an LED TV replacesthe backlight lamps usedin LCD screens with LEDlights to illuminate thescreen.

LCD technology usestiny coloured liquid crystalcells that shine lightfrom behind the screen.Varying amounts of colourcomes through the screento build the picture.

Gas cells between twosheets of glass emitultraviolet light whichmakes the screen displayred, green and blue. Thespots combine to form apicture on the screen.

How doesit work?

When did itbecomepopular?

Claim to fame

LED LCD Plasma

Info

The LCDs have replaced CRTs because they are thinner, lighter and can enhance the aesthetic value of the surroundings. In addition, they operate on a lower voltage than other display technologies thus consuming less power. This also makes them perfect for battery-powered devices.



Advantages of CfL than filament bulbs

• Less electricity

• The production and recycling of CFL is more eco-friendly than that of normal bulbs.

• The barrier to the usage of CFL is its initial high cost.

DIgItAL Money

It is a form of currency or medium of exchange that is electronically created and stored (i.e.,distinctfromphysical,suchasbanknotesandcoins).Somedigitalcurrencies,suchas‘Bitcoins’arecrypto-currencies.Liketraditionalmoneythesecurrenciesmaybeusedtobuyphysical goods and services but could also be restricted to certain communities such as for use inside and online game or social network.

bitcoin

BitcoinisthemostwidelyuseddigitalcurrencyinventedbySatoshiNakamoto,whopublishedthe invention in 2008 and released it as open-source software in 2009. The system is peer-to-peer; users can transact directly without needing an intermediary. Transactions are verified by network nodes and recorded in a public distributed ledger called the block chain. The ledger uses its own unit of account, also called bitcoin. The system works without a central repository or single administrator,which has led theUSTreasury to categorize it as a decentralizedvirtual currency.

Virtual Currency

It is a type of unregulated, digital money, which is issued and usually controlled by its developers and used and accepted among the members of a specific virtual community. It is a medium of exchange that operates like a currency in certain countries, but does not have all the attributes of real currency. The key attribute a virtual currency does not have, according to these definitions, is the status as legal tender.

Challenges of Digital Currency • Many of these currencies have not evidenced widespread usage and may not be easily

used or exchanged. Banks generally do not accept or offer services for them.

• There are concerns that crypto-currencies are extremely risky due to their very high volatility and potential for pump and dump schemes.

• Regulators in several countries have warned against their use and some have taken concrete regulatory measures to dissuade users.

• The non-cryptocurrencies are all centralized. As such, they may be shutdown or seized by a Government at any time.

• The more anonymous a currency is, the more attractive it is to criminals, regardless of the intentions of its creators.

• Anyone with the right skills can issue digital currency. It can be compared to issuing bonds with zero interest rate, no real security behind them is involved and thus no real obligation for the issuer to pay back the amount. This means that the issuer who suc-ceeds in selling his currency to other users, can earn a great deal of actual money at the expense of his users.



hypeRLoop teChnoLogy

Recently two companies named Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) and Hyperloop One (HO) have evinced interest to develop hyperloop technology in India by 2021. The Hyperloop One Global Challenge selected 35 semi-fi nalist cities for developing hyperloop, 5 of them are in India. Presently, such a system is being developed between Abu Dhabi and Dubai.

Importance of hyperloop

• It is a revolutionary mode of transport that has the potential to reduce the transport time of people and goods by more than 80%.

• It has a lower right of way problem thus simplifying the land acquisition for this transport.

• It also has a lower carbon footprint apart from lowering noise pollution of public transport.

• Itwouldalsopromote,‘MakeinIndia’programmeandmanufacturingsectorofIndiawith technology transfer related to the hyperloop pods.

• It requires heavy investments (about $100 million) and therefore, private sector part-nership is needed. Therefore, effective public and privates sector coordination is a prerequisite.

• It may prove to be a non-inclusive travel which would be prohibitive for the economically marginalized people.

• High-power consumption, accidents and technical challenges have hampered its progress.

Figure 1.13: Illustration of hyperloop transportation

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Hyperloop is a system of magnetically levitating capsules that are sent at high speeds through low-pressure tubes. This idea was fi rst generated by the entrepreneur Elon Musk.

It can have speeds even greater than commercial air travel. Linear induction motors are used in it and control its speed.

◗ At a time when rail-way infrastructure is abysmal and the air-line industry is highly priced, hyperloop only perceives to be a futuristic idea.

◗ If India being able to sustain a high growth rate for another decade, hyperloop may be a disruptive technology to pro-mote India’s future ambitions.

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fuEL-gaS dESuLfuRIZaTIon (fgd) TECHnoLogy

Fuel gas is a mixture of gases which is produced by the combustion of fuel and other materials in power stations and various industrial plants and released in the atmosphere via fl u (ducts). It largely contains oxides of nitrogen derived from combustion of air, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, excess oxygen, sulphur oxides and particulate matter like soot.

• Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) is a set of technologies used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO

2) from exhaust fl ue gases of fossil-fuel power plants, as well as from the emissions

of other sulphur oxide emitting processes.

• ThecommonmethodsusedtoremoveS02are:Wetscrubbingmethod,spray-dryscrub-bingmethod,wetanddrylimescrubbingmethod,SNOXmethod,drysorbentinjectionmethod, etc.

• For a typical coal-fi red power station, fl ue-gas desulfurization (FGD) may remove 90 per centormoreofthe(SO

2) in the fl ue gases.

• Sulphurdioxideemissionsareaprimarycontributortoacidrainandhavebeenregulatedby every industrialized nation in the world.

InTELLECTuaL PRoPERTy RIgHTS (IPR)

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to people over the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time. IPRs in India are administered by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry.

types of IpR

patent

• Apatent isgrantedforan inventionwhich isanewproductorprocess thatmeetsconditions of novelty, non-obviousness and industrial use.

• Noveltymeansinventivestepwhichisafeature(s)oftheinventionthatinvolvestech-nical advance as compared to existing knowledge.

• Non-obviousnessmeanstheinventionisnotobvioustoapersonskilledintheart.

• Industrialusemeansthattheinventioniscapableofbeingmadeorusedinaindustry.

• PatentsinIndiaaregovernedby‘ThepatentAct1970’whichwasamendedin2005tomakeitcompliantwithTRIPS.

trademark

• A trademarkmeansamarkcapableofbeingrepresentedgraphicallyandwhich iscapable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings.

• A trademark can be a device, brand, heading, label ticket name, packaging, sign,word, letter, number, drawing, picture, emblem, colour or combination of colours, shape of goods, signature or a combination thereof.

• TrademarksinIndiaaregovernedbyTradeMarksAct1999whichwasamendedin2010.

Ministry of Envi-ronment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has decided to use Flue-Gas Desulfurization to reduce emissions from thermal power plants following new environmental notifi cation. As per new notifi cation by MoEFC, the emis-sions of pollutants namely particulate matters need to be reduced by 65%, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) by 70% and sulphur dioxide by 85%.

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Info

Electrostatic Precipitators is a fi ltration device that removes fi ne particles like particulate matter using electrostatic force by ionizing the passing gas.



geographical Indications

• Itisasignusedonagriculturalornaturalormanufacturedgoodsasoriginatingormanufactured in a particular region of a country. It denotes its origin where a specific quality, characteristic or reputation of the product is essentially attributable to that origin.

• GeographicalindicatorsinIndiaaregovernedby‘TheGeographicalIndicationsofGoods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999’.

Copyright

• Copyright isarightgivenbythelawtocreatorsof literary,dramatic,musicalandartistic works and producers of cinematograph films and sound recordings.

• Thisrightallowsitscreatortherightsofreproduction,communicationtothepublic,adaptation and translation of the work.

• CopyrightsinIndiaaregovernedby‘ThecopyrightAct,1957’.

Design

• Anindustrialdesignconsistsofthecreationofashape,configuration,compositionof pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three- dimensional form containing aesthetic value.

• An industrial design can be a two or three-dimensional pattern,which is used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft.

• DesignsinIndiaaregovernedby‘TheDesignsAct2000’.

plant Variety protection

• It refers to theprotectiongranted forplantvarieties.These rightsaregiven to thefarmers and plant breeders to encourage the development of new varieties of plants.

• PlantvarietyprotectioninIndiaisgovernedby‘TheProtectionofPlantVarietiesandFarmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.

Delhi high Court on Copyrights:

◗ Delhi high court has held that reproducing books and distributing copies thereof for the purpose of education in not copyright infringement.

◗ Though, this judgment upholds the interests of students and their rights and ability to access education, the publish-ers claimed that photo-copies hurt their sales.

◗ The copyright law rests on a delicate balance between the interests of copyright owners and copyright users. The law is designed to encourage the creation of works and simultaneously, to permit the users to enjoy the works and promote arts and knowledge.

◗ In the Indian Copyright Act, 1957, section 52 lists a number of scenarios which do not constitute infringement, including a fair dealing provision. The section is the bulwark for public enjoyment of copyrighted work it allows largely purposive acts, including fair dealing, copying in research, educational institutions, etc.

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national IpR policy, 2016

• The National IPR Policy 2016 is completely compliant with the World Trade Organisa-tion’sagreementonTradeRelatedaspectsofIPRs(TRIPS).

• The policy has a special thrust on the following subjects:

• Awarenessgenerationatschool/collegelevel

• EffectiveenforcementofIPRsand

• EncouragementofIPcommercializationthroughvariousincentives.

• The policy retains the provisions on Compulsory Licencing (CL) (in the National Manufacturing policy and Section 84 of India’s Patents) in spite of the EU andUSobjectionstermingCLasinconsistentwithWTO’sTRIPSagreement.

• AccordingtoSection3(d),besidesnoveltyandinventivestep,improvementintherapeuticefficacy is a must for grant of patents when it comes to incremental inventions.

• The policy will also suggest incentives such as tax benefits and fee waivers to encourage R&DandIPcreationtostrengthentheMakeInIndia/Start-up/DigitalIndiainitiatives.

• Toprotect‘smallinventions’developedespeciallyintheinformal/unorganizedsectors,the policywill promote ‘utility patents’ (with lower compliance burden and shorterperiod of protection, when compared to the normal patents) only for mechanical innova-tions.

objectives of IpR

• IPR Awareness: To create public awareness about the economic, social and cultural benefits of IPRs among all sections of society.

• Generation of IPRs: To stimulate the generation of IPRs.

• Legal and legislative framework: To have strong and effective IPR laws, which balance the interests of rights owners with larger public interest.

• Administration and management: To modernize and strengthen service oriented IPR administration.

• Commercialization of IPR: Get value for IPRs through commercialization.

• Enforcement and adjudication: To strengthen the enforcement and adjudicatory mecha-nisms for combating IPR infringements.

• Human capital development: To strengthen and expand human resources, institutions and capacities for teaching, training, research and skill building in IPRs.

• Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) will be the nodal agency for all IPR issues.

• Films, music, industrial drawings will also come under the ambit of copyright.

• Existing IPR laws will be reviewed to remove any inconsistencies and make them in accordance with present time and future needs.

• Less empowered groups of IP owners such as artisans, weavers and farmers will be provided with financial support by offering them IP friendly loans.

• Trademark offices to be modernized, and the aim is to reduce the time taken for exam-ination and registration to just 1 month by 2017.

• It proposes to establish IP Promotion and Development Council which will oversee the opening of IP Promotion and Development Units in all states in order to create a single window system for promotion, awareness and utilization of IP in the country.



• AfirsttimepatentfeewaiverandasupportsystemforMSMEs.Thiswillboostinno-vation in the sector. Also an effective loan guarantee scheme to be created to encourage start-ups.

• The policy to be reviewed every 5 years in consultation with all the stakeholders.

Limitations

• The policy is based on the premise that more IPRs mean more innovation. However, there is little research that backs this assumption.

• Openness, sharing and access to knowledge have been given back seat in the policy document.

• The policy suggests researchers in public funded research organizations to mandatorily convert all research into IP. However, it is best left at the discretion of the inventor.

• Criminalizing the civil wrong of unauthorized copying such as movies and literature is prone to misuse.

• To create an atmosphere of creativity and innovation, a holistic approach is required and not just IPR protection.

Conclusion and way forward

• The policy aims to push IPRs as a marketable financial asset, promote innovation and entrepreneurship, while protecting public interest including ensuring the availability of essential and life saving drugs at affordable prices.

• ThenewIPRpolicy introducedwithasloganof‘CreativeIndia, InnovativeIndia’ islargely a step in the right direction. However, to obtain the best outcome the challenges and limitations have to be suitably addressed.

tRADeMARK RuLeS

Trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises. It is protected by Trademarks Act 1999.

TrademarksregistrywasestablishedinIndiain1940,itpresentlyadministerstheTrade-marks Act. It is also a resource centre for trademarks. The Trade Mark Rules, 2017 have been notified recently by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

It would replace the previous Trade Mark Rules 2002, and therefore, would streamline and simplify the processing of Trade Mark applications.

ease of filing trademarks

• TradeMarkFormshavebeenreducedfrom74to8.

• Expedited processing of a registration application has been extended up to registration stage which till now existed only up to examination stage.

• ServicingofdocumentstoTradeMarkRegistryhasbeeneased.

trademark fees

• All fees related to trademark have been rationalized.

• Online filing fees have been made 10% lower than physical filing fees to promote e-filing of trademark.

• Fees for individuals, start-ups and small enterprises have been reduced to only ` 4500.

The trademark rules have been changed at a timely moment when India stands at having a third largest startup ecosystem in the world. There should also be a commensurate capacity building needed to imple-ment the changed rules.

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• For the fi rst time, modalities for determining well-known trademarks have been introduced.

• Hearing of disputes has been introduced through video conferencing.

• Adjournments in opposition proceedings have been restricted to a maximum of two to avoid pendency.

Signifi cance

• Presently, the examination time for a trademark application has already been brought down from 13 months to just 1 month in January 2017 despite a 35% jump in fi lings in 2015-16. The new rules should give a boost to the Intellectual Property Regime in India.

• By rationalizing the fee structure, this step may also be a right step to promote entrepre-neurship in India.

• New rules would also give a time-bound resolution of disputes besides lowering the burden on tribunals and courts.

• It is a step which is towards the ease of doing business and would eventually increase India’s position as a good investment decision with protection of intellectual property rights.

DAtA eXCLuSIVIty

Data exclusivity refers to exclusive rights, granted over the pharmaceutical test data submitted by companies to drug regulatory authorities for obtaining information concerning a drug’s safety and effi cacy, which is kept confi dential as it is a form of legal monopoly protection for a drug, over and above the patent protections. This is given speedily to compensate for the investment made during clinical trials. It implied that regulators cannot approve a similar drug with similar data for the next fi ve years.

It will incentivize the efforts to bring new drugs in market as their costs incurred in expen-sive and time consuming preclinical and clinical trials will be recovered.

Challenges for Data exclusivity

ItisbeyondthemandateorTRIPSagreementandwouldpreventdrugregulatorstousethedata, submitted by the Originator Company, for approving bioequivalent versions of the same drug, which would prevent generics from entering into market.

• It would prolong the monopoly even after expiry of 20 year period and will lead to evergreeningofpatentsnegatingtheimpactofSection3(d)ofpatentactandblockingofcompulsory licensing.

• Even for establishing bioequivalence, the clinicl trials would be repeated on human sub-jects which is immoral and unethical.

• Giving exclusivity just on the basis of money spent would set a bad precedent for other industries which may now claim IP-like rights.

geneRIC MeDICIneS

It is a low-cost version of a formulation that is equivalent to branded product in quality, dosage, strength, route of administration and effi cacy. Due to patency issues, generic drugs are not sold in the market unless the patent of the branded drug expires. Even after the patency generic drugs are available under brands, they are called branded generics.

Info

trips plus MeasuresIt means going beyond the TRIPS provisions. TRIPS plus provisions are frequently pushed as a part of free trade agreements between developed and developing coun-tries. Some ot the provisions are:

◗ Data exclusivity – one of the most worrying demands in RCEP negotia-tions (covered in detail in subsequent subsection)

◗ Patent term exten-sions are given to compensate the company for delays in processing patent applications. A patent term extension will give another fi ve year monopoly to the innovator company.Many developed countries have even signed Anti- Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) which establishes international standards for IPR en-forcement outside WTO and TIPO.



Current regulation regarding generic Drugs in India

• The Medical Council of India’s ethics code for doctors made generic prescrption mandatory in October 2016, though it was not enforced.

• The Health Ministry has proposed changes in the Drugs and Cosmetics Act to ensure the generic names is printed in bigger fonts than the brand names.

• Drug Controller of India has directed states to order the approval of drugs based on generic names only.

• Department of Pharmaceuticals has given in-principle approval for a uniform code for pharmaceutical marketing practices, which legally binds all stakeholders like doctors, pharmacists, etc., to promote generics. Any violations would attract penalty and it has also not been enforced.

• Under the Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Pariyojana, 861 centres have been established in 28 states to supply generic drugs. 99 private companies certified by the WHO have also been inducted to manufacture generic drugs for PMBJP.

Challenges for generic Drugs in India

• One of the biggest concerns raised by the doctors is that switching to generic drugs for chronic illness patients may risk the patient of not getting full benefit of the drug.

• Drug inspection department in the country is highly understaffed and hardly one per cent of the drugs in the country are tested for quality.

• Most generic medicines too are sold under brand names. Therefore, the chemist would have the discretion to sell a particular brand (most likely the one where he has the high-est margin).

• Unawareness among the people about generic drugs. Generic drugs being cheaper are considered to be of inferior quality by the public at large.

• It might reduce the entry of big pharmaceutical majors in the Indian market thus creating a dearth of investment in Indian pharmaceutical market.

• There is still a shortage of supply of generic medicines and needs to be addressed first before prescribing the generic medicines. Also the quality of the generic drugs is not uniform.

• HealthisastatesubjectandCentre-Statecoordinationwouldbemuchneededtocounterthis problem.

preventive Measures for Common usage of generic Drugs

• Alegalframeworkmustbeadoptedfor‘qualitytesting’ofgenericdrugs.

• The government must also clarify that how a patient would get the appropriate drug when a doctor just writes the salt names on the prescription and not fall prey to the Chemist’s personal gains.

• Adequate number of drug inspectors must be hired for regular field inspections.

• Public should be made aware on how generic drugs are at par with branded ones stock-piling of drugs in order to ensure constant supply.

• Doctors should also be given a window to take the call of prescribing branded drugs in cases deemed necessary.

The government should held firm its stand on ‘TRIPS plus’ and not succumb to the pressure which may lead to evergreening of patents and blocking of compulsory licenses and severely undermine public interest.

ConneCt

Recently, the Prime Minister of India has urged doctors to prescribe only generic medicines to patients.

ConneCt



export of generic Version of patented Drugs

◗ Bayer had moved the Delhi high court to restrain two Indian pharmaceutical companies from exporting generic versions of drugs abroad.

• Against Natco Pharma from selling invention Sorafenib, used in treatment of kidney cancer. • Against Alembic from selling Rivaroxaban, which is a blood thinner.◗ Bayer’s argument was that the compulsory licenses granted for production of these two drugs were for sale within

India only and not abroad.◗ The Delhi High Court allowed generic drug manufacturesrs to export patented drugs for the purposes of

development, clinical trials and regulatory clearances.

ConneCt

Compulsory Licensing of pharmaceuticals and tRIpS

◗ Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce the patented product or process without the consent of the patent owner. It is one of the fl exibilities on patent protection included in the WTO’s agreement on intellectual property - the TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement.

◗ The TRIPS Agreement does not specifi cally list the reasons that might be used to justify compulsory licensing. However, the countries are free to determine the grounds for granting compulsory licences.

◗ Under Section 84(1) of the Indian Patent Act, any person may request a compulsory license if after three years from the date of the grant of a patent, the needs of the public to be covered by the invention have not been satisfi ed, the invention is not available to the public at an aff ordable price, or the patented invention is not ‘worked in,’ or manufactured in the country, to the fullest extent possible.

Compulsory Licensing of pharmaceuticals and tRIpS

techtalk

bIopRoSpeCtIng AnD bIopIRACy

Bioprospecting refers to biodiversity prospecting. It is the process of discovery and commercialization of new products based on biological resources. These biological resources may include chemical compounds, geners, microorganisms, macro-organisms and other valuable products from nature.

Biopiracy is the practice of commercially exploiting naturally occurring biochemical or genetic material, especially by obtaining patents that restrict its future use, while failing to pay fair compensation to the community from which it originates.

Advantages and Challenges of bioprospecting and biopiracy

• Pros: • Bioprospecting,ifwellmanaged,cangenerateincomefordevelopingcountriesand

its indigenous community.



• Itcanprovideincentivesfortheconservationofbiologicalresourcesandbiodiversity.

• Itcanleadtodiscoveryofnewdrugs.

• Cons: • Ifnotwellmanaged,bioprospectingmayleadtoenvironmentalproblemsrelatedto

unauthorized (over) exploitation.

• Socialandeconomicproblemsrelatedtounfairsharingofbenefitsorthetotalabsenceof benefi t sharing and to disrespect for the rights, knowledge and dignity of local communities.

• Thus bioprospecting in itself is not bad. However, if it is misused (leading to biopiracy), then it creates problem for nature and mankind.

Steps taken to prevent biopiracy

• India is a member of CBD (Convention on Biodiversity) and as a mark of its ratifi cation, India enacted the Biodiversity Act of 2002.

• Autonomous bodies such as National biodiversity authority, state biodiversity boards and biodiversity management committees have been constituted to regulate access to biological resources and associated traditional knowledge to ensure equitable sharing of benefi ts arising out of their use.

• Traditional knowledge digital library: It is a database that documents traditional knowl-edge and makes it available in the public domain.

◗ It is evident that India is on the right path when it comes to protecting its national interest in its biodiversity and traditional knowledge, while granting access on a case-by-case basis.

◗ The issue of benefi t sharing is tantamount and India must now adopt a balanced approach to safeguard its genetic resources while promoting much needed growth in the biotechnology sector.

◗ This could be achieved by formulating a comprehensive National Bioprospecting Policy which suitably addresses issues related to intellectual property rights, tenure of land and natural resources, R&D, conservation and protection of biodiversity.

ConneCt

ChApteR At A gLAnCe

• The computing in which the information is carried in the computer chips through photons rather than elec-trons is called optical computing.

• The light is made up of small particles called photons which have zero mass and no charge.

• The optical computers have microchips and other parts which primarily use light as a medium of infor-mation exchange.

• The capacity of computers to demonstrate a perfor-mance or task effi ciently, which is unlike done by human beings is called Artifi cial Intelligence (AI).

• Artifi cial intelligence can thus be defi ned as the intel-ligence exhibited by an artifi cial/manufactured entity.

• Virtual Reality is a technology which allows a user to interact with a computer simulated environment.



• A person perceives the computer’s simulated envi-ronment and participates in that environment. The persons act in that virtual environment as if it were a reality.

• TheGlobalSystemforMobile (GSM)communica-tions is the most popular standard for mobile phones intheworld.GSMserviceisusedbyover2billionpeople across more than 212 countries and territories.

• GSMisthestandardusedbyAirtel,Vodaphone,Idea,BSNL,etc.

• The ubiquity of the GSM standard makes interna-tionalroamingverycommon.GSMhasbecometheworld’s fastest growing communication technology of all times.

• GeneralPacketRadioService(GPRS)isastandardfor wireless communication which runs at a speed up to115kilobitsper second (comparedwithGSMat9.6kilobitsper second).GPRShasbeendevelopedbecauseoftheinabilityofGSMstandardtocatertointernet services.

• Second Generation (GSM) cellular systems com-binedwithGPRSareoftendescribedas2.5G,i.e.,atechnology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony.

• EnhancedGPRS(EGPRS)isadigitalmobilephonetechnology that provides faster data transmission rates and also more reliable data transmission.

• EDGE is an improved and faster version of GSMwireless service.

• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax) is a wireless standard for providing broad-band connectivity to a large area (around 30 miles radius) at a low cost.

• Knowledge ProcessOutsourcing (KPO) is the pro-cedure of outsourcing knowledge-concerted activities that are data driven and enclose the process of accu-mulating, analysing and bringing objective under-standing into business. It is essentially an offshoot of business Process Outsourcing (BPO). While BPO involves standardized routine processes and repeti-tivedataentrykindofwork,KPOinvolvesprocessesthat demand advanced knowledge, analytical inter-pretation and technical skills.

• Fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device which produces energy in the form of

electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.

• Interactive TV is a convergence technology that will convert the one-way passive TV viewing into a two-way interactive experience. This technology would enable television viewers to access remote servers and internet through their TV and digital set top box device. In other words, interactive TV is any televi-sion with a return path, i.e., information flows not only from broadcaster to viewer, but also back from viewer to broadcaster. This return path can be by tele-phone,mobileSMSorcablelines.

• A smart card resembles a credit card in size and shape but it is completely different from inside. A normal credit card is a simple piece of plastic but a smart card contains an embedded microprocessor inside. The microprocessor is under a gold contact pad on one side of the card.

• The microprocessor serves the purpose of security. The host computer and card reader actually inter-acts with the microprocessor. The microprocessor enforces access to the data on the card.

• Instrument landing system is a ground-based radio system designed to provide an airplane pilot with precise guidance for the final approach in landing. It facilitates take-offs and landings of aircraft in very low visibility conditions, for example, dense fog.

• Compact Fluorescent Light (CFL) also known as compact fluorescent light bulb or an energy saving light bulb. It is a type of fluorescent lamp that screws into a standard light bulb socket.

• Virtual water is the amount of water that is embedded in food or other products needed for its production.

For example, to produce 1 kg of wheat, we need about 1000 litres of water, i.e., the virtual water for 1 kg of wheat is 1000 litres.

• Natural Disaster Information System developed byGeneva Software Technologies will inform peopleabout an impending disaster or about any disaster in their local language over mobile phones and specially through wireless public address system in their local-ity in less than a minute.


Section A: unit III – Recent Research and Development1.448

pReVIouS yeARS’ QueStIonS

prelims Questions

1. Consider the following pairs : (2018)

Termssometimesseenin news

Context/Topic

1. Belle II experiment Artifi cial Intelligence

2. Blockchain technology Digital/Cryptocurrency

3. CRISPR—Cas9 Particle Physics

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched ?


(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

2. “3D printing” has applications in which of the following? (2018)

1. Preparation of confectionery items

2. Manufacture of bionic ears

3. Automotive industry

4.Reconstructivesurgeries

5. Data processing technologies

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow:

(a)1,3and4only (b)2,3and5only

(c)1and4only (d)1,2,3,4and5

3. With reference to the use of nanotechnology in health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2015)

1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.

2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow:

(a) 1 (b) 2


4. In the context of modern scientifi c research, consider the following statements about IceCube, a particle detectorlocatedatSouthPole,whichwasrecentlyinthe news: (2015)

1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encom-passing a cubic kilometre of ice.

2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.

3. It is buried deep in the ice.


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

5. With reference to technologies for solar power pro-duction, consider the following statements: (2014)

1. Photovoltaics is a technology that generates elec-tricity by direct conversion of light into electric-ity, whereas solar thermal is a technology that utilizestheSun’sraystogenerateheatwhichisfurther used in electricity generation process.

2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), whereas solar thermal generates Direct Current (DC).

3. India is the manufacturing base for solar thermal technology, but not for photovoltaics.


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these

6. Brominated fl ame retardants are used in many house-hold products like mattresses and upholstery. Why are there some concerns about their use? (2014)

1. They are highly resistant to degradation in the environment.

2. They are able to accumulate in humans and animals.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Why is there some concern regarding the nanoparti-cles of some chemical elements that are used by the industry in the manufacture of various products?

(2014) 1. They can accumulate in the environment and

contaminate water and soil. 2. They can enter the food chains. 3. They can trigger production of free radicals.

ChApteR enD eXeRCISe



Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

8. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called coalbed methane and shale gas, con-sider the following statements: (2014)

1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane and only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rock.

2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exits, but so far no shale gas sources have been found.


(a) 1 (b) 2


9. In India, cluster bean (Guar) is traditionally used as a vegetable or animal feed, but recently the cultiva-tion of this has assumed significance. Which one of the following statements is correct in this context? (2014)

(a) The oil extracted from seeds is used in the manu-facture of biodegradable plastics.

(b) The gum made from its seeds is used in the extraction of shale gas.

(c) The leaf extract of this plant has the properties of antihistamines.

(d) It is a source of high quality biodiesel.

10. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (2014)

1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium

3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor

5. Mercury 6. Lead

7. Plutonium

Select the correct answer using the codes givenbelow.

(a) 1,3,4,6and7 (b) 1,2,3,5and6

(c) 2,4,5and7 (d) 1,2,3,4,5,6and7

11. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer storage life because (2013)

(a) Exposure to sunlight is prevented.

(b) Concentration of carbon dioxide in the environ-ment is increased.

(c) Rate to respiration is decreased.

(d) There is an increase in humidity.

12. Ball bearings are used in bicycles, cars, etc., because (2013)

(a) The actual area of contact between the wheel and axle is increased.

(b) The effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is increased.

(c) The effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is reduced.

(d) None of the above statements is correct.

13. Consider the following phenomena: (2013) 1. Sizeofthesunatdusk 2. Colour of the sun at dawn 3. Moon being visible at dawn 4. Twinkleofstarsinthesky 5. Pole star being visible in the sky

Which of the above are optical illusions?

(a) 1,2and3 (b) 3,4and5

(c) 1,2and4 (d) 2,3and5

14. The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, namely gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. With refer-ence to them, which one of the following statements is not correct? (2013)

(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four.

(b) Electromagnetism acts only on particles with an electric charge.

(c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity.

(d) Strongnuclearforceholdsprotonsandneutronsinside the nucleus of an atom.

15. Biomass gasification is considered to be one of the sustainable solutions to the power crisis in India. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2012)

1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and rice husk can be used in biomass gasification.

2. The combustible gases generated from biomass gasification consist of hydrogen and carbon dioxide only.

3. The combustible gases generated from biomass gasification can be used for direct heat genera-tion but not in internal combustion engines.


Section A: Unit III – Recent Research and Development1.450


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

16. Lead, ingested or inhaled is a health hazard. After the addition of lead to petrol has been banned, what still are the sources of lead poisoning? (2012)

1. Smeltingunits 2. Pensandpencils 3. Paints 4. Hairoilsandcosmetics

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow.

(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3

(c) 2and4 (d) 1,2,3and4

17. What is the difference between a CFL and an LED lamp? (2011)

1. To produce light, a CFL uses mercury vapour and phosphor while an LED lamp uses semi-conduc-tor material.

2. The average life span of a CFL is much longer than that of an LED lamp.

3. A CFL is less energy-efficient as compared to an LED lamp.


(a) 1 (b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

18. What is the difference between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi devices? (2011)

(a) Bluetooth uses 2.4 GHz radio frequency band,whereasWi-Fi canuse 2.4GHzor 5GHz fre-quency band.

(b) Bluetooth is used for Wireless Local Area Net-works (WLAN) only, whereas Wi-Fi is used for Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN) only.

(c) When information is transmitted between two devices using Bluetooth technology, the devices have to be in the line of sight of each other, but when Wi-Fi technology is used, the devices need not be in the line of sight of each other.

(d) The statements (a) and (b) given above are correct in this context.

19. Consider the following: (2012) 1. Bluetooth device 2. Cordless phone

3. Microwaveoven 4. Wi-Fidevice

Whichoftheabovecanoperatebetween2.4and2.5GHz range of radio frequency band?

(a) 1and2 (b) 3and4

(c) 1,2and4 (d) 1,2,3and4

20. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles produce one of the following as exhaust. (2010)

(a) NH3 (b) CH

4

(c) H2O (d) H

2O

2

21. WiNAX is related to which one of the following? (2009)

(a) Biotechnology (b) Spacetechnology (c) Missile technology (d) Communication technology

22. In the context of alternative sources of energy, etha-nol as a viable bio-fuel can be obtained from (2009)

(a) Potato (b) Rice

(c) Sugarcane (d) Wheat

23. Which one of the following union ministries imple-ments the Cartagena protocol on biosafety? (2009)

(a) MinistryofScienceandTechnology

(b) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

(c) Ministry of Environment of Forests

(d) Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers

24. In the context of CO2 emission and global warming,

what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions? (2009)

(a) Carbon Footprint

(b) Carbon Credit Rating

(c) Clean Development Mechanism

(d) Emission Reduction Norm

25. The concept of carbon credit originated from which one of the following? (2009)

(a) EarthSummit,RiodeJaneiro

(b) KyotoProtocol

(c) Montreal Protocol

(d) G-8Summit,Heiligendamm

26. The term Prisoner’s Dilemma is associated with which one of the following? (2008)

(a) A technique in glass manufacture.

(b) A term used in shipping industry.

(c) A situation under the Game Theory.

(d) Name of a supercomputer.



27. Who among the following discovered heavy water? (2008)

(a) Heinrich Hertz (b) H. C. Urey

(c) G. Menden (d) Joseph Priestley

28. Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer? (2008)

(a) Dye laser (b) Gas laser

(c) Semiconductor (d) Excimerlaser

29. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given in the list: (2007)

List-I(Person) List-II(Knownas) A John C. Mather 1. Co-founder of

Microsoft

B MichaelGriffin 2. SpaceWalker

C Paul G. Allen 3. Administrator of NASA

D PiersSellers 4. NobelPrizeWinner,2006 in Physics

Codes: A B C D (a)4 1 3 2 (b)2 3 1 4 (c)4 3 1 2 (d)2 1 3 4


(a) CosmicBackgroundExplorer(COBE):SatelliteProgramme

(b) Falcon : Under-sea cable system

(c) Discovery:Spaceshuttle

(d) Atlantis:Spacestation


(a) William Dickson : Motion picture film

(b) Charles Babbage : Programmable computer

(c) NicholasStem : Construction technology

(d) BrianGreen : Stringtheory

32. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (2006)

Inventor Invention

1. Christopher : Hovercraft Cockerell

2. DavidBushnell : Submarine

3. J.C.Perrier : Steamship

Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow.

(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only


33. What is the Universal Product Code (UPC) adopted for? (2006)

(a) Fire safety code in buildings

(b) Earthquake-resistant building code

(c) Bar code

(d) Against adulteration in eatables

34. To which one of the following processes is the term CMYKrelated? (2006)

(a) Railway signalling

(b) Navigation

(c) Offset printing

(d) Electronic voting machine

35. Which one of the following countries is the first country in the world to propose a carbon tax for its people to address global warning? (2006)

(a) Australia (b) Germany

(c) Japan (d) New Zealand

36. Match List-I (Indian Scientist/Scholar) with List-II(Area of work) and select the correct answer using the codes given in the lists. (2006)

List-I List-II

A C. N. R. Rao 1. Telecommunication

B Jagdish Bhagwati 2. Physics

C G. N. Ramachandran 3. Economics

DAshokJhunjhunwala 4. Solidstatechemistryand material science



Codes: A B C D (a)4 3 2 1 (b)2 1 4 3 (c)4 1 2 3 (d)2 3 4 1

37. What is Medecins Sans Frontieres(MSF)? (2006) (a) An agency formed by the International Olympic

Committee (IOC) to check misuse of drugs by sports persons.

(b) A non-governmental organization which special-izes in international humanitarian aid and emer-gency medical assistance.

(c) An organization to develop applications of nano-technology in medicine.

(d) An organization of medical practitioners funded by the European Union which carries out research againstspreadofAIDS.

38. Virtual water trade is being looked at by experts as a solution to the world’s water crisis. What does Virtual Water (VW) imply? (2005)

(a) Volume of heavy water required to replace ordi-nary water.

(b) Volume of water required to produce a commod-ity or service.

(c) Volume of water saved by using rainwater harvesting.

(d) Volume of water utilized by an effective food control.

Main Questions

1. Why is nanotechnology one of the key technologies of the 21st century? Describe the salient features of Indian Government’s Mission on nanoscience and Technology and the scope of its application in the development process of the country? (About 150 words). (2016)

2. How does the 3D printing technology work? List out the advantages and disadvantages of the technology (About 100 words). (2013)

3. What is an FRP composite material? How are they manufactured ? Discuss their application in aviation and automobile industries (About 100 words). (2013)

4. The sequoia supercomputer was launched this year. Please define its features and purpose. (2012)

5. Why have Mabel robot been in the news recently? (About 20 words). (2011)

6. Discus the applications of nanotechnology in the healthcare sector (About 150 words). (2010)

7. What is nanotech? Give a brief account of its basic concepts, material used and applications. (2009)

8. Spintronics(About150words).Marks 15 (2008) 9. Components of robots (About 150 words). Marks 15

(2008) 10. Explain the following in about 20 words each below:

4×2=8

(a) Copyright and Trademark

(b) TIFAC

(c) Aspartame

(d) Sappan

11. What are normal osmosis and reverse osmosis? Why has reverse osmosis become popular in India today? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2006)

12. Explains how nanoscience and nanotechnology have revolutionized modern technology (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2006)

13. Describe the importance of laser in war and peace (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2004)

14. What does the solar system consist of? Discuss the motion of the entire solar system as a whole and also the motion of most of the bodies forming the solar system (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2003)

15. What are the fundamental constants and their use in the measurement system? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (2002)

16. What do the following acronym stands for? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1999)

(a)NISSAT

(b) GMRT

(c)INMAS

17. Where are the following institutes located? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1999)



(a) Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology

(b) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research

(c) VikramSarabhaiSpaceCentre

18. What do the following abbreviations stand for? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1998)

(a) C-DAC

(b) ICMR

(c) TRAI

19. What are fullerenes? Why are they important? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1997)

20. What is the difference between a comet and a meteor? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1997)

21. What do the following acronyms stand for? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1997)

(a) TIFR

(b) GRDO

(c) NEERI

22. What are Quasars? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1997)

23. What is virtual reality? What is it used for? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1996)

24. What is a microwave oven? How does it cook food? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1996)

25. What are Bailey’s beads? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1996)

26. What is centchroman? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1996)

27. What is ultrasonography? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1996)


(a) C-DOT (b) CGCRI (c)INMAS

29. Why does a lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon? (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1996)

30. Where are the following located? (Give the name of the city and state). (About 25 words). Marks 3 (1996)

(a) Central Drug Research Institute

(b) SpaceApplicationsCentre

(c) Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research

31. What do you understand by karnal technology? What is it used for? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1995)

32. What is amniocentesis? What has made it a contro-versial technique? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1995)

33. What is pacemaker? How does it work? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1995)


(a) IREDA

(b) APPLE

(c)INMAS

35. What is EI Nino? What is its relevance to India? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1995)

36. What is bioremediation? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1995)

37. What are encilites? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1994)

38. What is Talsur? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1994) 39. What is piezoelectricity? (About 20 words). Marks 2

(1994) 40. What do the following abbreviations stand for?

(About 20 words). Marks 2 (1994) (a) C-DAC

(b) SROSS

(c) INSDOC

41. Whatis‘Shoemaker-Levy9’?Whywasitinthenewsrecently? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1994)

42. What is RDX made of? Why has it been in the news lately? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1993)

43. What do the followings stand for? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1993)

(a) ANURAG

(b) HVDC

(c) GMRT

44. What is a leap second? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1992)


(a) PUFA

(b) VHRR

(c) HDTV

46. What is Maitri? (About 20 words). Marks 2 (1992) 47. What is MRI? What is it used for? (About 20 words).

Marks 2 (1992)



48. What is artificial intelligence? What is its current sce-nario and what are its prospects? (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1991)

49. What is the basis of monsoon forecasts now prepared by the Indian Meteorological Department, which have been reasonably correct for the last three suc-cessive years? (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1991)

50. The National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) is expected to set up a number of hydro-electric projects in theEighthPlan.Summarize thesalient features of the proposal. (About 150 words). Marks 15 (1991)

51. What is the application of superconductors in computers? (About 250 words). Marks 30 (1990)

pRACtICe eXeRCISe

1. Which of the following is a semiconductor?

(a) Plastic (b) Aluminium

(c) Wood (d) Germanium

2. With reference to the history of superconductivity, consider the following statements:

(i) In1972,Bardeen,cooperandSchriefferwontheNobel Prize for their jointly developed theory of superconductivityalsocalledBCStheory.

(ii) In 1987, Abrikosov, Gizburg and A. J. Legget got the Nobel Prize for their discovery of super-conductivity of ceramic materials.

(iii) In 2003, Georg Bednorz and Muller won the Noble Prize for development in the theory of superconductivity and super fluids.

Choose the correct statements: (a) Only i (b) Only ii and iii

(c) Only i and ii (d) i, ii and iii

3. ConsiderthefollowingstatementsaboutSQUID:

(i) It is developed by National Physical Laboratory, Delhi.

(ii) It is developed at the liquid nitrogen temperature (77Kelvin).

(iii) This temperature is the lowest so far for super-conductors.

Choose the incorrect statement: (a) Only i (b) Only ii and iii

(c) Only iii (d) None of these

4. Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

(a) Dye laser

(b) Gas laser

(c) Semiconductorlaser

(d) Excimer laser

5. Laser is a device for producing

(a) Spontaneousradiation

(b) Dispersed radiation

(c) Scatteredradiation

(d) Stimulatedradiation

6. Choose the correct statement:

On the basis of what material or elements are used; LASERareofthefollowingtypes:

(i) High density gain medium laser (ii) Middle density gain medium laser (iii) Low density gain medium laser (iv) Maximum density gain medium laser

Codes: (a) Only i, ii and iv (b) Only i and ii

(c) Only i, iii and iv (d) All of the above

7. What are the different types of Lasers?

1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas 4. Vapours

Codes: (a) 1,2and4 (b) Only1,2and3 (c) Only1,2and4 (d) Alloftheabove

8. Which among the following lasers is used for pollu-tion detector and stone removal:

(a) Glass laser

(b) Titanium-Sapphirelaser

(c) Alexandrite laser

(d) Colour-centre laser

9. Consider the following statements: 1. Fibre lasers are useful in under-sea

communication. 2. Colour-centre laser is used in remote sensing. 3. Titanium-Sapphirelaserisusedinpumplaser.



Choosethecorrectstatement(s): (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 and 3


10. Robots are used in the field of

1. Defence 2. Agriculture

3. Medicine 4. Disastermanagement

Choose the correct codss/ code (a) Only1and2 (b) Only2and4

(c) Only1and4 (d) Allofabove

11. Consider the following statements about robot Daksh.

1. It is a military robot of India.

2. It is a six legged robot.

3. It is electrically powered and remote controlled robot.

4. Itcanseeinthedark.

Choose the correct codes/code (a) Only1,2and3 (b) Only1,3and4

(c) Only2and4 (d) Only1and3

12. Centre for Robotics and Mechanotronics is in

(a) Ahmedabad (b) Pune

(c) Kanpur (d) Chennai

13. The most commonly used material for making tran-sistors is

(a) Aluminium (b) Silicon

(c) Copper (d) Silver

14. The term nanotechnology is coined by

(a) Richard P. Feynman (b) Norio Taniguchi

(c) RobertF.Curl (d) HaroldW.Kroto

15. Considered the following statement about the fullerenes.

1. Used as organic photovoltaic

2. Powerful antioxidants

3. Less reactive with free radicals

Choose the correct statements/statement: (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 and 3

(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) All of the above

16. Carbon nanotubes are used in

1. Making light weight component

2. Making electric cables, wires, solar cells

3. Cancer treatment



17. Consider the following statements about the graphene.

1. Graphene is harder than diamond.

2. Burns at very low temperature.

3. Effective at killing bacteria.




1. Copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it for lifetime.

2. A patent is a form of right granted by the govern-ment to an inventor.

Choose the correct statement: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2


19. What is Trade dress?

(a) It is a term used for the advertisement of certain products.

(b) It is a secret design or pattern of a product.

(c) It is the characteristics of the visual appearance of a product or its packaging.

(d) It refers to the legal copyright of the process.

20. Consider the given statements: 1. BritishStatuteofAnneisseenasoriginofpatent

law. 2. Statute of Monopolies is seen as origin of

copyrights. 3. IP was firstly used for heading title in a collection

of essays.

Choosethecorrectstatement(s): (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 3

(c) Both 1 and 3 (d) None of the above

21. The multilateral treaties on IPR is administered by:

(a) TRIPS (b) WTO

(c) WIPO (d) IMF

22. Consider the statement about Patent:

1. A patent is an exclusive right granted for an inven tion.

2. Protection is granted for a limited period, gener-ally 25 years.

3. Patents are granted by national patent offices.



Choose the correct statements: (a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 and 3

(c) Only 1 and 3 (d) All

23. Which of the following products get the GI tag?

1. Mysoresilk 2. Kullushawl

3. KangraTea 4. Nagpurorange

5. Aligarhi locks 6. Lucknow chicken craft

Choose the correct codes: (a) 1,3,4and4 (b) 2,3,5and4

(c) 1,2,3and4 (d) Alloftheabove

24. Consider the following statements about current LASERbasedtechnology:

1. Archeological exploration and survey.

2. Storage,retrievalandprocessingofinformation.

3. Pollution monitoring.

Whichoftheabovestatementsis/arecorrect? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3

(c) T and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

25. Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. However, it occurs in which of the following and is released as an e-waste:

1. Semiconductors

2. LEDs (light emitting diodes)

3. Solarcells

4. Batteries

Code: (a) Only 1, 2 (b) Only 2, 3

(c) Only1,4 (d) Only1,2,3

26. Over 140 countries have agreed on the first inter-national treaty that aims to reduce the emission and release of mercury into the air, water and land. This treaty is named as the Minamata convention. Which of the following is correct with regard to this treaty?

1. The convention lies conditions on mining of mercury.

2. The use of mercury in products like CFL, batteries, soaps, cosmetics and medical appli-ances must be phased out by 2020.

3. Treaty keeps exception for the products like vaccines preservatives and products related to religious faith.

Code: (a) Only 1 (b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 3 (d) Only 1 and 2

27. Consider the following statements about the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

1. SAFARandAQIaretheinitiativesoftheCPCB.

2. CPCB is the nodal agency to monitor pollution of river Ganga.

3. CPCB is involved in EIA consultation process. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

Code: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only

(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

28. Which of the following techniques can be used for conservation of threatened species?

1. IVF 2. DNA barcoding

3. Cloning 4. Tissueculture

Code: (a) 1only (b) 1and4

(c) 1,2,3and4 (d) None

29. Which of the following biomedical techniques is/are usedforscreeningofHIVAIDSandHepatitis?

1. ELISA

2. Western Blots

3. Polymerase Chain Reaction Code


(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

30. Which of the following crops are used for producing BIO fuels?

1. Sugarcane 2. Com

3. Potato 4. Jatropha

Code: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2,3and4 (d) 1,2,3and4



hIntS AnD eXpLAnAtIonS

prelims Questions

1. The blockchain is an undeniably ingenious invention which created the backbone of a new type of internet originally devised for the digital currency, Bitcoin.

2. There are endless possibilities for the utilization of 3D Printing. We can do anything with 3D printing machines. All the above things can be done with the help of 3D Printing.

3. The nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles.

The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered significantly by depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than needed. Drug delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nano-engineered devices.

Bionanotechnology is a specific application of nanotechnology. For example, DNA nanotechnol-ogy or cellular engineering would be classified as bionanotechnology because they involve working with biomolecules on the nanoscale. Conversely, many new medical technologies involving nanopar-ticles as delivery systems or as sensors would be examples of nanobiotechnology since they involve using nanotechnology to advance the goals of biol-ogy. However, whether it can largely contribute to gene therapy or not is not clear.

4. The IceCube Neutrino Observatory (or simply Ice-Cube) is a neutrino telescope constructed at the

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica.Similar to its predecessor, theAntarcticMuonAndNeutrino Detector Array (AMANDA), IceCube con-sists of spherical optical sensors called Digital Optical Modules (DOMs), each with a photomultiplier tube (PMT) and a single board data acquisition computer which sends digital data to the counting house on the surface above the array. IceCube was completed on 18 December 2010.

However, a neutrino is an electrically neutral ele-mentary particle with half-integer spin. The neutrino (meaning‘littleneutralone’inItalian)isdenotedbythe Greek letter ½ (nu). All evidence suggests that neutrinos have mass but that their masses are tiny, even compared to other subatomic particles. They are the only identified form of dark matter, specifically hot dark matter.

5. Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating elec-trical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using semi-conductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power gener-ation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. It generatesDC. Solar thermal electric energy gener-ation concentrates the light from the sun to create heat, and that heat is used to run a heat engine, which turns a generator to produce electricity. The working fluid that is heated by the concentrated sunlight can be a liquid or a gas. Different working fluids include

AnSWeR KeyS

prelims Questions

1. (b) 2 (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (c)21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (d)31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b)

practice exercise

1. (d) 2 (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d)21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (d)



water, oil, salts, air, nitrogen, helium, etc. Different engine types include steam engines, gas turbines, stir-ling engines, etc. All of these engines can be quite efficient,oftenbetween30and40%,andarecapableof producing 10’s to 100’s of megawatts of power.

6. Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) are organo-bromide compounds that have an inhibitory effect on the ignition of combustible organic materials. Of the commercialized chemical flame retardants, the brominated variety is most widely used. They are very effective in plastics and textile applications, such as electronics, clothes and furniture. BFRs are commonly used in electronic products as a means of reducing the rammability of the product. Many bro-minated chemicals are coming under increasing criti-cism in their use in household furnishings and where children would come into contact with them. They are lipophilic and bio accumulative. Brominated flame retardants are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic to both humans and the environment and are suspected of causing neurobehavioural effects and endocrine disruption.

7. Ultrafine particles are the same as nanoparticles and between 1 and 100 nm in size, as opposed to fine particles are sized between 100 and 2,500 nm, and coarse particles cover a range between 2,500 and 10,000 nm. Nanoparticles present possible dangers, both medically and environmentally. Most of these are due to the high surface to volume ratio, which can make the particles very reactive or catalytic. They are also able to pass through cell membranes in organ-isms. In 2008, it was revealed that nanoparticles of anatase titanium dioxide in sunscreen were reacting with sunlight to produce free radicals.

8. Shale gas is a natural gas trappedwithin layers ofshale rock and can be utilized as cooking gas and for other commercial purposes.

ONGC estimates India’s shale gas reserve is in the range of 500–2000 trillion cubic meters. Cambay is one of the basins that have been identified as poten-tially bearing shale resources. But apart from the Cambay basin, theONGCwill also exploreKrish-na-Godavari, Cauvery and Vindhyan sedimentary basins for shale gas in the near future.

10. Plutonium is a radioactive waste. Heptachlor is used as an insecticide.

11. In cold chambers, the relative humidity remains more than 95% and the temperature is reduced by 6 to 100°C than the ambient temperature. This cool chambers

retard the ripening process by reducing the rate of respiration, and thus, increases the shelf life of both fruits and vegetables.

12. It reduces the rotational friction between the vehicle and the surfaces it runs on such as cemented roads. Friction force is independent of area of contact and proportional to normal force.

14. Gravity, the weakest of the four forces, is about 10–36 times the strength of the strong force. This weakness is easily demonstrable. For example, on a dry day, rub a comb across your shirt to give it static electricity, then hold it over a piece of paper on a desk. If you were successful, the piece of paper lifts off the desk. It takes an entire planet to keep the paper on the desk, but this force is easily overcome with everyday mate-rials employing the electromagnetic force.

15. The combustible gases generated by biomass gasifi-cation are carbon monoxide, hydrogen and traces of methane, which cannot be fed directly into the inter-nal combustion engine.

16. Lead is mainly released from the smelting units, wall and furniture paints as well as by burning of petrol. Most pencil cores are made of graphite mixed with a clay binder, leaving grey or black marks that can be easily erased. Hair oils and cosmetics are mainly derived from the plant products.

17. Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode. LED consists of p-n (positive-negative) junc-tion made of semi-conducting material. When con-nected to a power source, current flows from the p-side or anode to n-side or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers, i.e., electrons and electron holes flow into the junction from electrodes. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy lever and releases energy in the form of a pho-ton (light).

19. Frequency bands have been allocated for cordless phones in the range from2.4GHz to 2.4835GHz,which is unlicensed and used for many communica-tions applications, including Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Microwave ovens also use this frequency.

20. Hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as fuel and the only exhaust given out is harmless H

2O. No toxic gas

comes out.

21. WiMAX is an emerging technology for broadband wireless access. It promises very high data rates, high reliability, good efficiency and low cost. WiMAX enjoys strong industry support and standardization.



Because of its low cost, WiMAX can be used to pro-vide broadband internet access to suburban and rural areas and thus bridge the digital divide.

22. Ethanol is a versatile and useful product. It is pro-duced from renewable resources such as sugarcane, corn, etc., and has been used in India as a feedstock for the production of chemicals and in the manufac-ture of potable liquor.

26. The Prisoner’s Dilemma constitutes a problem in game theory. It was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher working at RAND in 1950. Albert W. Tucker formalized the game with prison sentence payoffs and named it as Prisoner’s Dilemma in 1992.

27. Harold Urey discovered the isotope deuterium in 1931 and was later able to concentrate it in water. Urey’s mentor Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water by electrolysis in 1933.

29. John Cromwell Mather is an American astrophysicist and cosmologist. He was awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics, sharedwith George F. Smoot fortheir discovery of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.

30. Space shuttle orbiterAtlantis is one of the fleet ofspaceshuttlesbelongingtotheUSA.Itwasthefourthoperational shuttle build. Following the destruction for Challenger and Columbia, it is one of the three fully operational shuttles remaining in the fleet. The other two are Discovery and Endeavour.

31. SirNicholasStern,FBA(bornon22April1946)isa British economist and academic. He was the chief economist and senior vice-president of the World Bank from 2000 to 2003 and is now a civil servant

and government economic advisor in the United Kingdom.

32. The hovercraft was invented by Christopher Cockerell in 1956.

The first American submarine is as old as the United States itself. David Bushnell (1742–1824),a Yale graduate, designed and built a submarine torpedo boat in 1776.

Steamship was invented by Jacques Perrier in1775.

33. The Universal Product Code (UPC) was the first bar codes symbology widely adopted. Its birth is usually set at 3 April 1973 when the grocery industry for-mally established. UPC is the standard bar code sym-bology for product marking.

34. CMYKisasubstractivecolourmodelusedincolourprinting. The colours are Cyne, Magenta, Yellow and Key(Black).

35. New Zealanders will pay an extra NZ $2.90 a week for electricity, petrol and gas when the country becomes the first in the world to introduce a carbon tax to address global warming.

37. Medicine Sans Frontieres (MSF)wasestablishedin1971 by a small group of French doctors who had worked in Biafra. Upon their return, they were deter-mined to find a way to respond rapidly and effec-tively to public health emergencies, with complete independence from political, economic and religious influences. Today, it is the world’s leading indepen-dent international medical relief organization with 5 operationcentresinEuropeand14nationalsectionsworldwide.


Section B

S&T_Section B_Model Question Answers.indd 1 7/6/2019 8:42:58 AM

Part 1 (250 Words)

Q.1. What is a biosphere reserve and what is the prog-ress in this direction particularly in India?

Ans. Biosphere reserves are multipurpose protected areas to preserve the biological diversity in representative ecosystems. Biological diversity is the sum total of species—plants, animals, microorganisms—living in the ecosystem.

Biosphere reserve is a new concept in the area of conservation of flora and fauna. Unlike other conser-vation programmes, such as national parks and wild-life sanctuaries, it recognizes man as an integral part of the ecosystem that is to be conserved.

The major objectives of a biosphere reserve are as follows:

1. To conserve diversity and integrity of plants, animals and microorganisms.

2. To promote research on ecological conserva-tion and other environmental aspects.

3. To provide facilities for education, awareness and training.

Biosphere Reserves in IndiaComprehensive guidelines have been prepared which emphasize eco- development projects, devel-opment of ‘database not research’ station, plans to conserve key species, and social welfare activities, creating public awareness by involving NGOs. Lat-est technologies, such as remote sensing, in studying the reserves are envisaged.

The Government of India so far has identified the following 18 potential sites which are listed as follows:

1. Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) 2. Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) 3. Nokrek (Meghalaya) 4. Great Nicobar (Southern most islands of

Andaman And Nicobar) 5. Gulf of Mannar (Indian part of Gulf of

Mannar between India and Sri Lanka) 6. Manas (Assam) 7. Sunderbans (West Bengal) 8. Similipal (Odisha) 9. Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam)10. Dehang-Dibang (Arunachal Pradesh)11. Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh)12. Khangchendzonga (Sikkim)13. Agasthyamalai (Neyyar, Peppara and Shen-

durney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoin-ing areas in Kerala)

14. Achanakamar-Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattish-garh State)

15. Kachchh (Gujarat)16. Cold Desert (Himachal Pradesh)17. Seshachalam Hills (Andhra Pradesh)18. Panna (Madhya Pradesh)

Sample Questions with Answers


Section B: Sample Questions with Answers2.4

Q.2. Give a brief account on major achievements in the realm of biotechnology in India.

Ans. India, being geographically placed in the tropical and subtropical region, enjoys diversity and abundance of plants. Thus, India has an immense potential for the development in the field of biotechnology.

The Department of Biotechnology is supporting several R&D projects in the area of crop biotechnol-ogy, such as regeneration of plants from protoplasts of indica rice and wide hybridization.

In the field of bio-fretters, technologies for blue green algae and rhizobium are currently available.

Some important forest tree species have been identified for undertaking work on production of biomass fuel, fodder, etc., using tissue culture in the field of prawn farming, use of bio-fertilizer or bio-technology is also available.

In the field of medical science:

1. Manufacture and R&D unit of oral polio vac-cine.

2. Manufacture and R&D unit for vital vaccines.

There is a project to develop safe and effective contra-ceptive vaccines using immunological approaches.

Q.3. Biotechnology boom may pave a golden path for India. Discuss.

Ans. Biotechnology is one of the emerging technologies which have immense potential for a developing country like India.

Biotechnology is the industrial use of microor-ganisms, living plants and animal cells to produce substances or effects which are beneficial to people. Biotechnology encompasses the manufacture of antibiotics, vitamins, vaccines, plastics, etc. Toxic waste disposed using bacteria, pollution control, production of new fuels are all possible through bio-technology. Gene technology, tissue culture, hybrid seed production, microbial fermentation, production of hybrid-dome antibodies or immunochemicals are widespread biotechnologies used in India.

India being a country with large geographical expansion and human population, biotechnology in agriculture sector has turnout to be boom with HYV, and other gene and tissue culture technology. Bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticides are further helpful

in a big manner. For biodiversity and environmen-tal conservation, it is greatly helpful. Biosensors for detection of organo-phosphate pesticide residues in water, reclamation of degraded ecosystem at Bhatti mines (Delhi) and in Nagpur are in practice.

For human health, several vaccines, medicine in neuroscience, biotechnology have done wonders. Bharat Immunologicals and Biologicals Corporation Limited (BIBCOL) is engaged in making OPV for polio eradication.

Thus, biotechnology can do wonders in all the important sectors in India with minimum of invest-ment.

Q.4. What is genetic conservation? Describe the salient features of genetic conservation activity in India.

Ans. Genetic conservation is the protection, preservation and management of the genetic resources for main-taining biodiversity and for the benefit of all life, so that sustainable benefit may be derived, while poten-tial is maintained to meet the needs of the future generations. A great deal of work needs to be done on the conservation of genetic diversity among wild species in India. The Asiatic Lion, for instance has been saved by protecting the Gir habitat. But in a situation where the entire wild population of 240 lions is confined to one protected area, the genetic diversity will tend to decrease through interbreed-ing. Therefore, ways have to be found to mix these with captive animals as well.

Sanctuaries and national parks are getting isolated and population as well. Therefore, there are very less chances of intra-group breeding. Experiments at developing corridors between parks and integrat-ing different parks into one are being focused. A few programmes exist for the maintenance of original breeds.

Ex situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is being done through the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, for wild relatives of crop plants; the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, for domes-ticated animals; and the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow. The Department of Biotechnology provides infrastructure to them.



Q.5. What is genetic engineering? Why is it getting increasingly important these days?

Ans. Genetic engineering is the technology used for con-structing and transplanting genes from one organ-ism to another. It is the science of modifying genes. Cloning holds great hopes and promises as men-tioned below:

• The high-yielding varieties of seeds or crops of short duration or those suitable for arid/semi-arid areas are the results of the genetic engi-neering.

• New proteins may be synthesized by genetic engineering. This holds high promise for com-bating pollution with natural organisms.

• It can be used in removing an oil spill or tar from the surface of seas.

• It may be used to prevent or cure diseases. Genetic disorders are treated by gene therapy. However, dangerous potentials are there. It may be put to use in the field of warfare by cre-ating harmful genetic combinations. There has been a move in certain countries to create supe-rior human beings through genetic engineering.

Q.6. What are stem cells? What is the controversy sur-rounding them?

Ans. Stem cells are master cells that can grow into any type of cell. They have the potential to replace any kind of diseased cells in the body, and thus have the possibility of curing a large number of diseases hith-erto which were unconquered earlier.

These stem cells are blank, primitive and undif-ferentiated that have not yet grown into any identi-fiable part of the body. The stem cells, apart from growing and multiplying into specific tissues to replace damaged ones, can also serve as a safe and inexhaustible source of blood for transfusion and to serve effectively for the treatment of leukaemia, anaemia, etc. These cells can be used to study the growth of an embryo in a body, thus helping the researchers to perform laboratory innervations to prevent formation of bodies which can have defor-mities. The tissues developed by stem cells can be experimented for the effect of newly invented drugs

to have exact understanding of their effects, rather than testing them on animals.

There are embryonic and adult stem cells. Embry-onic stem cells are taken from an embryo and adult stem cells are taken from a person (adult or child) or from the umbilical cord. Scientists have also found that a few stem cells persist even after we are born.

The whole controversy over stem cells is that the cells come from an embryo. An embryo is a liv-ing human being, and destroying it for any reason is morally unacceptable. Others say that these have the potential to cure most diseases, and the embryos used would have been discarded by fertility clinics. Recently, Britain has become the sole European nation to grant 1-year license for cloning human embryos for harvesting stem cells. Stem cells can be extracted from already fertilized embryos pre-served by fertility clinics. Thus, embryos will not be produced with the sole intention of harvesting stem cells, partly solving the ethical issue.

Q.7. What are Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)? What are their uses?

Ans. The phase between two temperatures is called liq-uid crystal. The liquid crystalline phase occurs in solids with two or more melting points. Liquid crys-tals have been known for long but materials forming liquid crystals at room temperature were discovered later. Nematic liquid crystal is the simplest type of it.

Liquid crystal displays are commonly used in calculators and electronic watches. The LCDs are key components in portable computers, video games and virtual-reality devices. It consumes very less electricity.

In a watch or calculator, two glass sheets are coated on their inner surfaces, with a transparent film of electricity-conductive material. An electric charge passing through a liquid crystal causes the molecules to re-align and re-channel the light waves falling upon them.

The use of thin-film technology has led to what is known as active-matrix LCD. Advanced LCD has been utilized by Japanese to become basic to their electronic strategy.



Part B (150 Words)

Q.8. What are the causes of decline in biodiversity? What are the conservation efforts needed to pre-serve biodiversity of the globe?

Ans. Biodiversity is the sum total of species—plants, ani-mals and microorganisms—living in an ecosystem. Biodiversity indicates variation and abundance of species and their habitats. India is uniquely rich in different aspects of biodiversity ecosystem, species, and genetic resources.

Of all countries in world, India is one of the very few that can boast of a very large array of species. This is due to the country’s tropical locations in addition to varied climate and physical features.

The rate at which some species are disappearing or about to disappear is alarming. Some the threats for their extinct are:

1. Agricultural extension.2. Clearing of forests for hydel projects.3. Over-exploitation for commercial purpose.4. Pollution in air, water, and land.5. Global warming leading to change in habitat.6. Improper use of insecticides and pesticides.

Following are the methods by which we can pre-serve biodiversity:

1. Ex Situ Conservation: When the population of some of the species becomes very fragile, they have to be given a suitable location out-side the natural habitat.

2. In Situ Conservation: This is done by declar-ing certain areas as protected from adverse interference.

3. Biosphere Reserves: They will have a core zone and a buffer zone. The core zone will be a protected area, while the buffer zone is open to research, tourism, etc.

4. National Parks and Sanctuaries: National parks are protected areas which do not allow tourists, but the same is not applied in sanc-tuaries.

5. Frozen Zoo: In order to conserve some of endangered species, their sperm and ova are preserved at liquid nitrogen temperature.

Q.9. What are biosensors? Describe their uses.

Ans. Biosensors are a new chain of molecules which serve analytical sensing devices exploiting the nature’s

unique biological recognition systems. Molecu-lar recognition system forms an integral part of all living systems, and understanding them can lead to important medical and industrial applications.

Biosensors are multifarious in their applications. They detect odours, check the safety of the food, identify the bacterial infections, detect hazardous gases which cause pollution, inculcate immunity, locate objects in the sea, etc. They are also used for a wide range of applications from weather monitor-ing to spying. Some of the biosensors are mentioned below:

1. E. Nose: To detect odours, that is, to predict ripening of fruits.

2. Dust Bugs: Dust bugs are used to communi-cate with each other and also used in a range of applications from weather monitoring to spying.

3. Sonar: It decodes underwater sounds and locates the objects in the sea.

4. Biosensors for Food Safety: It can detect 12 different pathogens associated with human stomach illness.

5. Enzyme: Ezyme-based biosensors in the form of enzyme electrodes find both clinical and industrial applications. Scientists in Brit-ain have developed biosensors, which identify enzymes in washing powders that affect skin and lungs of the workers.

Q.10. What is biotechnology? Discuss the important applications of biotechnology.

Ans. Biotechnology is the science of using plants, ani-mals and microorganisms to make products benefi-cial to mankind. It is a broad science involving inte-grated use of bioscience, chemistry and engineering. It includes the techniques of tissue culture, cell culture, embryo-transfer technology, fermentation, genetic engineering, etc.

Biotechnology has its uses in almost all walks of life. Micro-propagation through tissue culture, development of hybrid super seeds, and higher nutri-tional value plants through genetic engineering, pro-duction of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, etc., are few of its uses in agriculture field. It helps in mak-ing aqua-farming feasible and commercially viable. Biotechnology can be applied for increasing nutri-



tive value of food, enhancement of flavour, fermen-tation of food, efficient grain storage by eliminating pests and rodents, etc.

In the veterinary field, embryo-transfer technol-ogy offers scope for achieving faster multiplication of good livestock.

In the field of health and medicine, biotechnology contributes by:

• Diagnosis of various diseases, such as TB, leprosy, typhoid, malaria, cancer, AID, etc., at early stage and in early detection of pregnancy.

• Developing better vaccines and drugs for the treatment of diseases.

• Correcting genetic disorders by gene therapy.• Population control (both in man and animal).• Through stem cell technology, ‘Biochips’ help

in faster movement of electricity.

Biotechnology is an environment-friendly technol-ogy. It is used in the following ways to safeguard environment:

• Biodegradation of man-made chemicals (viz., plastics, polymers and synthetic materials) by using microbe nutrients.

• Treatment of sewage and industrial effluents by microbial processes.

• Enhancement of oil recovery from oil drills by microbial processes.

• Fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, methane, etc., are produced from microbial process.

• Biogas generation from wastes.• Biomass production using tissue culture.• Control of air pollution and control of water

pollution by using sulphur-reducing bacteria to eat the sulphate in sulphate-contaminated water.

• Prevention of communicable diseases thorough vector control.

• Population control both in man and animals.• Biosensors for environmental monitoring.

Q.11. What is DNA fingerprinting?

Ans. DNA fingerprinting is a technique of detecting spe-cific sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) for a unique individual. It uses the polymerase chain reaction to amplify the specific sequences of DNA and to make its clones. It is used to establish lineages and also for identifying criminals. In this technique, DNA is isolated from a tiny segment of any type of

tissues—semen, hair, blood or skin. It is washed and cut into fragments by restricting enzymes that cleave the DNA molecule at specific locations. The frag-ments are then sorted by size. Some segments are repeated at regular intervals.

The repeated segments are then tagged with radioactive probes that allow the fragments to be visualized as patterns of bands on photographic paper. The resultant image will have regular patterns of bands. The image is then matched with DNA col-lected from the suspect.

DNA is the genetic material carried neatly packed in the chromosomes within the nucleus of the each cell. It is known that certain regions on DNA are made up of tandem repeats of short sequences, known as mini-satellites. It is found that variation in the pattern of repetitive sequences of mini-satellites is very high, which makes the possible number of permutations so large that it is highly unlikely that the same combination could be repeated in the DNA of another person.

Q.12. What are transgenic plants? What are they used for?

Ans. Transgenic plants are those plants in which a for-eign gene/s has/have been introduced and stably intergraded into the host DNA. It results in the synthesis of appropriate gene product by the trans-formed plants. Transfer between Agrobacterium tumefaciens and certain plants has provided scien-tists with the most powerful tool to genetically trans-form plants. Other methods include gene transfer by micro- projectiles or particle gun, electroporation method, liposome-medicated gene transforma-tion by ultra-sanitation, etc. But Agrobacterium- mediated plant transformation remains the most convenient.

Transgenic plants carry desirable traits, like disease resistance, insect resistance and herbicide resistance. Eventually this may also be used for increasing photosynthetic efficiency, nitrogen-fixing ability, improved storage protection, hybrid crop, crops for food processing and molecular farming.

Q.13. What is human cloning? Is it dangerous or bene-ficial?

Ans. Cloning is the process of making similar copies of living beings, be it a cell, tissue or a complete organ-ism. It is a kind of asexual reproduction in which the



product is, instead of being a product of genes from two parents, a genetic copy of one only. In cloning, the product will be an exact replica of the original organism.

Advantages:• Human aging process can be better understood

and can be used to stop or reduce aging pro-cess.

• The knowledge about spinal cord, heart mus-cles, brain that do not regenerate afterwards, etc., can be used to cure various brain degen-erative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s and cancer).

Disadvantages:• WHO describes it as an unethical process

which undermines the society’s respect for human life.

• It may destroy the whole social structure—family, marriage, kinship, etc.

• It may result in the loss of genetic diversity in humans, thus, it may interfere with human evo-lution and the process of natural selection.

• It may be used in human clone army, subju-gation of one race by the other and the racial exploitation.

Due to the dangers associated with human cloning research, the United States and 19 European coun-tries have banned the human cloning for a period of 10–20 years.

Q.14. Discuss in detail the Internet telephony as an alternative.

Ans. Internet telephony is the use of Internet as a tele-phone service. Twenty years ago, the only commu-nication channels available were the telephone lines. These had limited bandwidths (4 kHz). Now, it is possible to link telephones located in remote regions to the conventional telephone exchange through sat-ellites.

Internet telephony will be a much cheaper option than the conventional telephone system, and it will be more efficient in terms of accuracy and broad bandwidths. Thus, it will prevent us from dialling/receiving wrong numbers and other problems which are a part of conventional telephones these days. It is easier to get an Internet connection particularly in the remote areas where telephone lines are yet to reached.

The Indian government has allowed the use of PC-to-PC and PC-to-phone connectivity through Internet. The government has refused to grant per-mission for telephone conversation by using Inter-net. But once implemented, it will be difficult to control the conversation. Because of the reduced rate, the international outgoing calls will increase dramatically, which are at present only 20% (i.e., 80% of the international calls are incoming as the calls are much cheaper in other countries as com-pared to Indian rates).

Q.15. What do you understand by virtual reality?

Ans. Virtual-reality technique is a major breakthrough in the way human world is interacting with comput-ers. It enables a person to enter the world of three- dimensional (3-D) computers. They accord multiple sensory information, sight, sound and touch in an effort to make the situation realistic. Virtual-reality technique enables a viewer to interact with 3-D vir-tual-reality images by using a helmet that isolates them from the world, and these interactive devices could either be sensory gloves or joystick.

It has various applications as a training tool. It can simulate anything from battle situations to complicated operations. Virtual-reality technique is used to study human behaviour, and psychologists see great prospects in virtual-reality technique. The entertainment business has a great future for itself using virtual- reality technique for interactive the-atre, interactive fiction and virtual sculpture. Thus, it has wide applications in education, training pilots, business and entertainment, etc.

Q.16. What are VSATs? What are their uses?

Ans. Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) are earth stations with antennas less than 2 m in diametre. VSATs are also called micro-terminals, which are small, dish antennas working with communication satellites. They are very useful in reducing the cost of terminals for large networks.

VSAT terminals are operated in closed networks for information broadcasting or for information exchange. VSAT terminals can communicate with each other only through a large station called substa-tion, and not directly. These terminals are designed for unattended operation.



Two-way data transmission is the main applica-tion of VSATs networks. Some other applications include voice, video and facsimile transmission. These applications of VSATs can be used in areas, like stock-exchange institutions, banking services, document express service, retail networks, booking reservation, corporate networking, weather reports, industrial services and international services, etc.

Q.17. What is HDTV? What are its advantages and applications?

Ans. High Definition Television (HDTV) is a broadcast system with more lines per frame, thus providing resolution than traditional Standard Definition for-mats. HDTV provides powerful viewing experience with crystal picture clear quality and wide-screen picture. Aspect ratio of HDTV pictures is 16:9 as against 4:3 for SDTV (Standard Definition Televi-sion). HDTV can provide fast real difference wav-ing and random moving objects, such as concerts, music videos, etc. The use of HDTV in international sports event is increasing day by day. The field of cinema is also using HD format to store movies in digital form. HDTV is gaining popularity fast. HDTV is best viewed on HDTV sets. HD-ready plasma is available in India. The existing SDTV sets can receiver HDTV signals by connecting through an external HD receiver box which will improve the picture quality but will not provide the full benefit of HDTV.

Q.18. Answer the following: (a) Describe the features of CARTOSAT and its

variants. (b) Discuss the major features of PRITHVI and

its variants.

Ans. (a) CARTOSAT is a state-of-the-art remote-sens-ing satellite launched by ISRO, which is mainly intended for cartographic applications. For the first time, a thematic satellite has been dedicated exclu-sively for cartographic applications.

CARTOSAT carries two high-resolution pan-chromatic cameras having a resolution power of 2.5 m. The cameras are mounted on the satellite in such a way that simultaneous imaging of the same area from two different angles is possible which facili-tates generation of accurate 3-D maps.

It is the first time when a satellite has been pro-vided with a long-track, stereo- imaging capacity. CARTOSAT has tremendous cartographic applica-tions. High-resolution power enables generation of large-scale topographic maps. Existing topographic maps can also be updated using CARTOSAT appli-cations.

CARTOSAT also enables generation of the dig-ital elevation models (DEM) and other value-added products.

Ans. (b) PRITHVI, the vital component of Indian IGMDP, is a surface-to-surface missile. It is among the most-modern short-ranged battlefield missiles in the world. It has the highest warhead weight to the overall weight of any missile in its class due to its unique aerodynamic design with delta wings located mid-body that allows it to glide during flight.

PRITHVI missile has four variants as mentioned below:

1. PRITHVI-I is a battlefield support system for the army (range 150 km and 100 kg payloads). It is a single-stage, dual-engine, liquid-pro-pelled, short-range, surface-to-surface missile.

2. PRITHVI-II is the IAF version (range 250 km and 500–700 kg payload) with the similar features of PRITHVI-I. DRDO has decided to increase its payload capability to 1000 kg.

3. PRITHVI-III is a solid-fuelled version. (range 350 km and 1000 kg payload). It is a two-stage missile. Sagarika and PRITHVI-III are two dif-ferent acronyms.

4. Dhanush is a system consisting of a stabiliza-tion platform and the missile.

Although PRITHVI is capable of using nuclear war-head, it is dedicated for battlefield use making use of conventional payloads.

Q.19. What are normal osmosis and reverse osmosis? Why has reverse osmosis become popular in India today?

Ans. Reverse osmosis is the process of pushing a solution through a filter that traps the solute on one side. In other words, it is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high-solute concentration, through a membrane, to a region of low concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pres-sure.



This is the reverse of the normal osmosis process, which is the natural movement of solvent from an area of low-solute concentration, through a mem-brane, to an area of high-solute concentration when no external pressure is applied. The membrane here is semi-permeable, which means it allows the pas-sage of solvent but not of solute.

The membranes used for reverse osmosis have no pores rather the separation takes place in a dense polymer layer of only microscopic thickness. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through. The water goes into solution

in the polymer of which the membrane is manufac-tured, and crosses it by diffusion.

It is observed that the lowering of water level has reduced the availability of ground water and deteri-orated its quality. In some areas, it is not available at all. Due to these reasons, today industries are actively considering a recycle of wastewater.

The effluent recycling usually makes an in-house, reliable, good quality additional water source avail-able for the industry, which can be an attractive preposition for the future.


Section C

S&T_Section-C_Practic Paper Level 1.indd 1 7/6/2019 8:43:51 AM

Direction: For each of the following questions, there are four options, choose/select the correct answer.

1. What is cloud computing?

(a) It describes computation, software, data access and storage services.

(b) It is the use of computers to forecast clouds and rains.

(c) It is a recent state-of-the-art technology used in life-saving system in space.

(d) It is the advanced version of Apple Operating System (iOS).

2. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mainly consists of

(a) Methane, ethane and hexane.

(b) Ethane, hexane and nonane.

(c) Methane, butane and propane.

(d) Methane, hexane and nonane.

3. Why is there no life on moon? (a) Because there is no atmosphere on moon. (b) Because there is no free oxygen on the moon. (c) Because there is no water on moon. (d) Because there is 1/6 gravitational force on moon

in comparison to the earth.

4. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct option using the following code.

List-I List-II

1. Lakshya A. Unmanned Aerial vehicle (UAV)

2. Nishant B. Remotely piloted high-speed target drone

3. SARVATRA C. Electronic warfare (EW) system

4. SAMYUKTA D. Mobile bridge laying system

Code: A B C D (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 4 3 (c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 3 4 2 1

5. Consider the following pairs:

Operating Systems Developed by 1. Symbian Nokia

2. Mac OS X Apple Inc.

3. Bada Blackberry OS

Which of the above given pairs is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 3 only


Type of sonar Name 1. Ship-borne sonar A. HUMSA 2. Air-borne systems B. MIHIR dunking sonar 3. Submarine sonar C. USHUS 4. Integrated D. PANCHENDRIYA submarine sonar and tactical fire control

system

Code: A B C D (a) 1 2 3 4

(b) 2 3 4 1

(c) 2 3 1 4

(d) 1 2 4 3

Sample Practice Paper for Preliminary and Main Examinations

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-I


Section C: Sample Practice Paper for Preliminary and Main Examinations3.4

7. Consider the following statements about plasma state:

1. The plasma state consists of super-energetic and super-excited particles, which are in the form of ionized gases.

2. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consists of plasma.

3. The sun and stars glow because of the presence of plasma, which is produced due to very strong gravitational force.


(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 3



1. 1G mobile technology systems uses logarithmic modulation and it is limited to only the voice transmission.

2. 2G mobile system uses digital modulation and provides voice and limited data service.

3. GSM 3G is based on the WCDMA (Wide Band Code Division Multiple Access), while the CDMA 3G is based on EVDO (Evolution Data Only).



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

9. Kepler’s second law concerning the constancy of the aerial velocity of a planet is a consequence of the conservation of

(a) Angular momentum (b) Energy

(c) Linear momentum (d) None of these

10. What is SQUID technology?

(a) It uses the most sensitive devices to detect nuclear radiations emitted from a radioactive material.

(b) It uses the most sensitive devices to detect the presence of oil surge or oil spill.

(c) It uses sensitive devices to detect the presence of AWACS.

(d) It uses the most sensitive devices to detect the magnetic flux signals.

11. What is wrong about the National Knowledge Network (NKN)?

(a) The NKN will consist of an ultra high-speed core and the participating institutions can directly connect to the NKN at speeds of 100 Mbps/1 Gbps.

(b) NKN enables the creation of Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) for special interest groups and it is connected to Trans-Eurasia Information Network (TEIN3).

(c) It is connected to the GLORIAD network.

(d) The virtual library which involves sharing of journals, books and research papers across differ-ent institutions is a natural application for NKN.


Web Browser Provider A. Firefox 1. Microsoft

B. Internet Explorer 2. Google

C. Chrome 3. Apple

D. Safari 4. Mozilla foundation

Code: A B C D (a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 4 3 1 (c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 2 4 1 3

13. Which of the following is true about the Kalpakkam fast breeder reactor?

1. It only uses natural uranium as a fuel.

2. It uses plutonium carbide and natural uranium as a fuel.

3. More than 200 MW atomic electricity would be produced from it.

Choose the correct answer from the following options:

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

14. Consider the following statements about Electrocar-diograph (ECG):

1. Electrocardiograph is a transthoracic interpreta-tion of the electrical activity of the heart over time capture and externally recorded by skin electrodes.

2. The ECG works mostly by detecting and ampli-fying the tiny electrical changes on the skin that are caused when the heart muscle polarizes during each heartbeat.

Which of the above statements are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2




1. Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken to reduce inflammation and used as an analgesic for reducing pain in certain conditions.

2. Diclofenac causes acute kidney failure in vul-tures when they eat the carcasses of animals that had recently been treated with it.

3. Diclofenac is used for musculoskeletal com-plaints, like arthritis and specially rheumatoid arthritis.

4. Diclofenac is an important constituent of the muscle pain-relief medicine ‘Moov.’


(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4


Use Acid 1. Tanning of leather A. Nitric acid

2. An antiseptic B. Boric acid

3. In lead storage C. Hydrochloric acid battery

4. In the manufacturing D. Sulphuric acid of dyes and drugs

Code: 1 2 3 4 (a) C B D A (b) A B C D (c) D B C A (d) A B D C


Instrument Use 1. Quadrant A. Measures heat

radiation

2. Radio micrometer B. Measures altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy

3. Stereoscope C. To view rapidly moving objects

4. Stroboscope D. To view two-dimensional pictures

Code: 1 2 3 4 (a) A B C D (b) B A D C (c) D C B A (d) C D A B


(Nuclear Power Plant) (Country) 1. Golfech A. USA

2. Onagawa B. Japan

3. Tihange C. Belgium

4. Nine Mile Point D. France

Code: 1 2 3 4 (a) A C D B

(b) A D C B

(c) D B C A

(d) D A B C

19. Consider the following statements with regard to the missile ‘Astra’:

1. Astra is an active radar homing beyond visual range air to air missile, developed by the Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), India.

2. The maximum range of Astra is to be 80 km in head-on chase and 20 km in tail chase.

3. It issues ramjet propulsion similar to that used in its ‘Akash’—surface to air missile project.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are not correct?

(a) 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

20. Consider the following statement with regard to CIRUS (Canada India Research Utitlity Services):

1. CIRUS is a research reactor, which was supplied by Canada in 1954.

2. It was modelled on the Canadian Chalk River National Research X- perimental (NRX) reactor.

3. The CIRUS reactor used heavy water supplied by the USA.

4. CIRUS under the IAEA safeguard was shut down on 31st December 2010.



Which of the statement(s) given above is/are not correct?


(c) 4 only (d) 3 only

21. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) has signed MoUs with reactor vendors. Match the following reactors with their parent companies.

Reactor Country 1. GE Hitachi Nuclear A. France Energy (GEH)

2. Areva B. USA

3. Kazatomprom C. South Korea

4. KEPCO D. Kazakhstan

Code: 1 2 3 4 (a) B C A D

(b) B D C A

(c) B A D C

(d) B D A C

22. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (a) ABHAY: Infantry Combat Vehicle (ICV) being

developed in India by the DRDO. (b) SUJAV: Compact communication electronic

warfare suit. (c) REVATHI: 3D-Surveillance Radar System. (d) SANGRAHA: Electronic Warfare System for

Indian Air Force.

23. Consider the following divisions of Hindustan Aero-nautics Limited and choose the correct answer from the following codes:

Division Place 1. Avionics division A. Bengaluru

2. Accessories B. Nasik

division

3. Engine division C. Lucknow

4. Aircraft division D. Korwa

Code: 1 2 3 4 (a) B A D C (b) B A C D (c) A C D B (d) C D B A


(Fighter Aircrafts) (Country) A. JAS 39 Gripen 1. France

B. Junkers Ju 88 2. USA

C. Nieuport 28 3. Germany

D. Lockheed Martin 4. Sweden

F-22 Raptor

Code: A B C D (a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 2 4 1 3 (c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 3 4 2 1

25. Consider the following statements about Beam Technology:

1. Laser system and electron beam accelerators are the areas where India is one of the front runners.

2. Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT) in Indore and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai are engaged in the development of applications in the areas of laser systems, electron beam processes and devices, and plasma devices.

3. RRCAT is working with major cable manufac-tures to indigenously develop the electron beam cross linked cables in collaboration with Shriram Institute of Chemical Research, New Delhi.

Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) All of the above

26. Consider the following statements about Board of Radiation and Isotopes Technology (BRIT):

1. It was constituted in 1989 under the department of Atomic Energy.

2. BRIT is engaged in the production and supply of radioimmunoassay (RIA) and immuno-radiometric assay (IRMA) kits for vari-ous hormones.


(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2




Drugs Disorders/Diseases A. Zidovudine or 1. Dysmenorrhea

azidothymidine (AZT)

B. Oseltamivir 2. AIDS

Phosphate

C. Acetylsalicyclic 3. Influenza (flu)

acid (ASA)

D. Ibuprofen 4. Minor aches and pains

Code: A B C D

(a) 4 3 1 2

(b) 2 4 3 1

(c) 4 3 2 1

(d) 2 3 4 1

28. Why there is no atmosphere on moon?

(a) Moon is a satellite and it cannot hold the atmo-sphere due to its very low weight in comparison to other celestial bodies.

(b) Moon is a satellite and it cannot hold the atmo-sphere due to unavailability of water on it.

(c) It has very low temperature and hence, it can-not possess an atmosphere as there are no gases which contract at low temperature.

(d) Due to its small size and less mass, there is not enough gravity to hold air-molecules on moon.

29. What is Chandrashekhar Limit?

(a) It is the limiting factor by which any commodity stabilizes the critical and feasible ratio of demand and supply in the markets.

(b) It is the threshold amount of toxics any environ-ment can hold in given time and space irrespec-tive of possessing the highest carrying capacity of the biosphere.

(c) It defines the diplomatic terminology of interna-tional community which in turn explains the max-imum possession of weapons of mass destruc-tions (WMDs) including nuclear weapons.

(d) It is the upper bound mass of a star, which is nec-essary to turn itself into a black hole or into a dwarf star.

30. Consider the following statements about Progeria:

1. It occurs as a new mutation (de novo), and is not inherited.

2. Like ‘accelerated aging diseases’ such as Werner’s syndrome or Cockayne’s syndrome progeria is also caused by defective DNA.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

31. Fibre-optic communication systems have revolution-ized the telecommunication sector. Which of the fol-lowing statements is/are correct regarding fibre-optic communication?

1. It includes an optical transmitter to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fibre.

2. The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.

3. Optical fibre is generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances that electrical cabling can accommo-date.

4. Optical fibre cannot be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference.

Code: (a) Only 2 (b) Only 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

32. Consider the following statements about the Maglev trains:

1. Maglev transport is a means of moving a train along a track by using magnets to create both lift and thrust, only a few inches above the track surface.

2. Maglev transportation does not use mechanical methods, such as wheels, axles and bearings to suspend, guide and propel vehicles.

3. The CJR’s MLX01 of Japan is a conventional wheel rail train while TGV of France is a super-conducting Maglev train.

4. There are presently only two commercial Maglev transport systems in operation, with two others under construction in the world.




(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

33. Which one of the following statements is not correct about Green chemistry?

(a) Green chemistry is a production process that would bring about minimum pollution or deteri-oration to the environment.

(b) Green chemistry is the utilization of existing knowledge base for reducing the chemical haz-ards along with the developmental activities.

(c) Green chemistry is a cost-effective approach, which involves reduction in material, energy consumption and waste generation.

(d) Green chemistry primarily emphasizes on organic farming by the use of pesticides and chemical fer-tilizers and thus to enhance the Green revolution.

34. Generally, heart attack and heart failure are consid-ered as the same while they both are different. Which one of the following statements most correctly explains the difference between them?

(a) Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the needs of the body, while a heart attack can be explained when the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply.

(b) Heart failure means the state of heart when the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inad-equate blood supply and the heart attack is the inability of heart to supply the blood to vital organs, such as brain and heart itself.

(c) Heart failure means the condition when heartbeat stops permanently and it is resulted by the con-dition of acute cardiac arrest, which in turn is a result of fatal heart attack.

(d) Heart attack means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the needs of the body, while the heart failure is the condition when the heart stops beating.

35. Consider the following statements with regard to Ku band:

1. Ku band is used for satellite communications, most notably for fixed and broadcast services.

2. The microwave frequencies of the C-band per-form better under adverse weather conditions in comparison with Ku band.

3. The Ku band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the infrared range of frequencies and in radar applications, it ranges from 12–18 GHz.



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

36. Consider the following statements about ‘Bio Piracy’?

1. Biopiracy is a situation where indigenous knowl-edge of nature, originating with indigenous people is exploited for commercial gain without permission from and with no compensation to the indigenous people themselves.

2. Most of the industrialized nations are rich finan-cially and they also have plenty of biodiversity and natural knowledge, which is promoting the increasing practices of biopiracy.




37. With regard to ‘Nano-Ears,’ consider the following statements:

1. It is the world’s smallest ears created using a tiny piece of gold suspended in a laser beam.

2. It is capable of hearing sounds of bacteria, viruses, etc.

3. It has duplicated the abilities of some of the most minute insects hearting abilities.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3


1. PING is a computer network utility used to test the availability of a host on Internet Protocol.

2. BOTS are software applications that run auto-mated tasks over the internet.

3. Blogasm refers excess load on a blog due to a large number of visitors.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?


(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

39. Rapid changes in technology, revolution in IT, fall-ing prices of electronic equipments and planned obsolescence of them have resulted the problem of fast-growing surplus of electronic waste (e-waste)



around the globe. Consider the following statements in this regard:

1. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are one of the hardest e-waste to recycle since they have high concen-tration of lead and phosphor, both of which are necessary for the display.

2. Incineration with energy recovery is one of the several waste-to-energy (WIE) technologies, such as gasification, plasma arc gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion.

3. Plasma gasification is a process to convert e-waste into syngas by using plasma processing.


(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

40. Optical and radio telescopes are operated from the ground but X-ray astronomy is possible only from satellites orbiting the earth. Why?

(a) Since the wavelength and frequency of the X-rays are very low it cannot penetrate the layers of atmosphere.

(b) X-rays face interference by different electromag-netic waves used in communication.

(c) Atmosphere absorbs X-rays, while visible and radio waves can penetrate it.

(d) X-rays have higher wavelength and hence, they scatter easily in the atmosphere and cannot bring the satisfactory fruits.

41. If the earth did not have an atmosphere, what effect will be on its average surface temperature?

(a) There would be no effect at all as the temperature of the earth surface solely depends on the insola-tion received by the sun.

(b) The average temperature of the earth would increase manifold since no part of the solar energy would increase manifold and since no part of the solar energy would be absorbed fur-ther by the atmosphere.

(c) The constant maintenance of earth’s average temperature would be vanished as it would start fluctuating between the range of –20ºC and 50ºC.

(d) The temperature of the earth would be lower because the Greenhouse effect of the atmosphere would be absent.

42. Every time you eat a ripe golden yellow mango, remember it could be sending a carcinogenic mate-rial into your body, as farmers from time immemorial have been using calcium carbide to ripen the fruit that is harvested raw. How does the mango get ripen on exposing them to the calcium carbide?

(a) Calcium carbide on reacting with the chlorophyll of the green mango produces yellow coloured chromoplast which gives the yellow colour to rather unripe mango.

(b) Calcium carbide reacts with moisture and pro-duces acetylene gas which ripens the fruit just like ethylene gas used in the scientific ripening chambers.

(c) Calcium carbide produces CO2, which is hyper-

thermic, i.e., it increases the temperature of the surroundings and thus the mangoes get ripen before their maturity.

(d) Calcium carbide works as a hormone and it induces the premature ripening processes.

43. The problem of blindness is a growing concern across India. To some extent, it can be tackled by encourag-ing eye donation. Consider the following statements in this regard:

1. Generally, eye donation means the transplanta-tion of a healthy retina to a diseased one.

2. People who use spectacles, or those operated for cataract can also donate the eyes.




44. Convection is made of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids and can be nat-ural or forced. Consider the following statements regarding convection:

1. In natural convection, gravity plays an important part.

2. The air heating systems in home and the cooling system of an automotive engine are the examples of natural convection.

3. In the human body, the heart acts as the pump that circulates blood through different parts of the body, transferring heat by forced convection and maintaining it at a uniform temperature.



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3



45. Europe’s Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) space truck has been launched recently. In this regard which of the following statements are incorrect?

1. ATV space truck was launched from the Kourou base in French Guiana towards the International Space Station (ISS) with new supplies of food, water, air and fuel.

2. Ariane 5 rocket was the ATV’s carrier to the orbit.

3. The ATV is now the second biggest vehicle after Russian space vehicles.

Code: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

46. Sometimes when a low-flying aircraft passes over-head, we notice a slight shaking of the picture on our TV screen. Choose a possible explanation for this phenomenon from the given options?

(a) Waves of TV being mechanical wave in nature, are affected by the strong sound waves pro-duced by the low-flying aircraft, as these are also mechanical in nature.

(b) Interference of the direct signals received by the antenna of TV with the weak signals reflected by the passing aircraft.

(c) A low-flying aircraft sometimes produces shock waves, which produce vibrations in the air and it produce a hindrance in the signals received by the TV.

(d) Since aircrafts are made by metal, the electro-magnetic signals transmitted for TV broadcasting absorbed by a low-flying aircraft.

47. Why mobile phones are commonly known as cell phones or cellular phones?

(a) Like cells in organism, they have micro cells which act as their basic structural and functional unit.

(b) The electromagnetic waves received by the mobile phones travel in the form of packet of cells. Hence, they are called ‘cell phones’.

(c) The media (voice and picture) transported by mobile phones are in the form of band of cells and this is the reason that they are called as cell phones.



1. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) commonly refers to the communication protocols that are transported via public switched telephone net-work (PSTN) rather than the internet.

2. Very-Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) is a two-way satellite ground station and VSAT is used for PoS (Point of Sale) transactions.

3. The Real time Transport Protocol (RTP) is one of the technical foundations of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

49. What is ‘Angry Birds’? (a) It is the name of a civil society organization,

which has been a keen participant in the conser-vation of the endangered vultures.

(b) These are drones deployed by the NATO forces inside Baluchistan.

(c) It is the name given to a space probe, which explores for the possibility of survival of birds outside earth’s environment.

(d) It is the name of a video game developed by a Finnish computer game developer company Rovio Mobile.

50. What kind of ferromagnetic material is used for coat-ing magnetic tapes in a cassette player, or for building memory stores in a modern computer?

(a) Semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium. (b) Ceramics, which is specially treated with barium

oxides and they are also known as ferrites. (c) Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel,

cobalt and copper. (d) Rare earth magnet Samarium-cobalt.

ANSWER KEY

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (b) 49. (d) 50. (b)



1. Why long distance radio broadcasts use short wave bands?

(a) Ionosphere reflects waves in these bands.

(b) Short waves have large amplitude and hence, they can travel for long distances.

(c) The frequency of short waves is very low and hence, they can easily travel across the miles.

(d) They are not affected by the curvature of the earth.

2. Which of the following statements is correct about ‘Artificial Leaf’?

(a) It is an arrangement of the semiconductor devices, which can produce electricity with the help of chlorophyll found in the leaf without emitting heat or CO

2.

(b) It is the first man-made device, which will pro-duce synthetic glucose in the presence of sun-light, thus it can be used as an alternative source of food.

(c) A green-coloured integrated circuit developed by NASA to produce oxygen inside an artificial sat-ellite during the space exploration.

(d) It is a device developed at Massachusetts Insti-tute of Technology, which can directly turn the energy of sunlight into electricity.

3. Albumins and globins are proteins of

(a) Cartilages matrix (b) Bone matrix

(c) Blood cells (d) Blood plasma

4. Antibody is a

(a) Molecule which specifically inactivates antigen.

(b) WBC which attacks the invading bacteria.

(c) Component of blood.

(d) Secretion of erythrocytes.

5. Pacemaker is also known as (a) AV node (b) Bundle of His (c) SA node (d) Chordae tendineae

6. Which one of the following is a pinworm?

(a) Ancylostoma (b) Wuchereria

(c) Ascaris (d) Oxyuris

7. Malpighian tubules are excretory organs in

(a) Annelids (b) Birds

(c) Amphibians (d) Insects


1. Spider is an insect.

2. Spider has eight legs.

3. Spider has no wings.

Which of these statements is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3


9. Which of the following is not a characteristic of all arthropods?

(a) Exoskeleton

(b) Several pairs of jointed legs

(c) Segmented bodies

(d) Compound eyes

10. Insects need not have

(a) Three distinct regions in their bodies

(b) Compound eyes

(c) Antennae

(d) Wings

11. The caterpillar grows in which stage of the butterfly?

(a) Larval (b) Pupal

(c) Nymph (d) Imago

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-II



12. The main function of the fins in a fish is to

(a) Propel the fish.

(b) Control the stability and direction of the fish’s movements.

(c) Provide buoyancy to the fish’s body.

(d) Do all the above

13. A bird’s body has certain features adapting it for efficient flying. These include

1. Large and powerful pectoral muscles

2. Rigid skeleton

3. Hollow bones reducing the bird’s weight

4. Arrangement of flight feathers

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

14. Birds have no

(a) Nerves (b) Eyelid

(c) Sweat glands (d) Solid bones

15. Which of the following is/are true for enzymes?

1. Proteinaceous in nature

2. Specific in nature

3. Converted in chemical reactions

4. Act on the substrate at any temperature

Codes: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

16. Serum is

(a) Another name for plasma

(b) Plasma without fibrinogen

(c) Purified blood


17. Coenzymes are mostly derived from

(a) Vitamin A

(b) Vitamin K

(c) Haemoglobin

(d) Vitamin B complex

18. The body’s thermostat is in the

(a) Pineal gland (b) Hypothalamus

(c) Thyroid gland (d) Pituitary gland

19. Which of the following has the shortest gestation period?

(a) Goat (b) Cow

(c) Buffalo (d) Camel

20. A victim of a road accident is unconscious. Put in the correct order of the steps involved in first aid.

1. Treating for cardiac arrest

2. Treating for asphyxia

3. Treating for shock

4. Arrest haemorrhage

5. Cleanse and cover wounds

Codes: (a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (b) 2, 1, 4, 3, 5

(c) 2, 3, 1, 4, 5 (d) 5, 2, 1, 3, 4

21. Which of the following are involved in making up a DNA nucleotide?

1. Phosphoric acid

2. Deoxyribose sugar

3. Nitrogenous base

(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

22. Which one of the following is an egg laying mammal?

(a) Spiny ant-eater

(b) Scaly ant-eater

(c) Bat

(d) Whale

23. At which one of the following stages of mitosis do the centromeres divide?

(a) Beginning of anaphase

(b) Beginning of telophase

(c) End of metaphase

(d) End of prophase

24. Match List-I (important nutrients for man) with List-II (their natural sources) and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List-I List-II A. Vitamin A 1. Gooseberries

B. Thiamine 2. Ragi

C. Iron 3. Cereals

D. Calcium 4. Jaggery

5. Carrot

Codes: A B C D (a) 5 3 2 4

(b) 5 3 4 2

(c) 1 3 5 4

(d) 3 5 4 1



25. The hormone responsible for the secretion of milk in mothers is

(a) Adrenaline

(b) Lactogenic hormone

(c) ACTH

(d) Luteinizing hormone

26. Which of the following statements are true in relation to transpiration and water movements in plants?

1. Removing all the leaves from a plant will reduce the flow of water up the stem.

2. Covering both sides of leaf with a plastic film will reduce both stomatal and cuticular transpiration.

3. Injecting detergents (which lower the surface ten-sion of water) into the xylem of tree-trunk could prevent water from reaching the upper branches.

4. Through most of its route in a plant, water moves by diffusion either along cell walls or across protoplasts.

Select the correct answer from the codes given below:

Codes: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

27. If algae suddenly disappears from the water bodies then all other aquatic organisms like fish, prawns and protozoans will die. This is primarily due to

(a) Lack of food. (b) Lack of shelter. (c) Lack of food and oxygen. (d) Red algal mass increasing the oxygen demand.

28. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List-I List-II

A. Agar 1. Fungus

B. Penicillin 2. Algae

C. Octopus 3. Mollusc

D. Spider 4. Insect

5. Arachnid

Codes: A B C D (a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4 (c) 1 3 5 4 (d) 2 1 3 5

29. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below.

List-I List-II A. Impulses from the nasal 1. Forebrain organs

B. Impulses from the eye 2. Midbrain

C. Impulses from the ears 3. Hindbrain

D. Impulses from the sensory organs of skin

Codes: A B C D (a) 1 2 3 3 (b) 2 1 3 1 (c) 1 2 2 3 (d) 2 1 3 3

30. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below:

List-I List-II A. Epinephrine 1. Pituitary

B. Oestrogen 2. Adrenal

C. Oxytocin 3. Pancreas

D. Glucagon 4. Ovaries

5. Testes

Codes: A B C D (a) 2 1 5 3

(b) 2 4 1 3

(c) 1 4 2 3

(d) 1 5 3 4

31. The process of phagocytosis is related to

(a) Ingestion of fluids.

(b) Digestion of parts of the cell.

(c) Cellular ingestion of solid material.

(d) Renovation of cellular components.

32. In which of the following is the diaphragm present?

1. Arthropods

2. Aves

3. Mammals

4. Reptiles


(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 4



33. Ginger is a

(a) Modified root (b) Rhizome

(c) Tuber (d) Bulb

34. Desert plants would be characterized by

(a) Vivipary (b) Aerenchyma

(c) Aerial roots (d) Sunken stomata

35. Absence or inadequacy of proteins in human diet will produce

1. Weakening of body’s defences against infections. 2. Impairment of body’s growth. 3. Impairment of hormones needed by the body. 4. Impairment of the cell’s ability to convert heat

into energy.


(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

36. Which of the vitamins promotes conversion of inor-ganic phosphorus to organic compounds in the bones?

(a) A (b) B

(c) E (d) D

37. Carcinogenical chemicals mostly belong to which of the following class of compounds?

(a) Sulphones

(b) Phenols

(c) Aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons

(d) Alcohol

38. Arrange the following food items in their descending order of calorific values.

1. Sugar 2. Cheese

3. Potatoes 4. Apples

5. Carrots

Codes: (a) 2, 1, 3, 5, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4, 5

(c) 4, 1, 3, 5, 2 (d) 1, 2, 4, 3, 5

39. Arrange the following food items in their descending order of calorific values.

1. Milk 2. Butter

3. Sugar 4. Ice cream

5. Eggs

Codes: (a) 1, 5, 4, 3, 2 (b) 1, 4, 5, 3, 2

(c) 4, 1, 3, 5, 2 (d) 5, 1, 2, 3, 4

40. Why do we feel drowsy after a heavy meal?

(a) The biological clock is upset.

(b) The body muscles are fatigued.

(c) The hypothalamus produces melatonin to induce sleep.

(d) Brain receives less oxygen as blood rushes to supply oxygen and nutrition to the contracting stomach and intestines.

41. Which one of the following helps man to form Vitamin D through the reaction of sun’s ultraviolet rays on the skin?

(a) Cholecalciferol (b) Ergocalciferol

(c) Cholesterol (d) 7-dehydrocholesterol

42. Why is sprouted gram considered more nutritious?

(a) Seeds are storehouses of energy.

(b) Germinating seeds produce enzymes which is a rich source of protein.

(c) Seeds have plenty of amino acids and glucose.

(d) Sprouted gram is not more nutritious and it is just an old wives’ tale.

43. Owls and lorises can see and hunt near things in the dark. Which of the following features help the animals to do so?

1. A large proportion of rod cells.

2. Wide pupils to let in as much light as possible into the eyes.

3. The membrane, ‘tapetum lucidum’ on the retina.

4. Echo-location

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

44. Why do coloured clothes fade after a time?

1. Dyes are defective.

2. Ultraviolet part of sunlight alters the arrange-ment of electrons in the molecules of the dyes.

3. Sunlight loosens some dyes from the fabrics.



45. Water kept in an old surahi is less cold than the water in a new one. Why?

(a) The pores in the surahi helps in evaporation of water.



(b) The pores in the old surahi become clogged and thus the total surface area for evaporation is reduced.

(c) Old surahis become saturated with water and hence, evaporation is not rapid.


46. Why paper becomes brittle and yellow with age?

1. The acid content in paper causes brittleness to develop.

2. In the presence of visible light, photosensitized oxidation occurs.

3. The ultra-violet component of sunlight causes photolysis of cellulose by direct cleavage of the cellulose polymer.


(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

47. Water is a good fire extinguisher because

1. The specific heat of water is high.

2. Steam formed when water boils in contact with the burning object, forms and envelop and shuts off oxygen supply.

Codes: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only


48. Interferon that is produced by the body in response to a viral attack is

(a) A catalyst

(b) A protein

(c) An inorganic chemical

(d) A hormone

49. Which of the following are natural steroids?

1. Progesterone 2. Cortisone

3. Bile acids 4. Dexamethasone

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3

50. Lymphocytes may be B cells or T cells. Which of the following are the activities of T cells?

1. They produce immunoglobulin, molecules of antibody on being exposed to an antigen

2. They become active only on passing through the thymus.

3. They are responsible for rejection of transplanted organs.

4. They produce interferon.

Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

ANSWER KEY

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a) 21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (d) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (b) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (b) 49. (b) 50. (b)




1. The study of wetlands is known as ‘Paludology’.

2. Wetlands have been categorized as ecosystems and not as biomes.

3. Wetlands have also been described as ‘Ecotones’ offering a transition between dry land and water bodies.



(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 only


1. Distribution of mangrove ecosystem on Indian coastline indicates that the Sundarban Man-groves occupy the largest area followed by Gulf of Kutch and Andaman Nicobar islands, respec-tively.

2. MANDATE is a database on Indian mangroves.



(c) 2 only (d) None of these

3. India’s national action plan on climate change delin-eates India’s strategy to meet the challenges of the same. Which of the following is a part of the action plan?

(a) National mission on electric efficiency

(b) National mission on sustainable habitats

(c) National underwater renewal mission

(d) National mission on pollution

4. Which of the following are mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol to enable countries or operators in developed countries to acquire greenhouse gas reduc-tion credits?

1. Joint implementation

2. Clean development mechanism

3. International emission trading

4. International credit arbitration


(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only


5. The carrying capacity of an environment refers to (a) The population size of the species that the envi-

ronment can sustain indefinitely. (b) The total number of species that can co-exist

at any given point of time given the resource constraints.

(c) The limit of natural growth which can occur without human interference.

(d) The maximum size of species which can be supported in an environment.

6. Global dimming refers to (a) Planned reduction in the rate of electricity con-

sumption across the major world cities for a specified period of time.

(b) Blocking of insolation and heat from the sun due to polluted clouds.

(c) Reduction in the information carrying capacity of certain frequencies due to excessive interference.

(d) Reduction of net energy consume on an interna-tional level.

7. The Ministry of Environment and Forests serves as the nodal agency in the country for which of the following organizations?

1. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

2. South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP)

Preliminary Examination Practice Paper-III



3. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

4. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)


(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 only


8. Consider the following statements: 1. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region

with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans.

2. The two parameters to quality as biodiversity hotspot are: First it must contain 5% of vascular plants and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

3. Himalayas, Western Ghats and Gangetic plains are the three recognized biodiversity hotspots in India.



(c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

9. Consider the following: 1. The first forest policy of India was adopted in

1894 and it was later amended in 1952 and 1988. 2. Social forestry programme was started in 1981.

Its components are agriculture forestry, rural for-estry and urban forestry.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?


(c) 1 and 2 both (d) None of these

10. Consider the following: 1. Indian Botanical Survey Department was set up

at Kolkata in 1890. 2. Indian Zoological Survey Department was set up

at Kolkata in 1916. 3. Indian forest survey department was set up at

Dehradun in 1980.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are incorrect?


(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only

11. Assertion (A): Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and have their stomata arranged in deep pits to minimize water loss through transpiration.

Reason (R): Adaptation is any attribute of the organ-ism (morphological, physiological, behavioural) that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat.

Select the correct answer from the code given below:

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.

(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.

12. Match the following population interactions.

Species A Species B Name of interaction1. + + A. Competition

2. – – B. Mutualism

3. + – C. Commensalism

4. + 0 D. Parasitism

Codes: 1 2 3 4 (a) A B D C

(b) B C A D

(c) B A D C

(d) B A C D


In most ecosystems, all the pyramids with a number of energy and biomass are upright.

On the basis of the above statement which one of the following statements is correct?

(a) Producers are less in number and biomass than the herbivores.

(b) Herbivores are less in number and biomass than the carnivores.

(c) Producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores.

(d) Carnivores are more in number and biomass than herbivores.

14. The major coral reef area which have been identified for intensive conservation and management is

1. Gulf of Mannar 2. Gulf of Kutch

3. Lakshadweep 4. Palk Strait

Code: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only



15. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Directive Principles of State Policy provides that the state has duty to protect the environment.

2. Kerala is the first state to set-up a separate depart-ment for climate change in the country.

3. There is no fundamental duty for citizens to pro-tect the environment under the constitution.



(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 only


1. To meet the challenge of climate change, India has formulated a national plan on climate change which has 8 missions with a focus on develop-ment and use of new technologies.

2. Mission Green India will be launched to enhance ecosystem services including carbon sinks.



(b) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

17. Which of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosyststems which are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.

(b) Biosphere reserves are rich in biological and cul-tural diversity and encompass unique features of exceptionally pristine nature.

(c) MAB programme was initiated in 1987 and till date 16 sites have been designated as biosphere reserves in different parts of the country.

(d) Sunderbans and Gulf of Mannar have been included in the world network of biosphere reserves.


1. Tyndall effect can be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. Tyndall effect happens due to the reflection of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.

2. Tyndall effect observed in a dense forest is due to mist, which contains tiny droplets of water, act-ing as particles of colloid dispersed in air.




19. Which of the following is not the causative factor of acid rain?

1. Increased content of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere.

2. Influence of ozone layer.

3. Rottening of leaves of equatorial and taiga forests.



(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

20. Where was the first biosphere reserve established in India?

(a) Nokrek (b) Kanha

(c) Nilgiri (d) Periyar

21. From origin to delta, the Brahmputra traverses through

(a) Tibet, India, Myanmar, Bangladesh

(b) Tibet, Nepal, India, Bangladesh

(c) Tibet, India, Bangladesh

(d) Tibet, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar


1. Cheetah, the only second mammal to become extinct in India in the last 1000 years will be brought from South Africa and they will be intro-duced in Madhya Pradesh.

2. Cheetahs are commonly found in Sub-Saharan Africa and South America.

3. The Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) located in Namibia works for the rehabilitation and conservation of the endangered cheetah species.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?


(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

23. What is St. Petersburg Declaration?

(a) The governments from 13 countries have endorsed a plan for saving the tigers from becom-ing extinct and the delegates who collected in Russia have agreed to double the number of tigers by 2022.

(b) Resolution passed by G-8 countries to help developing countries in efforts of climate change.



(c) Agreement between Russia and USA to reduce their weapons of mass destruction.

(d) Russia’s unilateral offer to help Japan which has been ravaged by tsunami.

24. Consider the following statements regarding the report titled ‘The Food Gap—The impacts of climate change on Food Production: A 2020 Perspective’:

1. The report predicted the crop yield in India, where it is the second largest world producer of rice and wheat, and it would fall up to 40 per cent by the end of this decade.

2. India and China both will see a fall in its crop yield according to the report.

3. The most significant impacts according to the report, would be on the top 20 producers of each of the four crops, such as wheat, rice, maize and soybean, respectively



(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

25. Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) is calculated considering four factors, namely pollutants, pathway, receptor and additional high risk element. With its introduction, which one of the following industry has experienced major reduction in its overall production in India?

(a) Mining (b) Steel

(c) Coal (d) Copper


1. Botanical Garden of the Indian Republic (BGIR), located at Gurgaon was inter-alia set up to facil-itate ex situ conservation and propagation of rare and threatened indigenous plants of the coun-try and to serve as a ‘Centre of Excellence’ for research and training.

2. The government of India has formulated an action plan for vulture conservation which is being implemented in collaboration with States/UTs to stem the decline and put the vulture pop-ulation on growth path and the government has supported breeding centres at Pinjore in Haryana, Buxa in West Bengal and Rani Forest in Assam.





1. Under the auspices of Convention on the Con-servation of Migratory Species of wild animals (CMS), the 6th Meeting of the Range States for Conservation of Siberian Cranes was held at Almaty, Kazakhstan.

2. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan has been accorded as a potential wintering site for Siberian Cranes and more potential sites, such as, Etawah Manipuri wetlands in Uttar Pradesh and Banni grasslands in Gujarat are also under consider-ation for conservation of Siberian Cranes.




28. Consider the following statements with regard to tiger census 2011:

1. India’s wild tiger population has grown by 12 per cent in the last four years and the number of tigers have increased in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh but decreased in Karnataka.

2. Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh has 90 tigers, the largest number of tiger in a single reserve.


(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(b) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

29. Which of the following measures are effective for soil conservation in India?

1. Avoiding crop rotation

2. Afforestation

3. Encouraging the use of chemical fertilizers

4. Limiting shifting cultivation




30. Which of the following is not a correct outcome of 2010 Cancun Climate Change Conference?

(a) A new climate fund to be run largely by develop-ing countries.

(b) Easier transfer of low carbon technology and expertise to poor countries.



(c) Finance deal to potentially provide 30 billion dollar for the developing countries to adapt to climate change now and up to 100 billion dollar later.

(d) The outcome of summit was a binding treaty to limit global warming to less than 2 °C above are industrial levels.

31. Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen.

Which of the following statement(s) about ozone is/are incorrect?

1. It forms a layer 50–80 km above the surface of the earth.

2. It is a non-poisonous gas with a strong odour.

3. It is a form of oxygen that has three atoms in each molecule.




32. Arrange the following in correct chronological order:

1. Stockholm convention

2. Ramsar convention

3. Formation of IPCC

4. Montreal protocol

Correct code:

(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 2, 4, 3, 1

(c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 1, 2, 4, 3


1. Toxics Watch Alliance (TWA) has urged the Indian Government to ban the pesticide Endosul-fan immediately.

2. Indiscriminate use of the Endosulfan in cashew plantations in Kasargod district and adjoining areas for several years has caused side effects in alarming proportions to the local people leaving many with deformities and genetic disorders.

3. Gopal Krishna is the convener of Toxics Watch Alliance (TWA).



(c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

34. Considering the human population on planet earth, the most plausible condition when it can hold the maximum bulk of population is that

(a) All human beings must be omnivorous.

(b) All human beings must be exclusively herbivores

(c) All human beings must be omnivorous excluding milk and egg in their diet.

(d) All human beings must be herbivores including milk and egg in their diet.

35. Which of the following is not a major positive feed-back mechanism in which the activity of humans to increase global climate temperatures leads to an even further increase?

(a) Global warming causes increased rainfall, plant growth and photosynthesis.

(b) Tropical deforestation causes warming and dry-ing so that remaining forests are set to decline.

(c) Global warming causes increased CO2 release

from biomass decomposition.

(d) Global warming causes snow to melt in polar regions and therefore, increases global albedo.

36. Which of the following statements about India’s carbon emission reducing mechanism is not correct?

(a) It is known as PAT which stands for Performance, Achieve and Trade.

(b) Under this, companies consuming less energy will get efficiency certificates which could be traded with or sold to those companies that con-sume excess energy.

(c) As a result of its implementation, 10 million tons of oil could be saved in the next three years.

(d) It is being introduced for eight polluting sectors with an aim to reduce their energy consumption by 25% in the next five years.

37. Match the following.

(Sanctuary) (State) 1. Mudhumalai A. Karnataka

2. Achanakmar B. Bihar

3. Bhadra C. Tamil Nadu

4. Bhimbandh D. Chhattisgarh

Correct code: 1 2 3 4 (a) A B C D

(b) C D A B

(c) D C B A

(d) B A D C



38. Consider the following statements with regard to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN):

1. IUCN is an international organization dedicated to find out pragmatic solutions to most pressing environment and development challenges.

2. The Union has two components, its member organizations and its professional secretariat.

3. The Union’s headquarters is located in Gland, near Geneva, Switzerland.

4. The current president of IUCN is Dr Ashok Khosla of India.

Which of the above given statement is/are incorrect?

(a) 2 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4


1. Biomagnification, also known as biological mag-nification is the increase in concentration of a substance, such as the pesticide DDT, which occurs in a food chain.

2. The radiation released from nuclear accident increases the frequency of thyroid cancer in children.




40. Consider the following statements with regard to Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

1. The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of organic matter is called the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).

2. The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution.

3. Manometric method is the only commonly rec-ognized methods for the measurement of BOD.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3


1. In situ conservation is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal outside of its natural habitat.

2. Ex situ conservation may be used on some or all of the population, when in-situ conserva-tion is too difficult or impossible for all of the population.




42. Consider the following statements with regard to giant panda:

1. The giant panda is a bear native to central- western and south-western China.

2. Though it belongs to the mammal class and order Cetacea, the panda’s diet is 99% bamboo.

3. It is a logo of WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature).

Which of the above given statement is/are not correct?



43. Which one of the following is not included in UNESCO’s world heritage site?

(a) Manas Wild Life Sanctuary

(b) Keoladeo National Park

(c) Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary

(d) Rajaji National Park

44. Jungapithia is the state fish of which of the following states in India?

(a) Assam

(b) Arunachal Pradesh

(c) Andhra Pradesh

(d) West Bengal

45. Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radi-cal catalysts, the most important of which are the hydroxyl, nitric oxide, chlorine ion and bromine ion.

Ozone depletion may cause

(a) Skin cancer

(b) Shortage of water

(c) Resurgence of waterborne diseases

(d) Forest fire

46. Which of the following statements is incorrect about mangrove?

(a) It has an intertidal existence.

(b) It grows in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics.



(c) It can survive in those areas where a narrow range of salinity, temperature and moisture are present.

(d) It typically features only a small number of tree species.

47. Consider the following statements with regard to Millepora boschmai:

1. These species are sensitive to temperature rise, and is thought of having completely disappeared from the majority of marine areas possibly due to growing global warming related bleaching effects.

2. These are generally found in murky inshore waters.

3. It is collected for decoration and jewellery trade which is a great threat to this species.

4. It belongs to the reptile family.

Which of the above given statements is/are incorrect?


(c) 3 and 4only (d) 4 only

48. Clean technology emphasizes upon which of the following things?

1. To increase the carbon footprint.

2. Green economy

3. Recycling of the solid waste.

4. Green transportation

5. Use of information technology for creating awareness regarding environment conservation.


(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

49. Which of the following cannot be the outcome of global warming?

1. The frequency of hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation will likely decrease.

2. The extreme warming will be at high northern latitudes and least warming over the southern ocean and some parts of the north atlantic ocean.

3. Increased coastal flooding.

4. Climate change so far includes adverse effects on small islands and on indigenous populations in high latitude areas.



(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

50. The removal of the keystone species from the ecotone zone will

(a) Lead to increase in the biodiversity.

(b) Lead to decrease in the biodiversity.

(c) Not affect the biodiversity.

(d) Affect the flora but not the fauna.

Answer key

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (d) 31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (a) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (c) 49. (a) 50. (b)


Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit II; Chapter: Biotechnology and Genetics

Answer the following questions in 250 Words

1. Justify with necessary logic ‘Biological cleanup methods can be cheaper than the conventional physical and chemical pollution treatments’.

2. Discuss how biotechnology boom may pave a golden path for India.

3. What are stem cells? Discuss have they been in the news recently.

4. What is vermicomposting? Discuss its importan-tance in the Indian context.

5. What is biodiversity? Why should it be preserved?

6. Give a brief account of some major achievements in the realm of biotechnology in India.

7. What is genetic engineering? Why is it getting increasingly important these days?

8. What is gene theraphy? Discuss its various types and also the issues related to it


1. What is therapeutic cloning? Describe briefly the method and its potential applications.

2. What is biotechnology? Discuss the important applications of biotechnology.

3. Discuss the elements of ‘frozen semen tech-nology’. What is ‘embryo transfer’, ‘transgenic animals’, ‘DNA recombinant technique’?

4. What is human cloning? Discuss whether it is dangerous or beneficial?

5. Discuss human genome.

6. How are transgenic plants different from hybrid plants and what is their relevance in modern agri-culture? Elaborate.

7. What is the human genome project? Discuss briefly its importance.

8. What is biosensor? Describe their uses.

9. How do identical twins differ from each other genetically?

10. Write a short Note on:

(i) Cell banking

(ii) Different generation of vaccines

(iii) Microbial fuel cell

(iv) Bioseonsor and its application

(v) Blochia and its applications

(vi) Golden rice

(vii) Terminator gene and Terminator Seeds

(viii) Molecular farming

11. What are enzymes? What is their importance?

12. What are transgenic organisms and why are they used for?

13. Discuss how biotechnology is finding use in medicine. Give a few current examples.

14. What are biofertilizers? What advantages do they have over chemical fertilizers?

Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit ll; Chapter: Information and Communication TechnologyAnswer the following questions in 250 Words

1. What is digital convergence? Examine its impli-cations for modern society.

2. Discuss in detail ‘The Internet telephony alternative’.

Practice Paper for Mains Examination

S&T_Section-C_Practic Paper Main Exam.indd 23 7/6/2019 8:46:16 AM


3. India is rapidly emerging as an information tech-nology (IT) superpower. Discuss some aspects of the growth of this sector in the Indian econ-omy. What role can public policy play in further enhancing the growth prospects in this sector?

4. Describe the development of supercomputers in India.

5. What is a supercomputer? Give an account of supercomputer development in India.

6. What is artificial intelligence? What is its current scenario and what are its prospects?

7. What is a computer virus? What are the effects and is there a remedy?

8. What are minicomputers? Comment on the eco-nomic and social implication of this innovation.

9. Explain cyber law and cyber security.


1. What is fibre optics? What advantages does it offer in telecommunication? Elaborate.

2. What do you understand by optical computing? Why is optical computing envisaged to have much better performance than that of electronic computing?

3. What is a CD-ROM? Describe its main advan-tages as a vehicle for information disseminating.

4. Give a brief account on

(a) Rationale Governance plan

(b) Megh Raj


1. Determine the utility of Direct to Home in broad-casting system.

2. Discuss the utility of E-governance in the Indian context.

3. Give an account on regulatory framework of TRAI.

Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit ll; Chapter: Space Technology


1. Discuss the significance of GSLV in space research.

2. What is cryogenic engine? Discuss its signifi-cance in India’s space programme.

3. What is the significance of the geostationary orbit? What would happen if it becomes too crowded?

4. Describe how India’s space programme has helped in its socio-economic development.

5. Write a brief note on ISRO. Mention its research activities at its major centres.


1. Detail the salient features of prefect Anthareeksha.

2. In which year and by which countries was Inter-national Space Station (ISS) launched? How many countries are participating in this pro-gramme? What are the unique study being made in the station which could not be made so accu-rately on the earth?

3. What are the different types of spacecrafts. Give a brief account.

4. What is PSLV? Describe its significance for Indi-an’s space programme.

5. Trace the progress of India’s Space Research pro-gramme. What are its significant achievements?

Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit ll; Chapter: Defence Research and Technology


1. What is fast breeder reactor? Comment on its suitability in the Indian context?

2. What is the importance of an aircraft carrier and also explain its characteristics features.


1. Describe the importance of laser in war and peace.

2. Give an account of the achievements of Indian defence scientists in technology development.

3. What is RDX made of and why has it been in the news lately?

4. What is heavy water and why it is used?

5. What are the salient features of India’s missile development programme?

6. Explain how nuclear submarines are better than conventional submarine.


Practice Paper for Mains Examination 3.25

Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit ll; Chapters: Nuclear Technology; Renewable and Non-renewable Resources


1. Discuss in detail the alternative energy sources.

2. How has India’s nuclear programme contributed to the economic and defence requirement of the country?

3. Discuss in detail about the fly ash and explain how it can be useful in construction.


1. Write a note on ‘Bio-refinery versus Fossil flues’.

2. What is energy independence? Discuss how India can be transformed into an ‘Energy Independent Nation’.

3. What is unclear medicine? Describe briefly its different uses.

4. Describe briefly the different phases of India’s nuclear energy programme.

5. What is a fast breeder reactor? Discuss briefly its role in India’s nuclear energy programme.

6. What do you understand by the integrated rural energy system? Also mention at least three new sources of energy.

7. What are the non-conventional sources of energy relevant in the Indian context? Comment on the status of the technologies available for their utilization.

8. Explain the major objectives of IREDA.

Reference: Science and Technology for CSE; Unit ll; Chapter: Modern Science and Technology


1. What is the application of superconductors in computers?

2. Describe the sources of ionizing and non-ionizing radiations and their effects of the biotic compo-nents of the atmosphere.

3. Explain how nanoscience and nanotechnology have revolutionized modern technology.

4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of laser.

5. Compare the differences between diamond graphite.

6. What are the different applications of nanotech-nology. Discuss in brief.


1. What is superconductivity? Give its uses and applications.

2. What are high temperature superconductors? Describe their important applications.

3. Blue revolution has definite advantages in India but it is not free form environmental impacts. Discuss.

4. What are normal osmosis and reverse osmosis? Why has reverse osmosis become popular in India today?

5. What does the solar system consists of? Discuss the motion of the entire solar system as a whole and also the motion of most of the bodies form-ing the solar system.

6. What are fullerenes? Why are they important?

7. What is carbon dating? Describe its applications in archaeology.

8. Write the proprerties of superconductor.

9. Explain the laser beam characteristics.

10. What is lidar.

11. Write a short note on the following:

(i) Optical computer

(ii) Use of laser in medicine and nuclear energy

12. Explain how artificial intelligence works.

13. Write a short note on the following:

(i) Components of robots

(ii) Robotics systems and robot anatomy

(iii) Robotic operation system

(iv) Robotic language

(v) Robotics in India


Section D

Appendices.indd 1 7/6/2019 8:46:44 AM

Glossary

Antrix Corporation: Antrix is the commercial arm of Indian Space Research Organi-zation (ISRO). It promotes the products and services of the Indian Space Programme. It was awarded ‘MINIRATNA’ status in 2008.

Bacillus thuringiensis (BT): It is the bacterium, which acts as a pesticide. Thousands of BT isolates are available at present and these strains harm almost all the major pests.

Biological Diversity: It refers to the variation of life forms at three levels—genetic vari-ability within a species, the variety of species within a community and the organization of species in an ecosystem. It provides a variety of environmental goods and services. These can be categorized as consumptive and productive values, socio-cultural values, aesthetic values and option values.

Black Hole: A black hole is a fascinating and mysterious astronomical body. It slurps all the energy that comes close to it. It is the end product left behind after the end of any massive star.

Blue Chip: The use of biotechnology for producing microchips has resulted in the invention of biochips. Biochips are organic chips coated with protein molecules. These can be reduced in size up to that of inorganic chips (silicon chips). Biochips are helpful in the development of powerful mini-clue computers or biological computers. They also help in faster movement of electricity.

Centchroman: It is an oral non-hormonal contraceptive pill which is taken once in a week. Saheli is the most common name for this pill.

Chemical Weapons: Chemical weapon is a specialized armament that can cause injury or death due to its highly toxic nature when inhaled or in contact with the skin. The first widespread use of such weapons was in World War I.

Computer Signify: It signifies the speed at which a microprocessor executes instruc-tions (in MHz). However, it is not the only performance parameter of the computer’s performance or speed.

Computer Virus: It refers to a programme created for fun or acts of vandalism, which could affect other programme secretly. They are spread automatically to other programmes. Their effect ranges from flashing a harmless message to majorly affecting the information stored in computer memory.

Cyberspace: Cyberspace is a new concept in the area of information technology. Its two essential components are feedback and control. Thus, it does not merely function as a conduit of information, but it also exercises control over information.

Appendices


Section D: Appendices4.4

Digital Camera: A digital camera captures images on a solid-state retina instead of a film. Images can be stored in removable and receivable flash memory cards and can also be transferred to computer memory over a cable.

DPT Vaccine: It is a vaccine whose three doses, beginning 6 weeks of age, can immu-nize a child against diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough) and tetanus.

E-governance: E-governance refers to the use of information and communication technologies to improve the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency and accountability of government.

Encrinites: These are chemicals developed by National Chemical Laboratory (Pune) that are used for oil refining.

Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): It is used in the testing for HIV or AIDS.

E-Lamp: It is a filament-less bulb that uses high-frequency radio signals. Greater longevity and energy saving compared with conventional incandescent bulb are its main advantages.

Exabyte: An exabyte is a large unit of computer storage data, which is two to the sixteenth power bytes in digital terms; it is a billion gigabytes.

Ex situ conservation: It refers to protecting species away from their natural habitat, in conditions which can be closely controlled and monitored.

Firewall: A firewall is a system that prevents unauthorized access to a proprietary network or inversely to a PC connected to any kind of network.

Frequency Modulation: It is the process wherein the frequency (and not the amplitude) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the signal to be carried by the wave.

Geosynchronous Orbit: By putting a satellite in the geosynchronous orbit, it will be possible to send the signals to the satellite from the Earth that can be re-transmitted over a larger area effectively.

Global Warming: It means the worldwide trend of increase in atmospheric tempera-ture. Loss of cultivable lands due to flooding of low-lying areas and adverse impact on living organisms are its major effects.

Handshake: It is a series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices.

Heavy Water: It is deuterium oxide and is used for nuclear reactors.

Hepatitis E: It is a liver-related disease characterized by jaundice and inflammation of the liver. Transmission of hepatitis E is mainly by blood transfusion.

In situ conservation: It refers to protecting species in their natural habitat by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as Protected Areas (PAs), consisting of a network of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Internet: It is a network of networks where millions of computers are interlinked. It is a conduit of information.

Internet Telephony: It is the technology enabling a user to potentially talk in real time with another user on the Internet with the help of a multimedia-enabled device.


Appendices 4.5

Internet Worm: It is a programme that replicates from machine to machine over the Internet, blocking the functions on Internet as it spreads. Distributed-denial-of- service-attack (DDoS) is controlled remotely by a hacker that disables the server of a network.

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN): It is a telecommunication network usually of fibre-optic cables with a bandwidth broad enough to handle simultaneous transmission of voice, video and other data.

Jet Streams: They are narrow, fast-moving wind currents flanked by more slow-moving currents.

Leap Second: It is the periodic adjustment of time signal emission to maintain synchro-nization with the coordinated universal time.

Linux: It is an Operating System which is available free to everyone for direct ‘ embedding’ in microchips, full multitasking, 32-bit support, TCP/IP networking support.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): It is a technique for obtaining images of organs for medical diagnosis without surgery.

Maitri: Maitri is the second permanent station established by the eight Antarctica expeditions to provide a base for scientific research.

Nuclear Fallout: It is the impact of radioactive debris of a nuclear explosion or of a nuclear power plant on the Earth and its atmosphere. It is one of cause of diseases, like bone cancer, sterility, etc.

Pace Plus: It is the fastest indigenously developed computer system for extremely high-speed computing of the supercomputer class. This parallel-processing computer is developed by DRDO’s Anurag laboratory, Hyderabad.

Photonics: It is a broad field of scientific research encompassing opto-electronics, lasers, spectroscopy, optical interconnect and communication systems.

Piezoelectricity: It is electrically generated by application of mechanical pressure on a dielectric crystal.

Piggybacking: Piggybacking is the process of carrying acknowledgements within a data packet to save a network bandwidth.

Polymetallic Sulphides: These are nodules of manganese and iron with copper, nickel cobalt and zinc found on the ocean beds of the Pacific Ocean.

Proxy Server: In an enterprise that uses the Internet. A proxy server acts as an inter-face between a workstation and the Internet so that security, administrative control, and caching service are ensured.

Quantum Jump: It means jumping of an electron in an atom from one energy level to the next energy level by absorption of a quantum of energy (equalling the difference of the two energy levels).

Sound Navigations and Ranging (Sonar): It is a remote-sensing device used for detect-ing and locating sound waves under water. It is used in the detection of submarines, water-depth measurement, locating fish pool and mapping the ocean floor.



SQUID: It stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an apparatus which used to measure extremely weak signals.

Sunspots: A sunspot is a relatively cooler region on the surface of Sun. For an observer on Earth, sunspots appear as dark patches on the bright side of the Sun. There are adjoin-ing parts of photosphere. When sunspots are maximum, there is mild winter, more rain-fall; when sunspots are minimum, there is lesser winter, less rainfall.

Synthetic Seeds: They are artificially made seeds of plants that do not reproduce sexually.

Tissue Culture: It is the technique of artificially growing cells, tissues or organs to desired genetic purity and with desired properties such as disease resistance of high yield.

Ultrasonography: It is the use of inaudible ultrasound waves in detecting shapes of objects. It is helpful in diagnosis of pregnancy and deformities of the foetus.

UNIX: A computer operating system designed to be used by many people at the same time (a TCP/IP built-in).

Uniform Resource Locator (URL): It is a global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.

Vaccine Plus: It refers to a programme devised to counter the virus and also eliminates it.

VIKAS engine: It is a liquid-fuel engine built by ISRO with French collaboration (for the launching of PSLVs).

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP): It refers to voice calls transported as IP pockets over a public or private networks (i.e., sending voice information digitally in discrete pockets) rather than in the traditional circuit-specific protocols of telephone network.

VSATs: VSATs are very-small aperture terminals. They are used in communication networks.

WiFi: It is a technology for radio wireless local area networking of devices.


Appendices 4.7

PlaNT sUMMary

Botanical NameCommon Name Family Part Used Medicinal Properties

Adhatoda vasica Malabar nut Acanthaceae Leaves Expectorant and anthelmintic; brings relief from bronchitis

Atropa belladonna Deadly nightshade

Solanaceae Roots Sedative, stimulating eye pupil

Azadirachta indica Neem tree Meliaceae All Stimulant, antiseptic, insect repellent. It is commonly used in toothpaste, shampoos, etc.

Butea monosperma

Flame of the forest

Papilionaceae Leaves, Bark Anthelmintic and used as rubefacient to treat diarrhoea

Cannabis sativa Hemp, Ganja Cannabaceae Leasver and flowers

Stomachic, antispasmodic, analgesic and sedative

Catharanthus roseus

Periwinkle Apocynaceae Roots and stem

Cancer therapy

Cinchona Spp Quinine tree Rubiaceae Bark Antimalarial

Curcuma longa Turmeric Zingiberaceae Rhizome Blood purifier, antiseptic and also used as a tonic

Datura innoxia Safed datura Solanaceae Dried leaves and seeds

It is used to cure asthma and also used in ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness

Digitalis purpurea Foxglove Scrophularia- ceae

Leaves Cardiac stimulant and tonic. It is also used in ointments for burns and wounds

Emblica officinalis Amla Euphorbiaceae Fruits Used as diuretic and laxative, antibiotic; it is also a good source of vitamin C and liver tonic.

Eucalyptus globulus

Eucalyptus Myrtaceae Leaves Essential oil obtained from leaves is used in mosquito repellent; treatment of asthma and bronchitis.

Ferula asafoetida Hing Umbelliferae Roots Gum-resin is used in asthma, cough, antispasmodic and flatulent colic.

Glycyrrhiza glabra Mulhatti Papilionaceae Roots Used as tonic, laxative; for treating gastric ulcers, soar and throat fever

Ocimum Spp Basil, Tulsi Labiatae Leaves and Seeds

Juice of the leaves is used for treating bronchitis; seed are used in urinary problems.

Rauwolfia serpentina

Rauwolfia Apocynaceae Roots Extracts of roots are used as sedatives, treatment of intestinal, cochlear, colic disorders and fever.

Zingiber officinale Ginger Zingiberaceae Rhizome In food preparation, alcoholic beverages, stimulant and carminative



IMPorTaNT ENVIroNMENTal EVENTs

Meetings and International Events

1970 First Earth Day was celebrated in the United States.

1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) held in Brazil.

1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Egypt.

1999 Human population reaches six billion mark.

2002 World Summit on sustainable development held in South Africa.

Major Climate Change observations

1972 Acid rain in Sweden caused by pollution originating in other countries.

1974 Ozone thinning caused by Chlorofluorocarbons.

1985 Discovery of Ozone hole over Antarctica and the size was measured.

1990 First Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment gave warning of possible global warming.

1995 Second IPCC assessment warned of human influence on global warming.

sPICEs aND CoNDIMENTs

Botanical NameCommon Name Family Part Used Medicinal Properties

Cinnamomum verum Cinnamon Lauraceae Bark As a flavouring agent, leaves are used in pharmaceutical products, soaps and dental preparations, in the preparation of incense and perfumes.

Crocus sativus Saffron Iridaceae Flowers As a flavouring and dyeing agent in Indian dishes, in Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine

Eugenia caryophyllus Clove Myrtaceae Flower buds

Used as culinary spice, in cigarettes, toothpaste and mouth wash, and in perfume industry.

Capsicum annuum Chillies Solanaceae Fruits As a flavourant and colourant, rich in Vitamin C and good appetizer, in treatment of neuralgia and rheumatoid disorders.

Piper nigrum (King of spices)

Pepper Piperaceae Seeds As a preservative, flavourant, in medicine as an insecticide; oil of pepper is used in perfumes.

Foeniculum vulgare Fennel Apiaceae Seeds and leaves

Dried seeds are used in curry powder, pickles, confectionary; oil is used as stimulant and carminative.

Coriandrum sativum Coriander Apiaceae Seeds and leaves

Used for garnishing curries, sausages; seeds are carminative and diuretics, oil is used in perfumes

Elettaria Cardamomum (Queen of spices)

Small cardamom

Zingiberaceae Fruits As a flavourant and masticatory; a powerful stimulant, strengthens nervous system, and reduces depression


Appendices 4.9

2001 Third IPCC assessment gave evidences that humans are responsible for most of observed global warming in the past 50 years.

2007 Al Gore and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) won the Nobel Peace prize for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change.

International Conventions and legal actions

1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora to protect endangered species.

1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea developed to protect ocean’s resources.

1986 International Whaling Commission announces moratorium on commercial Whaling.

1987 Montreal protocol was passed; countries to phase out ozone-depleting chemicals.

2000 Treaty on persistent organic pollutants to phase out highly toxic chemicals.

2006 Clinton climate initiative established.

2007 IPCC released its report titled ‘Climate Change 2007—Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’.

2008 G-8 nations made the climate commitment that they will cut green-house gas emission by half by 2050.

Major Environmental Disasters and Crises

1973 Arab countries in OPEC announced oil embargo against the United States.

1976 Industrial accident at pesticide plant in Italy released Dioxin (a poisonous chemical).

1979 Nuclear accident at Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania.

1984 Bhopal gas tragedy.

World’s worst industrial accident at pesticide plant killing and injuring thousands.

1986 World’s worst nuclear accident occurs at nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, Soviet Union.

1989 Exxon Valdez oil tanker caused largest oil spill in the United States.

1991 Oil spill in Kuwait during war with Iraq.

1997 Forest fire destroys tropical forest in Indonesia.

2001 The United States will not ratify the Kyoto protocol, which mandates reductions in CO

2 emissions to combat global warming.

2002 Oil spill at Spain’s coast.

2004 Heat waves in Europe highlighted threat of climate change.

2005 Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma caused widespread destruction and environ-mental harm to coastal communities in the US Gulf Coast region, especially the New Orleans area.

Permanent ban on six chemical phthalates used in plastic toys and childcare arti-cles.



2006 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) released the report that the bever-ages made in India by soft drinks giants Coca-Cola and Pepsi company contain pesticides.

2007 US Climate Data Center declared 2007 as the warmest year on record.

World Human population reached 7 billion.

2010 Earthquake in Haiti and Chile destroyed vital infrastructure.

Deepwater oil spill in Gulf of Mexico causes millions of barrels of oil pollute the gulf.

2011 Tsunami in Japan.

2015 Paris climatic change conference.

(Continued)

NaTIoNal Parks IN INDIa

State National ParkEstablished

In Wildlife Attractions

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Wandur National Park 1983 Estuarine crocodile, Coconut crab

Arunachal Pradesh

Namdapha National Park 1983 Leopard, Gaur, Himalayan black bear

Assam Kaziranga National Park 1974 Great Indian one-horned rhino, Elephant, Tiger

Manas National Park 1990 Tiger, Assam Roofed-turtle, Golden langur, Rhino

Chhattisgarh and Gujarat

Indravati National Park 1981 Tiger, Leopard, Blue bull

Gir National Park 1975 Asiatic lion, Leopard, Chousingha, Spotted deer, Hyena, Sambar, Chinkara

Marine National Park and Kutch

1980 Sea horse, Octopus, Pearl oyster, Starfish lobster, Dolphin, Degong

Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar

1976 Blackbuck, Fox, Barbara bush yard, Lesser florican

Vansda National Park 1979 Leopard, Hyena, Spotted deer, Chousingha

Himachal Pradesh

Great Himalayan National Park

1984 Goats, Bharal (blue sheep), Gora, Serow, Brown deer, Leopard, Snow leopard

Pin Valley National Park 1987 Snow leopard, Himalayan snowcock, Chukar (Partridge)

Jammu & Kashmir

Dachigam National Park 1981 Hangul, Musk deer, Himalayan black bear, Leopard, Migratory birds

Hemis National Park 1981 Snow leopard

Kishtwar National Park 1981 Himalayan jungle crow, Snow leopard reserve

Jharkhand Hazaribagh National Park

– Tiger, Wild boar, Nilgal, Chital, Kakar

Palamu National Park – Tiger, Dhole (wild dog), Elephant

Karnataka Bandipur National Park 1974 Asian elephant, Tiger


Appendices 4.11



Nagarhole National Park 1988 Tiger, Wild elephant, Leopard, Dhole (wild Dog), Gaur (Indian Bison), Muntjac (Barking deer), Mouse, Deer, four-horned Antelope, Wild boar, Sloth bear, Hyena

Kerala Eravikulam National Park

1978 Nilgiri tahr, Elephant, Gaur, Lion-tailed macaque, Langur, Tiger, Leopard

Periyar National Park 1982 Tiger, Nilgiri langur, Flying squirrel, Elephant, Lion-tailed Macaque

Madhya Pradesh Bandhavgarh National Park

1982 Tiger, Leopard, Bear

Kanha National Park 1955 Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Gaur, Swamp deer, Sambar, Cheetal

Madhav National Park 1959 Indian gazelle, Nilgai, Sambar, Chousingha (four-horned Antelope), Blackbuck, Sloth bear, Langur

Panna National Park 1973 Tiger, Wolf, Chital, Sloth bearPench National Park 1975 Tiger, Leopard, Sloth bear, Sambar, Nilgai, Gaur, Langur,

Rhesus monkeyShivpuri National Park Tiger, Leopard, Nilgai, Chousingha, Sambar chital

Maharashtra Navegaon National Park and Tadoba National Park

1975 Tiger, Panther, Bison

1955 Tiger, Leopard, Sloth bear, Sambar, Barking deer, NilgaiDhakna-Kolkaz Wildlife Sanctuary (now under Project Tiger)

Tiger, Panther, Gaur, Sambar, Barking deer, Chousingha, Sloth bear, Wild boar and Chital confined to flat tracts, Rich bird life.

Odisha Chandaka Elephant Reserve

– Elephant, Sambar, Bear, Wild dog, Peafowl, Python

Nandan Kanan National Park

– White tiger, Asiatic lion, Crocodile

Simlipal National Park 1980 Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Sambar, Langur, Deer, Gaur, Wild boar, Sloth bear, Monkey, Hyena, Porcupine

Rajasthan Desert National Park 1980 Great indian bustard, Harrier, Chinkara, Black-buck, Desert fox, Bangal fox, Wolf, Desert cat

Keoladeo National Park 1981 Bird sanctuary, Siberian crane, Ruddy shelduckRanthambore National Park

1980 Tiger, Leopard, Bear

Sariska National Park 1982 Tiger, Chousingha, Caracal, Leopard, Nilgai, Sambar, Cheetal, Indian porcupine, Striped hyena, Indian palam civet

Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa National Park 1977 Tiger, Rhino, Swamp deer, Rich bird life, Swamp partridge, Slaty-Backed woodpecker, Bengal florican

Corbett National Park 1936 Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Chital, Hog, Deer, Numerous grass and bird species

Uttarakhand Govind National Park 1990 Black bear, Snow leopard, Snowcock

(Continued)





Nandadevi National Park 1988 Tiger, Leopard

Rajaji National Park 1983 Tiger, Leopard, Elephant, Sambar, Chital, Barking deer, Wild boar, Sloth bear, Langur, Ghoral, Migratory birds

Valley of Flowers National Park

1980 Snow leopard, Musk deer, Red fox, Blue sheep (Bharal), Himalayan bear

West Bangal Sundarbans National Park

1984 Royal Bengal tiger, Fishing cat, Monitor lizard, Estuarine crocodile, Olive ridley turtle

WIlDlIfE saNCTUarIEs IN INDIa

StateWildlife Sanctuary

Established In Wildlife Attractions

Andhra Pradesh

Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary

1978 Tiger, leopard, sloth beer, python, cobra

Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary

1978 Monitor lizard, Fresh water turtle, Cobra, Marsh crocodile, Painted stork, Heron, Teal, Cormorant, Pochard, Spoonbill, Open billed stork

Nagarjunasagar Wildlife Sanctuary

1978 Tiger, Blackbuck

Assam and Gujarat

Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary

1971 Rhinoceros

Sasangir Wildlife Sanctuary

1965 Asiatic lion, Chinkara, Wild boar, Striped hyena, Jackal, Common langur, Hare, Blackbuck, Marsh crocodile

Wild Ass Wildlife Sanctuary

1973 Indian wild ass, Ghudkhar, Blue-bull, Chin-kara, Hedgehog, Wolf, Jackal, Fox, Jungle and desert cats

Haryana Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary

1989 Large range of resident and migratory birds: Geese, Siberian crane, Demoiselle crane, Pelican, Flamingo, Grey lag, Gadwall, Mall-ard, Pochard, etc.

Blackbuck, Nilgai, Hog deer, Sambar, Wild dog (Dhole), Caracal, Leopard, Wild pig, Four horned antelope (Chousingha)

Karnataka B.R. Hills Wildlife Sanctuary

1987 Gaur, Chital, Sambar, Bear, Elephant, Panther, Tiger, 200 species of birds: Racket- tailed drongo, Crested eagle, etc.

Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary

Barking, Spotted and Mouse deer, Sloth bear, Panther, Tiger, Gaur, Elephant, Wild dog (Dhole), Civet cat, Bison, Langur, Giant flying squirrel

Ranganathittu Wildlife Sanctuary

1984 Spoonbill, Open bill stork, White ibis, Egret, Cormorant, Heron, Patridge, River tern, Stone plougher, Snake bird

Kerala Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary

1976 Elephant, Langur, Leopard, Wild boar, Jungle fowl, Laughing thrush, Black bulbul, Wood-pecker, Kingfisher, Peacock

(Continued)


Appendices 4.13



Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

1950 Tiger, Indian elephant, Nilgiri, Langur, Lion-tailed, Macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Indian python, King cobra

Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

1973 Indian Bison, Tiger, Elephant, Monitor lizard

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary

1984 Different deer, Boar, Elephant, Bison, Leopard, Jungle cat

Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary

1958 Elephant, Gaur, Sloth bear, Nilgiri tahr, Jungle cat, Wild boar, Nilgiri langur

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary

1983 Elephant, Gaur, Samba, Barking deer, Mouse deer, Wild boar, Tiger, Panther, Wild dog (Dhole), Lion-taled macaqus, Nilgiri langur, malabar squirrel

Parambikulam 1973 Gaur, Elephant sloth bear, Wild boar, Sambar, Chital, Tiger, Panther, Crocodile, Bonnet macaque

Thattekad Bird Sanctuary

1981 More than 250 bird species, Elephant, Leopard, Sloth bear, Porcupine

Madhya Pradesh

Karera Wildlife Sanctuary

1981 245 Bird species: Great Indian bustard, Bearded bustard, Coloured bustard, Pints, Teal, Gadwall, Black-bellied river tern egret, Spoonbill, Heron, Indian robin, Blackbuck, etc.

Maharashtra Sanjay Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary

1983 Better known for flora, Kadamba, Teak, Karanj, Shisham, Ziziphus, Flame of the forest, Red silk, Cotton and many varieties of flowers

Odisha Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary

1987 Asia’s largest inland salt water lagoon, World’s largest breeding colony of Flamingos, White ballied sea eagles, Greylag goose, Purple moorhen, jacana, Heron, Blackbuck, Spotted deer, Golden jackal and Hyena

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary

1985 215 bird species, Giant salt water crocodile, King cobra, Indian python, Water monitor lizard

Rajasthan Sambhar Wildlife Sanctuary (India’s largest saline lake)

1990 Flamingoes, Ducks, Geese, Blackheaded gull

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary

1978 Langur, Bonnet macaque, Tiger, Leopard, Wild dog (Dhole), Hyena, Sloth bear, Elephant, Gaur, Sambar, Spotted deer, Indian muntjac, Mouse deer, Wild boar, Flying squirrel; Birds: Malabar trogon, Grey hornbill, Crested hawk, Eagle, Serpent eagle

Vedanthangal Water Bird Sanctuary

Several species of water birds

Uttar Pradesh Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary

1986 Swamp deer, Chital, Nilgai, Wolf, Leopard, Hyena, Wild boar, Gharial

Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary

1972 Tiger, Leopard, Swamp deer

(Continued)





National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary

1992 Rare gangetic dolphin, Crocodile (Magar), Gharial (Alligator), Chinkara, Sambar, Nilgai, Wolf, Wild boar

Uttarakhand Assan Barrage Bird Sanctuary (Dhalipur Lake)

– 53 species of water birds—Brahminy duck, Pintail, Red-crested pochard, Gadwall, Mallard, Coot, Wigeon, Common teal, Tufted duck, Shoveller, etc.

West Bangal Satkosia Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuary

– Tiger, Elephant, Gaur (Mithun), Wild goat, Musk deer, Slow loris, Binturong, Red panda, Assamese and Pig-Tailed macaque, Hoolock gibbon

BIosPhErE rEsErVEs

State Name LocationEstablished

In Wildlife Attraction

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Great Nicobar Southernmost Island of Andaman & Nicobar Islands

1989 Nicobar scrubfowl, Nicobar long-tailed macaque, Estuarine crocodile, Giant leather-back sea Turtle, Nicobar Treeshrew, Reticulated, Python, Coconut crab

Andhra Pradesh

Seshachalam Parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh

2010 Slender loris

Arunachal Pradesh

Dehang-Dibang

Parts of Siang and Dibang Valley

1988 Red goral, Musk deer, Asiatic black bear, Red panda

Assam Dibru-Saikhowa

Part of Dibrugarh & Tinsukia district

1977 Jungle cat, Dhole, Small Indian civet, Malayan giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin, Spot-billed duck

Assam Manas Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari and Darang districts

1989 Asian elephant, Indian rhino, Gaur, Asian water buffalo, Barasingha, Tiger, Leopard, Asian golden cat, Capped and Golden langurs, Slow loris, Bear, Barking deer, Hog deer, Sambar, Chital

Gujarat Kachchh Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State

2008 Indian wild ass

Himanchal Pradesh

Cold Desert Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal, and Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh

2009 Snow leopard

(Continued)


Appendices 4.15

State Name LocationEstablished

In Wildlife Attraction

Kerala Agasthyamalai Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala

2001 Tiger, Asian elephant, Nilgiri tahr

Madhya Pradesh

Pachmarhi Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara Districts

1999 Tiger, Leopard, Wild boar muntjac, Gaur, Chital, Sambar, Rhesus macaque

Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

Achanakamar–Amarkantak

Parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of Madhya Pradesh and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State

2005 Amarkantak famous for Angiosperms, Gymnosperms pteridophytes, valuable, medicinal plants: Gulbakowli and Kali haldi

Meghalaya Nokrek Part of Garo hills 1988 Capped langur, Clouded leopard, Leopard cat, Fishing cat, Golden cat, Pangolin, Wild buffalo, Elephant, Serow, Tiger, Python, Hornbill, Peacock, Pheasant

Odisha Simlipal Part of Mayurbhanj district

1999 Leopard, Asian elephant, Barking deer, Gaur, Jungle cat, Wild boar, Tiger

Sikkim Khangchend- zonga

Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim

2000 Musk deer, Snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, Wild dog

Tamil Nadu Gulf of Mannar

Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka

1989 Sea turtle, Shark, Dugong dolphin, Whale and Sea cucumber

Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka

Nilgiri Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka)

1986 Tiger, Asian elephant, Nilgri tahr, Species of mammals birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish, Butterflies and Invertebrates

Uttrakhand Nanda Devi Parts of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar Districts

1988 Himalayan musk deer, Mainland serow and Himalayan tahr

West Bengal Sunderbans Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra River system

1988 Royal Bengal tiger, Spotted deer, Crocodile, Snakes, Species of birdsRhinoceros, Elephant, Tiger leopard, Wild boar, Gaur, Sambar, Barking deer, Hog deer

Madhya Pradesh

Panna Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh

2011 Tiger, Chital, Chinkara



Important Notes

Wildlife such as the auk bird of northern region, moa bird of New Zealand, dodo bird of Mauritius, thylacine of Tasmania, Indian tiger, Indian rhino, pink-headed duck, black-necked crane, bustard, barking deer, monitor lizard, panda, black panther, jaguar, lions, Indian wild ass, musk-deer, etc., are some of the examples which are already or about to become extinct. Animals facing the threat of extinction are gila trout, houston toad, gharial, Californian condor, Javan rhinoceros, puma, polar bear, antelope, hump-back whale, Kashmir stag (hangul), etc. Among plant species monkey orchid, alpine catchfly, snakes head fritillary, etc., are endangered.

• World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was set up in 1962 to provide funds for the conser-vation and preservation of wildlife.

• Project Tiger launched in 1973. There are 50 tiger reserves created in 14 states of India covering an area of about 37761 sq. km.

CaTEGorIEs of aNIMals aT rIsk

Classification Meaning and Examples

Extinct These are animals that no longer exist. For example, panay giant fruit bat, Syrian wild ass, javan tiger, Chinese river dolphin, gecko, etc.

Critically endangered

These cannot be survived without human assistance. For example, California condor, Florida panther, Great Indian bustard, etc.

Endangered There numbers are keep on getting dropped, whereas they were in good numbers earlier. Immediate danger of extinction is whooping crane, red wolf, key deer, blue whale, gharial, etc.

Threatened Abundant in part of its range, but severely depleted in others. These are likely to become endangered. For example, Grizzly bear horned rhino, etc.

Rare These are not endangered at present but at risk because of low numbers. These includes many island species.

fEW ENDaNGErED sPECIEs of rEPTIlEs, BIrDs aND MaMMals

Reptiles Mammals Birds

Gharial Black Buck Great Indian Bustard

Green Sea Turtle Lion-tailed Macaque Great Indian Hornbill

Pythons Wild Ass Brown Headed Gull

Tortoise Hyena and Sloth Bear Mountain Quail Peacock Tiger

Tiger Cheetah Sambar Peafowl Pelican Siberian White Crane


Appendices 4.17

hUMaN DaIly lIfE aND NaTIoNal sECUrITy

Name Area Application

1. ROADEO ROBOT To help traffic police manage these challenges, six students from a private robotics lab (headquartered in Chennai) called SP Robotics Maker Lab developed a fully functional ‘RoboCop’ named ‘Roadco’. The traffic buddy was developed by students in the age group of 11–14, Parth Kulkarni, Shruten Pande, Rachit Jain, Aadi Kanchankar, Shourya Singh and Vinayak Krishna of SP Robotics (that trains people in the field of robotics) was launched on a pilot basis and received accolades from the Pune traffic police and citizens. Speaking to Pune 365 about ‘Roadeo’, one of the many inventions by the lab, Sandeep Gautam, head at SP Robotics Maker Lab, Pune branch, says, ‘The idea was put together by the experts in the organisation and the students’.

2. USTAD Indian Railways trains

A new ‘USTAAD’ to ensure safety in an innovative move, the national transporter has developed a new robot system for undergear surveillance of train coaches called Undergear Surveillance Through Artificial Intelligence Assisted Droid or simply USTAAD, the new robot reduces chances of human error while examining undergear equipment on Indian Railways trains. The Mechanical Branch of the Nagpur Division of Central Railways has developed this new robot USTAAD. The robot has an HD rotating camera that not only allows for real-time monitoring if required, but also gives a more accurate view of the under gear than the human eye can catch. Some of the very proficient features and practical capabilities of this robot are as follows.

Robot equipped with HD camera:

For the constructive and appropriate examination of train’s coaches or wagon’s parts, the robot has been facilitated with HD (high-definition) camera. This HD camera is able to move 320 degrees on X axis and 130 degrees on Y axis so that the maximum portion of under gear gets covered. The HD camera of USTAAD can be rotated in any direction as per commands given by the engineer. The camera can also zoom in or zoom out on the spot, during safety inspection.

Robot with LED flood lights:

The robot is also equipped with LED (light-emitting diode) flood lights and is able to capture the videos in low light conditions as well as in dark mode. With the help of the robot’s technical power, the chances of any mistake overlooked by the human eye can be eliminated, which, in turn, reduces the chances of human error. USTAAD robot, based on artificial intelligence, may turn out to be a boon for Indian Railways as it looks to enhance safety standards.

(continued)




3. ONEER Clean drinking water is an essential prerequisite for good health. Drinking contaminated water leads to diseases, like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid. In a country like India, where 21% of communicable diseases spread through unsafe water, and more than 500 children under the age of five die each day from diarrhoea, the accessibility to clean drinking water is paramount. A new device developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research’s (CSIR’s) Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR) may soon put an end to clean water woes. The water purifier developed by the researchers at CSIR-IITR, named Oneer is unique. It is an electronic device that runs on solar energy and provides clean water for less than two paise per litre. Unlike ultraviolet (UV) water purifiers that kill microorganisms from clear water, Oneer can also treat brackish or turbid water with microorganisms.

4. RADA ROCKET Vistara has developed RADA as an Artificial Intelligence powered robot, that promises to assist customers, address their queries and entertain them. As per the airline, the robot aims to offer a seamless experience and an ‘intuitively thoughtful’ on-ground service to its customers, keeping with the changing consumer behaviour. At present, the robot can scan boarding passes and further provide information on the terminal, departure gates, weather conditions of the destination city, real-time flight status as well as information about Vistara’s products and services. It greets customers and interacts with them using basic hand movements, and is capable of moving around in the lounge on predefined pathways. RADA is not the only one, however, but the first in India for sure.

5. BIOFUEL Biofuels are combustible fuels created from biomass in other words, fuels created from recently living plant matter as opposed to ancient plant matter in hydrocarbons. The term biofuel is usually used to refer liquid fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel that are used as replacements for transportation fuels like petroleum, diesel and jet fuel. Biofuels can also include solid fuels like wood pellets and biogas or syngas and however, in this summary we will focus on liquid fuels. There are two main types of biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel. The simplest way to distinguish between the two is to remember that ethanol is an alcohol and biodiesel is an oil. Ethanol is an alcohol formed by fermentation and can be used as a replacement for, or additive to, gasoline whereas biodiesel is produced by extracting naturally occurring oils from plants and seeds in a process called transesterification. Biodiesel can be combusted in diesel engines.

(continued)


Appendices 4.19


6. 5G TECHNOLOGY

The next-generation communications network is about more than fast data rates and greater capacity. It's about the seamless, real-time interaction between humans and billions of intelligent devices. The 5G wireless technology promises a rich, reliable, and hyper connected world. But from new bands to wider bandwidth and new beam forming technology, 5G New Radio (NR) presents significant design, prototype, and test challenges. Gain a comprehensive look at the technology researchers use to accelerate prototyping and design with examples from around the world.

7. SOLAR THERMAL FUEL

The thought of turning sunshine into liquid fuel might sound like a step back, but hear me out. The solar thermal energy storage system I’m referencing uses a liquid isomer to store and release solar energy. The discovery could lead to more widespread use of solar energy throughout the world, according to the researchers behind it. Swedish scientists from the Chalmers University of Technology figured out that using a norbornadiene compound that reacts to sunlight has some potential in this regard. It rearranges its carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen atoms, which can be stored in an energy-storing isomer called a quadricyclane. Quadricyclanes hold up to 250 Watt hours of energy per kilogram, even after cooling down for a long time. These countries have made great strides with hydro and thermal energy systems, but solar thermal energy storage is still a developing field. By using a cobalt-based catalyst, the energy is released as heat, much like how concentrated solar molten salt tanks work. This makes solar energy transportable and a contender for on-demand energy needs.

8. EYE ROV TUNA It's been little over a year when we talked about a unique Ernakulam, Kerala-based start-up, EyeROV, which was incubated at Kochi’s Maker Village, and has built a robotic drone that is capable of performing visual inspection/survey of underwater/ submerged structures. Well now, the start-up has re-branded to IROV Technologies and is going places as it has just launched commercial underwater drones by handing over the first vehicle to Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL), a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). It is called ‘EyeROV TUNA’, the vehicle is India’s First Commercial Inspection Class micro ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) that performs visual inspection and surveys of submerged structures. It is a cost-effective underwater rover that works up to a depth of 100 m. It can be easily controlled using a laptop or a joystick. A camera is fitted on to the underwater drone (ROV), it gives a live video feed of the underwater environment. This project is backed by Kerala Start-Up Mission (KSUM), oil and gas firm BPCL and the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of government of India, it also claims the product is the first indigenously-developed commercial underwater drone in the country.

(continued)




9. LIDAR TECHNIQQUE

LIDAR, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing method that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges (variable distances) to the earth. These light pulses combined with other data recorded by the airborne system generates precise, three-dimensional information about the shape of the earth and its surface characteristics. A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver. Topographic LIDAR typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the land, while bathymetric lidar uses water-penetrating green light to also measure the seafloor and riverbed elevations. LIDAR systems allow scientists and mapping professionals to examine both natural and man-made environments with accuracy, precision and flexibility. NOAA scientists are using LIDAR to produce more accurate shoreline maps, make digital elevation models for use in geographic information systems to assist in emergency response operations and in many other applications.

10. Fortification Rice ‘Power Rice’ can significantly address deficiencies like haemoglobin status and cure anaemia. It can easily address the deficiency of micronutrients including vitamin A, zinc, folic acid, vitamin B

12, etc.

It has nutritional values and ‘Power Rice’ plays an important role in maintaining healthy vision, neurological function, healthy skin, and slow aging. It is a cost-effective strategy to deliver key micronutrients to a large population. It is helpful in the normal functioning of blood cells which maintain energy levels, healthy skin and hair. It is essential for the functioning of heart, muscles and nervous system, production of energy especially for gym freaks. It also beneficial to the geriatric population and it is proven to be advantageous in controlling hypertension, diabetes and depression.

11. Artificial Leaf It has been estimated that the energy captured in one hour of sunlight that reaches our planet is equivalent to the annual energy production by human population globally. To efficiently capture the practically inexhaustible solar energy and convert it into high energy density, the solar fuels provides an attractive ‘green’ alternative to running our present-day economies on rapidly depleting fossil fuels, especially in the context of ever-growing global energy demand. Natural photosynthesis represents one of the most fundamental processes that sustain life on earth. It provides nearly all the oxygen we breathe, the food we consume and fossil fuels that we so much depend on. Imitating the reactions that occur at the early stages of photosynthesis represents the main challenge in the quest for construction of an efficient, robust, self-renewing and cost-effective ‘artificial leaf’.

(continued)


Appendices 4.21


12. C-60 Commando C-60 Commando Force was first conceptualized and raised to battle the Naxalite menace in 1992 by the then SP of Gadchiroli Police K. P. Raghuvansi. The prime reason behind the success of C-60 Commandos are due to the fact that all the serving operatives are locals. The ‘local’ factor plays an important role especially in the case of combating armed aggression and extremism. Going by the motto ‘Veerbhogya Vasundhara’, they are well acquainted with the local population there and also helps to bridge in gaps between government and create credible intelligence sources about Naxalites movements and actions. The move to induct local men into the unit has been a game changer since unlike other commando units combating left wing extremism like CRPF COBRA, they are well aware of the area landscape which helps them predict the possible tactics used by Naxalites and to develop counter-strategies and tactics against the same.

13. Cobra Battalion COBRA (backronym for Commando Battalion for Resolute Action) is a specialized unit of the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) of India proficient in guerrilla tactics and jungle warfare. Currently numbering ten battalions, CoBRA is ranked among one of India's most experienced and successful law enforcement units.

14. Bastariya Battalion

In Raipur of the ‘Bastariya’ battalion of the CRPF, formed with more than 534 tribal youth from Chhattisgarh. The squad has 33% representation of women with 189 mahila constables. The new battalion has been numbered 241. The battalion immediately deployed for anti-naxal operations in some of the worst-affected areas, such as Sukma, Dantewada and Bijapur, a senior official said. With recruits from Sukma, Dantewada, Narayanpur and Bijapur districts of undivided Bastar, the battalion has been raised to strengthen operations in areas where security forces have witnessed the most reverses owing to a lack of concrete intelligence and familiarization with locals and the topography.

15. Arsenic cancer or removal media

The product ‘Arsenic Sensor and Removal Media’ was unveiled on Wednesday. As per WHO, soluble inorganic arsenic is acutely toxic. Intake of inorganic arsenic over a long period can lead to chronic arsenic poisoning (arsenicosis), diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

16. UTrack UTrack is a platform that elevates a passenger's experience of public transport. Our clients use real-time business intelligence data to transform their companies.

17. Unreserved ticketing system mobile app

The Un-Reserved Ticket through Mobile Application (UTS app) was started by the Indian Railways on 27 December 2014 from Mumbai Suburban area. From 1 November 2018, booking of unreserved tickets on all non-suburban sections across all Zonal Railways has been made available using the UTS app to enable seamless booking of unreserved tickets all over Indian Railways.


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