prize & peril: african nations & nationalisms

CORNELL UNIVERSITY Department of History

450 McGraw Hall

Ithaca, NY 14853

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HIST 4XX

“Prize and Peril: African Nations and Nationalisms”

Course Syllabus

Instructor: Mark W. Deets

Office: TBA

Office Phone: TBA

Cell Phone: 607-342-5330

E-mail: [email protected]

Office Hours: TBA

“Seek ye first the political kingdom, and all things shall be added unto you.”

--Kwame Nkrumah, First President of Ghana1

“The activists of the 1950s plunged into their chosen road of nationalism, seeing

this as the only available guarantee of a route open to progress. They accepted

the aim of building nation-states on the British model (or, later, on the French)

because, as it seemed to them and as they were strongly advised, there could exist

no other useful objective. Nkrumah’s advice that they should seek the political

kingdom, and all would then be added to them, expressed a central maxim of

which the truth appeared self-evident: once sovereignty was seized by Africans

no matter under what conditions, the road to freedom and development would be

theirs to follow. That this acceptance of the postcolonial nation-state meant

acceptance of the legacy of the colonial partition, and of the moral and political

practices of colonial rule in its institutional dimensions, was a handicap which

the more perceptive of the activists well perceived.”

--Basil Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-

State2

A. Course Description: The recent Jubilee celebrations of fifty years of independence in

African nation-states offer an apt moment to “take stock” of the legacy of the nationalist

movements that brought about independence and the nations they spawned. One observer has

argued that the celebrations bore “particularly strong symbolic power” so that even in countries

with “nothing to celebrate,” all jubilee nations eventually featured “some form of official

commemoration.”3 Furthermore, these celebrations “presented stark proof of the continued

importance of the ‘nation’ in Africa,” inviting citizens “to remember, re-enact and re-redefine

their national histories as well as to take stock of and reflect on their countries’ futures.”4 Why

were these commemorations so important to Africans? Why does nationalism continue to

catalyze such heated debate, in Africa as around the world? One answer is that there is so much

to contest in defining terms like “the nation” and “independence.” No single definition suffices

1 As quoted by Ali Mazrui, “Seek Ye First the Political Kingdom,” UNESCO General History of Africa

vol. 8 (1993), 105-126. 2 Basil Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York: Times

Books, 1992), 162. 3 Carola Lentz, “The 2010 Independence Jubilees: The Politics and Aesthetics of National Commemoration

in Africa,” Nations and Nationalism 19, no. 2 (2013): 218. 4 Lentz, 218.

mailto:[email protected]


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for everybody, everywhere. Nations inherently have histories, and history is a terrain fraught

with contestation.

This course traces the evolution of the literature on African nationalisms—in dialogue

with scholarship on nations and nationalisms from other world regions—since the 1957

publication of Thomas Hodgkin’s seminal text Nationalism in Colonial Africa. It examines the

central tension of the Jubilee celebrations over who gets to define “the nation” in Africa through

the lenses of class, gender, ethnicity, and religion. It also examines how nationalisms in Africa

have varied over space and time. We will place this literature in dialogue with scholarship on

nations and nationalisms from other world regions. Doing so allows more than a genealogy of

nationalism. It also demonstrates that African nationalisms are not peculiar. They are not

“African.” In fact, these movements have faced numerous challenges similar to those faced by

other nationalists from around the world. Thus, studying the historical development of African

nations over time may help us better understand “nation-building” in the present.

B. Pedagogical Approach: This syllabus is written for an advanced undergraduate seminar

course. The course examines but does not assume familiarity with literature on states, nations,

nationalisms, colonialisms, and postcolonialisms in sub-Saharan Africa. It focuses on developing

the student’s familiarity with the historiographical debates on these subjects. Learning will occur

by intellectual exchange with others—via the written and spoken word. Students can expect

about 150-250 pages of reading per week, with a 500-word response paper to each week’s

readings for at least 10 of the 14 weeks of the semester. Other written requirements include three

essays, two of approximately 1250 words in length and the third of 3000-3500 words in length.

The third and final essay comprises the take-home final exam. Half of the student’s final course

grade will be comprised of evaluation of regular weekly learning through reading, discussion, and

response papers. The final half of the course grade comes from the three essays.

C. Course Texts:

1. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of

Nationalism. Rev. ed. London; New York: Verso, 2006.

2. Boahen, Adu. African Perspectives on Colonialism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1989.

3. Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

4. Cooper, Frederick. Africa since 1940: the past of the present. Cambridge; New York:

Cambridge University Press, 2002.

5. Fanon, Frantz. The wretched of the earth. Rev. ed. New York: Grove, 2002.

6. Hodgkin, Thomas. Nationalism in colonial Africa. New York: New York University

Press, 1957.

7. Lawrance, Benjamin N. Locality, mobility, and “nation”: periurban colonialism in

Togo’s Eweland, 1900-1960. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press, 2007.

8. Schmidt, Elizabeth. Mobilizing the Masses: Gender, Ethnicity, and Class in the

Nationalist Movement in Guinea, 1939-1958. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005.

Any readings not found in these texts will be available on Blackboard. Please bring the readings

to class discussions.

D. Course Requirements and Grading: Your final course grade will be based on the following

criteria:


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Class preparation and participation 10%

Weekly response papers—average of 10 best 40%

Two essays (15% each) 30%

Final Exam/Essay 20%

1. Class preparation and participation (10%). You are expected to prepare for and attend class to

participate in discussions of the material. This portion of your grade is admittedly subjective. It

is based on my perception of your intellectual engagement with the course material. It is partly a

measure of whether you are reading for the course. But it is also a measure of how much you

have engaged with the material outside of class. It is not a measure of who talks the most during

class discussions. Rather, it is a measure of how much I see you engaging with the course

content, performing your own historical analysis, and coming to your own conclusions.

2. Weekly response papers (40%). You will be expected to submit via Blackboard at least ten

(10) weekly written responses of approximately 500 words each. The ten weeks you write about

will be up to you, but you must turn in ten weekly responses to complete the course. If you

submit more than 10 responses, then I will calculate this portion of your grade from the 10 best

grades you receive. The response for the week’s readings will be due by 3:00 p.m. EST on the

day before section discussion. In each response, address what you took away from the readings

as a whole. What were the authors’ arguments? Did you find them convincing? Why or why

not? Where did the authors agree or disagree? Why? There is no “correct” interpretation of each

week’s readings, but your evaluation should present your own ideas while relating the arguments

and evidence from the scholars under consideration, showing how they relate to one another.

3. Essays (30%). You will write two essays of at least 1250 words each, in which you must

respond to a question from me about what we have studied, referring to the readings and

classroom discussions to support your answer. Specific instructions for completing each essay

will come with the essay question(s) and will be posted on Blackboard in a timely fashion to

allow you time to write your essay. Each essay will be worth fifteen (15) percent of your final

grade.

4. Final Exam/Essay (20%). The final exam will consist of a take-home essay. I will ask you to

write an essay of between 3000 and 3500 words answering a question posed by me. The essay

will be comprehensive in nature, requiring you to analyze material from each third of the course.

All essays must be completed in order to pass the course.

E. Late Policy. Any work turned in after the due date (as specified in the syllabus) will be

marked down for lateness. The standard policy for this course is one grade increment (i.e. A+, A,

A-, B+ etc.) for each day it is late. However, if the final take-home exam essay is late, the policy

will be one full letter grade for each day that it is late.

F. Office Hours. I am available for extra instruction during regular office hours and at other

times by appointment. You may e-mail, call, or speak to me directly to set up an appointment.

You may also call me at any time between the hours of 9:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.m. EST/EDT with

questions about the class, the readings, assignments, or my expectations.

G. Plagiarism. Plagiarism involves using the words, information, insights, or ideas of another

without crediting the individual through proper citation. Since authorship is ownership, using the

intellectual property of others without giving credit is theft. Passing off another person's work as


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your own is lying. Therefore, plagiarism, like stealing and lying, violates the Ithaca College

“Standards of Academic Conduct.” You can avoid plagiarism by fully and openly crediting all

sources used. Follow the guidelines in Section 7.1.4 of the Ithaca College Policy Manual, found

at https://www.ithaca.edu/policies/vol7/volume_7-70104/ and you should have no problems. In

any case, don’t risk making a tragic mistake when it comes to preserving your integrity. If you

have any questions about the proper citation of sources, please do not hesitate to ask me.

H. Fun. Let’s have some. Learning should be fun, so if you have any suggestions to make the

course more fun, please let me know.

Mark W. Deets

Instructor

https://www.ithaca.edu/policies/vol7/volume_7-70104/


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LESSON SCHEDULE

Students are expected to come to class having read the readings listed below each class title that

follows. Readings that are not from one of the required course texts will be posted on Blackboard

(Bb). When possible, it is recommended that students read the weekly selections in the order

listed.

PART I: Theories of Nationalism and Decolonization in Africa

Week 1: Africa, Africans, and African Nations in the Present (46 pp.)

Lentz, Carola. “The 2010 Independence Jubilees: The Politics and Aesthetics of National

Commemoration in Africa.” Nations and Nationalism 19, no. 2 (2013): 217–237.

Keim, Curtis. “They Live in Tribes, Don’t They?” In Mistaking Africa: Curiosities and

Inventions of the American Mind (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999), 113-127.

Wainaina, Binyavanga. “How to Write about Africa.” Granta 92 (Winter 2005).

http://www.granta.com/Magazine/92/How-to-Write-about-Africa/Page-1

Larson, Pier M. “Myths about Africa, Africans, and African History.” Department of

History, Johns Hopkins University, 1-9.

Week 2: Imagining Nations? (218 pp.)

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of

Nationalism. Rev. ed. London; New York: Verso, 2006. (1-162)

Armstrong, John Alexander. Nations before nationalism. Chapel Hill: University of North

Carolina Press, 1982. (Chap. 1: “An Approach to the Emergence of Nations,” 3-13)

Smith, Anthony D. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford; New York: B. Blackwell, 1987.

(Chap. 1: “Are nations modern?”6-18; Chap. 2: “Foundations of ethnic community,” 21-46)

Wilson, Henry S., ed. Origins of West African Nationalism. London; New York: Macmillan;

St. Martin’s Press, 1969. (“Chiefs’ letter submitting the Fanti Constitution to the Governor-

In-Chief,” 212-213; “The Constitution of the Fanti Confederacy,” 213-218; “The

Confederation in Nationalist Tradition,” by J.E. Casely hayford, 222-225)

Week 3: African Colonialisms (235 pp.)

Hodgkin, Thomas. Nationalism in colonial Africa. New York: New York University Press,

1957. Part I: “Policies of the Powers,” 29-59.

Lord Lugard. “Indirect Rule in Tropical Africa.” In Documents from the African Past, ed.

Robert O. Collins, 290-297. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2001.

Boahen, Adu. African Perspectives on Colonialism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University

Press, 1989. (1-112)

Conklin, Alice L. “Colonialism and Human Rights, A Contradiction in Terms? The Case of

France and West Africa, 1895-1914.” The American Historical Review, Vol. 103, No. 2.

(Apr., 1998), pp. 419-442.

Vansina, Jan. Being colonized: the Kuba experience in rural Congo, 1880-1960. Madison,

Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2010. (1-57; 325-331)

Optional additional reading on the topic:

Young, Crawford. The African colonial state in comparative perspective. New Haven: Yale


http://www.granta.com/Magazine/92/How-to-Write-about-Africa/Page-1


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Cooper, Frederick. “Conflict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History.” The

American Historical Review 99, no. 5 (December 1, 1994): 1516–1545.

Conklin, Alice L. A mission to civilize: the republican idea of empire in France and West

Africa, 1895-1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.

Foster, Jeremy. Washed with Sun: Landscape and the Making of White South Africa.

Pittsburgh: University Press, 2008.

Elkins, Caroline. Imperial reckoning: the untold story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya. New

York: Henry Holt and Co., 2005.

Wilder, Gary. The French imperial nation-state: negritude & colonial humanism between the

two world wars. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

Week 4: Contesting Nations and Nationalisms (219 pp.)

Fanon, Frantz. The wretched of the earth. Rev. ed. New York: Grove, 2002. (1-144)

Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. Chap. 1: “Whose Imagined Community?” 3-13;

Chap. 4: “The Nation & Its Pasts,” 76-94; Chap. 5: “Histories & Nations,” 95-115.

Duara, Prasenjit. “Historicizing National Identity, or Who Imagines What and When.” In

Becoming National: A Reader, ed. Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, 151-178. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1996.

Week 5: African Decolonizations (128 pp.)

Smith, Tony. “A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonisation.” Comparative

Studies in society and history XX (1978): 70-102.

Robinson, Ronald. “Andrew Cohen and the Transfer of Power in Tropical Africa, 1940-

1951.” In Decolonisation and After: the British and French Experience, ed. W.H. Morris-

Jones and Georges Fischer, 50-72. London: F. Cass, 1980.

Cooper, Frederick. Africa since 1940: the past of the present. Cambridge; New York:

Cambridge University Press, 2002. (Chap. 3: “Citizenship, self-government, and

development: the possibilities of the post-war moment,” 38-65; Chap. 4: “Ending empire and

imagining the future,” 66-84)

Cooper, Frederick. “Possibility and Constraint: African Independence in Historical

Perspective.” The Journal of African History 49, No. 2 (2008): 167–96.


Duara, Prasenjit. “The Decolonization of Asia and Africa in the Twentieth Century.” In

Decolonization: Perspectives from Now and Then, ed. Prasenjit Duara, 1–18. London; New

York: Routledge, 2004.

Date: ESSAY #1 due

PART II: African Nations and Nationalisms

Week 6: African Nationalisms (186 pp.)


1957. (Introductory: 9-25; Chap. 1: “The New Towns,” 63-83; Chap. 2: “The New

Associations,” 84-92; Chap. 3: “Prophets & Priests,” 93-114)


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Senghor, Léopold Sédar. “Negritude: A Humanism of the Twentieth Century.” In

Perspectives on Africa: A Reader in Culture, History and Representation, eds. Roy Richard

Grinker & Christopher B. Steiner, 629-636. Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1997.

Lonsdale, John. “The Emergence of African Nations: A Historiographical Analysis.” African

Affairs 67, no. 266 (January 1, 1968): 11–28.

Falola, Toyin. Nationalism and African Intellectuals. Rochester, NY: University of

Rochester Press, 2001. (Chap. 1: “Modern Intellectuals: Values and Vision,” 3-55; Chap. 3:

“’Seek Ye the Political Kingdom’: Nationalism & Nation-Building,” 97-142)


Mazrui, Ali. “Seek Ye First the Political Kingdom.” UNESCO General History of Africa vol.

8 (1993), 105-126.

Schmidt, Elizabeth. “Top Down or Bottom Up? Nationalist Mobilization Reconsidered, with

Special Reference to Guinea (West Africa).” The American Historical Review, Vol. 110, No.

4 (October 2005): 975-1014.

Week 7: West African Nationalisms (197 pp.)

Skurnik, Walter A. E. “Leopold Sedar Senghor and African Socialism.” The Journal of

Modern African Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Oct., 1965): 349-369.

Cabral, Amílcar, and Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde. Unity and

struggle: speeches and writings of Amilcar Cabral. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.

(39-56)

Senghor, Léopold, and Sékou Touré. In Ideologies of liberation in Black Africa, 1856-1970:

documents on modern African political thought from colonial times to the present, ed. J.

Ayodele Langley, 528-45, 601-616. London: R. Collings, 1979.

Schmidt, Elizabeth. Mobilizing the Masses: Gender, Ethnicity, and Class in the Nationalist

Movement in Guinea, 1939-1958. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005. (Introduction: 1-14;

Chap. 1: “History, Culture, and War: the Roots of Guinean Nationalism (1939-1947), 15-35;

Chap. 2: “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité: Military Veterans and the Postwar Nationalist

Movement (1940-1955),” 37-54)

Lawrance, Benjamin N. Locality, mobility, and “nation”: periurban colonialism in Togo’s

Eweland, 1900-1960. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press, 2007.

(Introduction: “Conceptualizing Periurban Colonialism in Sub-Saharan Africa,” 1-20; Chap.

1: “Mobility, Locality, and Ewe Identity in Periurban Eweland,” 21-44; Chap. 6: “From

Eweland to la République Togolaise: Le Guide du Togo and the Periurban Circulation of

Knowledge,” 148-178; Epilogue, 179-182)


Senghor, Léopold Sédar. Nationhood and the African Road to Socialism. Translated by

Mercer Cook. Paris: Présence Africaine, 1962.

Week 8: Southern African Nationalisms (200 pp.)

Cope, Nicholas. To bind the nation: Solomon kaDinuzulu and Zulu nationalism: 1913-1933.

Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1993. (Prologue, 1-17)

Mandela, Nelson. “Talking with the Enemy.” In Long Walk to Freedom: the Autobiography

of Nelson Mandela, 513-558. Boston, New York, Toronto and London: Little, Brown and

Company, 1995.


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Comaroff, Jean, and John L. Comaroff. “Introduction.” In Of revelation and revolution,

Volume Two: The dialectics of modernity on a South African frontier, 1-62. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1997.

Cooper, Frederick. Africa since 1940: the past of the present. Cambridge; New York:

Cambridge University Press, 2002. (Chap. 6: “The late decolonizations: southern Africa,

1975, 1979, 1994,” 133-155)

Moorman, Marissa Jean. Intonations: a social history of music and nation in Luanda, Angola,

from 1945 to recent times. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2008. (Introduction, 1-27;

Chap. 1: “Musseques and Urban Culture,” 28-55)


Marks, Shula. The ambiguities of dependence in South Africa: class, nationalism, and the

state in twentieth-century Natal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.

Week 9: East African Nationalisms (137 pp.)

Maloba, Wunyabari O. Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. (Introduction: “The Theory of Peasant Revolts

and Mau Mau,” 1-19; Chap. 1: “The Economics of Desperation,” 23-44; Chap. 2:

“Frustrations of Nationalism,” 45-63; Chap. 3: “1952: Year of Collision,” 64-78)

Askew, Kelly M. Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania.

Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2002. (Chap. 1: “Arts of Governance,” 1-

26; Conclusion: “Cultural Policy By and For the People,” 268-294)

Maddox, Gregory, and James L. Giblin. “Introduction.” In In Search of a Nation : Histories

of Authority & Dissidence in Tanzania, edited by Maddox and Giblin, 1-13. Oxford; Dar Es

Salaam; Athens: James Currey; Kapsel Educational Publications; Ohio University Press,

2005.


Austen, Ralph A. “Colonial Boundaries and African Nationalism: The Case of the Kagera

Salient.” In In Search of a Nation : Histories of Authority & Dissidence in Tanzania, edited

by Gregory Maddox and James L. Giblin, 57-69. Oxford; Dar Es Salaam; Athens: James

Currey; Kapsel Educational Publications; Ohio University Press, 2005.

Date: ESSAY #2 due

PART III: Social Histories of African Nations

Week 10: The Lens of Gender (166 pp.)

McClintock, Anne. “Family Feuds: Gender, Nationalism and the Family.” Feminist Review

44 (July 1, 1993): 61–80.

Allman, Jean. “Be(com)ing Asante, Be(com)ing Akan: Thoughts on Gender, Identity and the

Colonial Encounter.” In Ethnicity in Ghana, eds. Carola Lentz and Paul Nugent, 501-33.

New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

Lonsdale, John. “Authority, Gender & Violence: The war within Mau Mau’s fight for land &

freedom.” In Mau Mau & nationhood: arms, authority & narration, edited by E. S. Atieno

Odhiambo and John Lonsdale, 46-75. Oxford; Nairobi; Athens: James Currey; EAEP; Ohio



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Geiger, Susan. “Women and African Nationalism.” Journal of Women’s history 2 (1990):

227-44.


Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. Chap. 6: “The Nation & Its Women,” 116-134.

Byfield, Judith. “‘Unwrapping’ Nationalism: Dress, Gender, and Nationalist Discourse in

Colonial Lagos.” AH 30:1–21. Boston: Boston University African Studies Center, 2000.


Movement in Guinea, 1939-1958. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005. (Chap. 5: “Women

Take the Lead: Female Emancipation and the Nationalist Movement (1949-1954),” 113-143)


Geiger, Susan. TANU women : gender and culture in the making of Tanganyikan nationalism,

1955-1965. Portsmouth, NH; Oxford; Nairobi; Dar es Salaam: Heinemann ; James Currey ;

E.A.E.P. ; Mkuki Na Nyota, 1997.

Week 11: The Lens of Class (160 pp.)


1957. (Chap. 4: “Workers & Peasants,” 115-138)

Jean Allman, “The Youngmen and the Porcupine: Class, Nationalism and Asante’s Struggle

for Self-Determination, 1954-57.” Journal of African History 31 (1990): 263-80.


Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. Chap. 3: “The Nationalist Elite,” 35-75.


Movement in Guinea, 1939-1958. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005. (Chap. 3: “The

Universal Worker: Organized Labor and Nationalist Mobilization (1946-1953),” 55-90;

Chapter 4: “Rural Revolt: Popular Resistance to the Colonial Chieftaincy (1946-1956),” 91-

112; Chap. 6: “Ethnicity, Class, and Violence: Internal Dissent in the RDA (1955-1956),”

145-169.)

Week 12: The Lens of Ethnicity (194 pp.)

Hastings, Adrian. The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism.

Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. (Chap. 7: “Ethnicity further

considered,” 167-184)

Lonsdale, John. “The Moral Economy of Mau Mau – Wealth, Poverty, and Civic Virtue in

Kikuyu Political Thought.” In Unhappy Valley, Vol. II, Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale,

315-468. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1992.

Spear, Thomas. “Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of Invention in British Colonial Africa.”

Journal of African History 44 (2003): 3-27.

Week 13: The Lens of Religion (205 pp.)

Hastings, Adrian. The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism.

Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. (Chap. 8: “Religion further

considered,” 185-209)

Magaziner, Daniel R. The law and the prophets: Black consciousness in South Africa, 1968-

1977. Athens; Johannesburg: Ohio University Press; Jacana, 2010. (Introduction, Chaps. 1-

6: 1-124) http://site.ebrary.com/id/10430959.

http://site.ebrary.com/id/10430959


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Peel, J. D. Y. Religious encounter and the making of the Yoruba. Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University Press, 2000. (Chap. 1: “Narratives of Religion and of Empire,” 1-26; Chap. 10:

“The Making of the Yoruba,” 278-309)

Week 14: Postcolonial Nations? (263 pp.)

Gould, Michael, and Frederick Forsyth. The struggle for modern Nigeria: the Biafran war,

1967-1970. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012. (Chapters 1-3: 1-72; Conclusion, 184-

200)

Des Forges, Alison Liebhafsky, and Human Rights Watch. “Leave none to tell the story”:

genocide in Rwanda. New York; Paris: Human Rights Watch ; International Federation of

Human Rights, 1999. (1-175)


Baum, Robert. “Prophetess: Aline Sitoé Diatta as a Contested Icon in Contemporary

Senegal.” In Facts, fiction, and African creative imaginations, edited by Falola and Ngom,

48-59. New York: Routledge, 2010.

Diouf, Mamadou. “Between Ethnic Memories & Colonial History in Senegal: The MFDC &

the Struggle for Independence in Casamance.” Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa. Edited by

Bruce Berman, Dickson Eyoh and Will Kymlicka. Translated from French by Jonathan M.

Sears, 218-239. Oxford: University Press, 2004.

Date: FINAL ESSAY due