Module Paper 9: Peace Pedagogy.

Instructor: Dr. Hakim Williams

MA. Peace and Conflict Studies

Academic year 2012/13, Spring Term

European Peace University, Private Universitat

Peace education through sport: Examining the significance of sport in Development

NSUBUGA Bright Titus

2013

Table OF Contents

PAGE

1.Introduction......……………………………………………………………....….........................3

2.0. Background …...................................................……………………………….......................4

2.1. Sport in Peace Education…..............................…………………............................................4

3.0. Theoretical context........……………………………………………........................................6

3.1. Peace pedagogy……………...........………………………………..........................................6

3.2. Behaviouristic pedagogy.......................................................................................... .................8

3.3. Performance pedagogy..............................………………………………………....................8

3.3.1. The process of learning …........…………………………………………….........................9

3.3.2.Associationism…………….……….......................................................................................9

3.3.3. Behaviouristic theory …....………........................................................................................9

3.4. Theory of Change………………….……………………………………..............................10

4.0. Scientific Knowledge based evidence for Sport in Development..........................................10

5.0. Right To Play Peace Education activities in Uganda..............................................................12

6.0. Counter views on Sport in Development................................................................................15

7.0. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................17

8.0 References …...........................................................................................................................18

1.0. Introduction

Sports is increasingly being adopted as one of the strategies in international development with an

aim to promote peace building iniative in many post conflict zones and developing countries.

Given its potential to develop individual life skills and the community at large development

organizations are increasingly integrating sports in their project work in order to improve their

programme delivery. This is a result of an agreed understanding today that organized displines or

activities are a potential source or platform for youth positive development (Larson, 2000).

Among popular organized activity today, sports provides an opportunity for youth engagement

(Larson & Verma, 1999).

Internationally, the United Nations General Assembly in 2003 adopted a resolution affirming its

commitment to sport as a means to promote education, health, development and peace. It was

also generally agreed and recognized that sport and physical education are tools that can

contribute towards achieving the internationally agreed development goals.

The year 2005 was also declared a year of Sport and Physical Education by the United Nations

while encouraging development stake holders to seek ways of using sport to promote peace as

well as in the effort to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Sport was recognized as a

vehicle for “addressing global issues related to violence, inequality, disease, hunger, primary

education, environmental sustainability and global partnerships (Mandigo, Corlett & Anderson,

2008: 110).

Available evidence suggests that sport integrated with in the development component can be a

medium to promote education, development of life skills among participating young people,

promoting peace building and conflict prevention, disaster response, disability inclusion, health

sensitization, economic growth, and gender mainstreaming. However whereas sports has these

development aspects, there is an ongoing debate on whether participation in sport activity

promotes peace or violence?; Does it bring about desired social change?. Whereas there is

limited data on sport in development and its actual role in peace building, there is growing

recognition of the role it can play in the development and this necessitated the need to

mainstream sports in peace education.

Sports is a low cost, high impact and transferable medium of engagement1, it‟s a tool that can be

used in peace education since it brings people together in a joint endeavor. Through sport

participation, self generated change and dialogue is promoted among participants through their

engagement. Individuals learn and adopt skills necessary to engage in dialogue in any conflict

situation. Sports as a pedagogy can be significant in peace education.

This module paper intends to examine the pedagogical benefits of sports as a tool for peace

education particularly its significance in development today, citing Right To Play project in

Uganda as the case study. The paper will also examine peace pedagogy and pedagogical theories,

the learning process theory and the theory of change to explain why and how sport as pedagogy

1. Bennett, W.L.A. (2010). Idle Youth: Using Sport to Address the Youth Bulge in Sierra Leone. Vol. 2 No. 05.

http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/249/5/idle-youth-using-sport-to-address-the-youth-bulge-in-sierra-leone

can play a significant role in fostering behavioral change and development of life skills key to

peace and development in society. The paper also highlights some counter arguments to the

growing notion in favor of use of sport in development. However for clarity to avoid ambiguity

between the terms sport and physical education and the lack of a systematic or international

agreement on a preferred term, in this paper I will mainly refer to the term sport in examining its

significance in development.

2.0. Background

2.1. Sport in Peace Education

Peace education seeks to engage within its structures mechanism that permit feedback, “bring

people together in a joint endeavor rather than apart. Does it permit general participation and is

the total form of education capable of self generated change; Dialogue that engages learners”

(Galtung, 2008: 51). “Peace education should be seen as a way of achieving, individually and

collectively, a higher level of consciousness, an awareness of social reality and solidarity in a

joint learning community” (ibid.:52). Sports as a pedagogy can foster dialogue and awareness

through participation. This aspect of sport makes it a suitable medium for promoting and

developing individual and collective skills that are necessary for peace building.

For any content of a message to be meaningful, the method of presentation compared to the

content, is more important (Galtung, 2008). Learners at various “educational levels share the

experience that their leisure reading provokes deeper insights and is more interesting and

gratifying than their reading for school” (ibid.: 52). If this is true then peace education through

sports provides an opportunity to invoke deeper insights among participants and promoting

growth in individual life skills among children and youth. It is this potential that has ignited the

debate on the role of sport in development as it has been identified as one pedagogic tool for

peace education. There is growing international recognition that sports can be a medium to

address social injustices that often undermine the stability of states particularly those that have

experienced conflict and are in the state of conflict transformation.

Because of its Universal popularity sports transcends national, cultural, socio-economic and

political boundaries. It is enjoyable for participants and spectators alike and can be invoked in

virtually any community in the world. It is can be a platform for communication, public

education & social mobilization because it reaches out to large numbers of people. It has the

ability to connect by bringing different categories of people together such as players, teams,

coaches, volunteers & spectators; It can Cross cut and address a broad range of social and

economic challenges; It has the potential to empower, motivate and inspire by developing and

showcasing individual strengths and capacities. Therefore the intentional use of sport, physical

activity and play in peace education seeks to achieve individual and collective high levels of

consciousness and awareness with a goal to attain specific development and peace objectives.

In 1999, at the Berlin world summit on Physical Education, experts and delegates from around

the world endorsed the characteristics of Quality Physical Education programme and concurred

that, Quality Physical Education programmes are child centred. They create a positive

environment; they develop the skills and knowledge required to foster independence and

independent learners and incorporate human rights; gender equity and peace education2.

Many states are increasingly considering how to use Quality Peace Education to help children

and youth imbue skills associated with a becoming a truly peaceful nation3.

In 2005, at the 2nd World Summit on Physical Education, participants from over 40 countries

ratified the Magglingen Commitment for Physical Education (2005). This declaration

highlighted the unique role of sports in culture, health and development, and the promotion of

peace throughout the world. However the promotion of peace is a relatively new challenge for

Physical Education professionals (Holt, 2008).

Sports provides an opportunity for youth development because its active, interactive and highly

emotional by nature, It promotes positive growth, cooperation, team building, goal setting which

factors can be useful in conflict resolution (Hellison, Martinek & Walsh, 2008). The need to

positively engage youth in many conflict and post conflict environments has necessitated

adoption of holistic youth development programs including play based programs.

Sports offers a cost effective tool to meet many development and peace challenges and help

achieve the MDGs4. It can play multiple purposes in development

5.

Sport and physical education are being integrated in school curriculum because of their ability to

develop the motor skills, health and physical capacity of participants. Sport has been associated

with psychosocial benefits, individual growth in life skills, positive values such as increased

assertiveness, self confidence, self control, efficiency, cognitive skills and displine.

It has been used for awareness-raising among communities and through training of coaches; peer

educators and mentors; Leadership skills have been developed and this has encouraged character

building and created an active and enlightened citizenry that is capable of making informed

decision.

Some studies have indicated that sports can be helpful in decreasing alcohol abuse, anxiety,

depression, phobia, and tensions though on contrary some sports have been linked to high

consumption levels of alcohol and consequent abuse.

The contribution of sporting and exercising is based theoretically on the thesis of specific

activities. However in the development work, sports has been integrated in peace building,

reconciliation, and conflict management initiatives within the development context. Sports has

been used as part of humanitarian response during emergencies for psychosocial support. Sports

programs have been adopted to promote and advocate for gender equity and social inclusion of

vulnerable groups of society such as the disabled people.

The inclusion of sports programming is also said to have a positive economic impact on society

due to the development of sporting infrastructure and the supply of sports goods and training,

plus related job creation.

2. International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance 2001a

3. United Nations 2003

4. The United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sports for Development and Peace. 2003, pp. 4

5. Harnessing Power of Sport, 2010; Literature Reviews on Sports, 2007

Sport is therefore understood to have wide reaching articulations and benefits within the

development context. It helps to build and access community structures through participation in

sports programmes and integrated sport structures both in the developed or developing world.

Strong sport for development and peace programs combine sport and play with other non-sport

components to enhance their effectiveness. They can be delivered in an integrated manner with

other local, regional and national development and peace initiatives so that they are mutually

reinforcing.

Such programs seek to empower participants and communities by engaging them in the design

and delivery of activities; building local capacity; adhering to generally accepted principles of

transparency and accountability, and pursuing sustainability through collaboration, partnerships

and coordinated action6.

3.0. Theoretical context

3.1. Peace pedagogy

Peace pedagogy focuses on “concepts, facts, theories, knowledge, skills, performances, attitudes,

traits and behaviors. It attempts to promote democratic thinking through a humanistic approach,

by encouraging critical thinking, creativity and multiculturalism” (Isidori, 2009: 9-10). For

instance, programs involving coaches and peer educators can integrate mediation and conflict

resolution techniques in school curriculum so that students are informed about the problems of

violence and a methodology that promotes a more peaceful classroom ( Harris, 1990). Sport can

be a platform to inform as well as experience ways of resolving conflict between conflicting

parties in a peaceful manner. Continuous participation and experience in sports can aid the

development of these life skills among children and youth.

Peace is a concept which “motivates the imagination, connotes more than the cessation of war, it

implies human beings working together to resolve conflicts, respect standards of justice, satisfy

basic needs and honor human rights” (Harris, 1990: 7). In Sierra Leone sport has been part of the

integral development work and has been used to provide the expertise and to create an

environment for men and women from varied backgrounds to interact and mend the social fabric

of the nation. It has been used to promote civil society activism, education and exercise among

young people and the community.

The way to create peace is to promote a peaceful disposition in people, so that they conduct their

affairs as peace makers, creating small islands of peace in the midst of turbulent oceans of

violence (Read, 1985). Peace educators can contribute to the formation of such dispositions in

their students by establishing non violent classrooms and environments. This can be done

through encouraging classroom practices and activities that promote peace; Active attempts of

resolving conflicts; to treat others respectfully and to build consensus. This can help individuals

develop personal qualities and skills that are compassionate, respectful to diversity; skills to

mediate conflicts and unwavering pursuit of non violent alternatives.

Sport participation is one avenue to develop these life skills among children and youth. Since the 6. Right to Play

goal of any qualitative physical education curriculum that adopts a humanistic approach is to

foster the development of self-esteem, self-actualization, self-understanding, and positive

interpersonal relations with others. When equipped with such values, students are able to

interact, connect and form their own world body as a community in a playful way (Jewett &

Bain, 1985).

Peace pedagogy therefore urges that classroom teaching should embolden five main principles in

mind. It should create a free environment for dialogue, cooperation, problem solving, affirmation

and democratic boundary setting. Since these principles are practicable and can be applied in any

educational setting be it, day care centers; elementary classrooms; college classes and

community education events to model peaceful practices. These activities correspond and are in

every way related to other activities conducted by teachers at school including physical

education and sports done by peer leaders or coaches. Dialogue is how teachers, coaches and

peer leaders impact information. Cooperation refers to the learning climates that teachers

establish within and outside their classes, and this is can be part of sports activities under coaches

and peer educators.

Students through practicing problem solving acquire skills that are helpful in solving problems of

violence. These skills can be developed among children and youth who actively engage in sports.

Peace educators “use motivation techniques to inspire interest in peace related topics and

confidence building measures to help students face with courage violent threats that haunt their

worlds” (Harris, 1990: 255- 256). This can involve setting a democratic boundary in class room,

where respect and concerns of all members are an agreed practice that is upheld and maintained.

These principles of peace pedagogy can create within any class room “a caring community that

teaches pupils to value democratic principles and challenges violent assumptions that undergird

traditional teacher centered pedagogy” (ibid.: 255- 256).

These principals of peace pedagogy can be present in sport activities integrated in peace

education with the aim of promoting dialogue, cooperation, problem solving, affirmation and

democratic participation. Because of its potential, sports can develop individual life skills; social

inclusion on an individual perspective; as well as the potential to bring large groups of people

together through which communication, awareness can be conveyed.

Sport pedagogy is the “description of the field of theoretical research or sub displine of sports

science which deals with education aspects of physical activity such as sport, play, dance”

(Haag, 1989: 6) As development partners explore and recognize the positive aspects of sport that

can promote values that nurture peace, there is general believe that through sports engagement,

youth are taught and can learn to dialogue, cooperate and resolve conflict. This “teaching and

learning are the processes at the heart of peace pedagogy” (Locke, 1979: 1). Because sport

embodies these features, the need to teach and nurture values of peaceful disposition among

young people in society has created interest among many development organizations adopting

sport in their service delivery.

3.2. Behaviouristic pedagogy This concept is inspired by John Watson (1878–1958) and Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), and

the new behaviors (Skinner, Tolman and Guthrie), it comes from to behave and it is based on the

concepts of stimulus and reaction.

This pedagogy focuses on quantitative approach, test and measurements in educational research.

The aim of pedagogy is to create habits in behaviors. Personality is a black box; human learning

is based on specific laws. Considering this perspective, sport participation would be the stimulus

in fostering and development of individual life skills and the reaction would be the shaping of

personality, such as character, confidence, self-esteem, compassionate behavior, positive social

skills, tolerance and reduce stigma.

Some studies have linked sports to acquisition and development of key individual life skills for

instance female youth participation in sport to a large extent improved self assertiveness and

ability to own and make decisions over their bodies, female athletes reported lower rates of

sexual activity and/or early sexual intercourse, despite influence of race, age, quality of family

relations, and participation in other extracurricular activities (Miller et al, 1998). In a study

conducted on youth whose 11th grade extracurricular activities centered mainly on school-based

clubs, results indicated that they exhibited an overall pattern of high psychological and

behavioral functioning that was similar to youth who were highly involved in a wide range of

extracurricular activities (Zarrett et al, 2008: 11). The development of such skills among

individuals in community and their practice is essential for a peaceful society. Other studies have

suggested that sport is also associated with lower levels of alcohol use (Peretti-Watel et al.

2003). Though other findings have indicated a positive relation between sports participation and

alcohol and drug use, the general conception is that participation in sports can be linked to low

levels of substance use, as well as lower rates of depression, and lower incidence of suicidal

behavior. Even as there have been mixed results in similar studies in relation to sports and

behavior with no conclusive results, sport generally can stimulate and foster key skills among

individuals and can promote positive social habits and behavior in society.

3.3 Performance pedagogy The performance pedagogy concept proceeds from pragmatism and accepts all new technologies.

“The main aim of this pedagogy is how to increase knowledge and skills. It gives preference to

empirical investigation and it is typical of performance society” (Isidori, 2009: 11). Through

performance pedagogy, sport can be seen as one of the media to increase knowledge and skills if

integrated with specific programmes. Learners have an opportunity to acquire knowledge and

learn new skills through sports. Sport programmes have been initiated to promote peace building

and conflict prevention; disaster response; disability inclusion; health sensitization and gender

mainstreaming. It is increasingly being used as a platform for sensitization; advocacy; awareness

and promotion of health issues. It fosters social inclusion, behavioral change and gender

mainstreaming. It‟s increasingly being utilized as a medium to sensitize, advocate, promote and

develop life skills among participants in many developing countries and post conflict societies.

However there is still general lack of cumulative and conclusive empirical evidence (ibid).

3.3.1. The process of learning and sports

Individuals learn in the day to day life from what they see, what they do and what they put their

mind to learning, Learning therefore is part of our whole life and involves doing something

better every time step by step. “It involves a steady improvement in behaviors as a result of

practice or experience” (Isidori, 2009: 23). Learning though not observable by seeing, can be

noticed among individuals through their behavior and performance (ibid). Sport provides an

opportunity to learn through practice and improving individual performance and behaviors

related to self-esteem and self-confidence. It can provide an opportunity to strengthen weak traits

in an individual through practice and assimilation. Sports for instance can lead to a positive shift

in gender norms that afford girls and women greater safety and enhanced sense of control over

their bodies. These life skills are learnt through practice and experience. Although these skills

may not be easily measurable, sport is one avenue for promoting and learning them.

3.3.2. Associationism and sports

This concept is based on finding that learning advances when the law of similarity or law of

contact are applied. Engagement and associational life are connected to social capital and are as

important because they improve the efficiency of communities and societies by facilitating

coordinated actions and reducing transaction costs (for example, high levels of trust means less

dependency on formal contractual agreements). This enables communities to be more effective

in pursuit of their collective interests. In other words, social capital is not just a public good, but

is for the public good (Putnam, 2000). Sports activities create this atmosphere. When participants

are in contact and engaged in similar activity, they are able to learn different life skills which

improve community coordinated action and effectiveness in the public sphere. Community sport

programs can provide shared experiences between people that “re-humanize” opposing groups in

the eyes of their enemies. By sharing sport experiences, sport participants from conflicting

groups increasingly grow to feel that they are alike, rather than different. This shared “ritual

identity” or sense of belonging to the same group on the basis of a shared ritual experience. This

helps to erase the dehumanizing effects of persistent negative characterizations of opposing

groups.

3.3.3. Behaviouristic theory and sports

Behavioral theories define learning as a "semi-permanent change in behavior." In other words,

learning has only taken place if a change in behavior is evident. Behaviorists assume that all

behavior is determined by the environment either through association or reinforcement. Through

operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to encourage behavior. Reinforcers may vary and the

use of sport can be one way to reinforce behavior among youth. Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner

formulated the law of effect, the law of readiness and the law of exercise, after observations of

“behaviors after some influence on them” (Isidori, 2009: 24). Sport works primarily by bridging

relationships across social, economic and cultural divides within society through building a sense

of shared identity and fellowship among groups that might otherwise be inclined to treat each

other with distrust, hostility or violence. Building and strengthening relationship is a central

component of peace-building (Lederach, 1997) and sports is able to build relationships through

reinforcing behavior among individuals and communities.

3.4. Theory of Change

Using sports in peace education is within the context of the theory of change that describes a

process of planned social change. From this assumption, a sport when integrated with interactive

program activities has the ability to impact development of positive life skills among

participants. It can be a platform for communication that seeks to create social inclusion;

tolerance; self esteem; critical thinking; decision making and leadership skills. These provide a

logical connection between sporting activities and the development of life skills that are

conduisive for peaceable society. Through well articulated interactive programs of sports,

participation for the youth can bring about peaceful conflict resolution and peace in the wider

society.

To achieve a desired goal of peace, understanding the relationship between the existing problem

and what interventions are needed to address it is important. Thinking through all the steps

necessary to achieve the desired change; identifying the preconditions that will permit

undertaking each step; listing the activities that will produce those conditions and explaining

why those activities are likely to work (Grantcraft, 2006). Evidence suggests that girls and

women, who participate in sport and physical activity in both developing and developed

countries, also derive benefits related to other constructs associated with self esteem, including

self perception, self worth, self efficacy, self empowerment and enhanced personal freedom

(Kenen, 1987).

4.0. Scientific Knowledge based evidence for Sport in Development

Several writers, academicians and theorists have also contributed to the debate that sport

generally can play a significant role in peace education and development.

Sports programmes designed to target children, youth, and the complex interactions around their

human development have the potential to foster life skills related to creativity, initiative, problem

solving, critical thinking, social justice, equality and equity and leadership (United Nations,

2003). These values form a foundation for positive youth development (Larson, 2000). Youth

with positive values and behaviors can be counted for the establishment of peaceful nations

(Johnson & Johnson, 2005a).

Peace education seeks to achieve an atmosphere where individuals can “be able to maintain

peace among aspects of themselves (intrapersonal peace), groups (intergroup peace), and

countries, societies, and cultures (international peace)” (Johnson & Johnson 2005b: 276). In any

situation of conflict, there can be a positive relationship between conflicting parties. This

relationship can recognize “mutual benefit and justice” (ibid.: 277) grounded in a shared

environment characterized by calm, tranquility, order and harmony.

A sport for Peace model for high school peace education curriculum after evaluation, results

indicated that it fostered shared responsibility for learning among participants developing, trust,

respect, a sense of family and an atmosphere for engagement (Ennis et al, 1999). This indicates

that integrating principles of peace education into sports can have a positive impact on

intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup peace. These values are paramount in ensuring

peaceful societies and nations (Holt, 2008).

However it‟s important to note that transient participation in an activity cannot foster the extent

of activity related gains that more sustained participation (continuity) affords to young people

(Mahoney et al. 2003). “Sport is widely recognized as a way to build positive social capital”

(Skinner, Zakus, & Cowell, 2008: 10). In some grass root communities, sport has motivated,

inspired, and forged a community spirit in face of social ills (Cairnduff, 2001; Zakus, 1999).

There are other studies that have produced significant results linking sport participation to

positive social behavior. A study on a national representative sample of 8th to 12th grade

students (Zarret et al, 2008; Zaff et al, 2003) found that, after controlling individual, parent, peer,

and school level variables, under consistent extracurricular activity participation, the

representative sample showed significant “academic achievement, pro-social behavior, and civic

engagement in young adulthood” (Zarret et al, 2008: 10).

Thus the level of participation determines the extent to which sports can be beneficial to

individuals. Research has found that the intensity of youth participation is important, meaning

that those youth who spend more time in active sport are likely to benefit more than those who

participate at lower levels or not at all (Simpkins et al, 2005; Cooper et al, 1999).

It‟s also believed that for life skills to be developed, then continuity and intensity of participation

on the side of the individual is key in helping to master certain skills and acquire knowledge

(Larson et al, 2006). The time youth spend in an activity, along with their continuous

participation over a number of years, are both ways to determine the level of youth

commitment/engagement in the particular activity as well as the quality of the activity

experience for the youth.

Sports psychologists have measured intensity of participation and commitment as indicators of

involvement quality (Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1986). For this reason, engaging youth in sport

regularly and continuously will help in skill development and mastery.

Quality Physical Education can foster positive youth development as defined by the National

Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2004) if it adopts a holistic approach particularly

focusing on the physical, intellectual, psychological or emotional, and social development.

Positive youth development is associated to given aspects which include; Competence which

develops creative thinking; Value skills and learning which helps to interact with others in a

constructive way; Confidence which gives the ability to apply tactics and skills dynamically;

Effort to skill performance and respect of collective effort; Connection which requires the ability

to work with others to develop strategies for success; Feeling of friendliness towards fellow

players, value sense of connectedness and belonging associated with group team play (Lerner et

al, 2005).

Sport participation enables the development of a character that recognizes fair play, value play

with team mates and opponents. It develops the ability to recognize the value of teamwork; a

caring attitude and compassion where participation helps others experience the reward of play

with enthusiasm. It allows playing in a way that builds other players‟ skills and confidence. It

encourages playing competitively but with humility, respect of opponents and loss with dignity.

It encourages support of teammates despite the outcome of the competition (Mandigo, Corlett &

Anderson, 2008). Attainment of these values is linked to core foundations of a healthy and

positive development of society where individual and group values prioritize peaceful resolution

of conflict.

In this regard, sports programmes can integrate education and engagement of “youth in proactive

and constructive ways” (ibid.: 111) so that they can develop positive social skills.

5.0. Right To Play Peace Education activities in Uganda

In 2001, Right To Play partnered with the government of Uganda and the United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in a project aimed at enhancing self reliance among

refugees in Oruchinga and Nakivale Refugee Camps. Close to 274,000 refugees and asylum

seekers from neighboring countries including Rwanda, Sudan, Burundi, the Democratic Republic

of Congo and Somalia are present in Uganda, though these figures change with routine refugee

return programmes. Conditions in refugee camps are quite challenging with little coverage of

social amenities, such as health and education. There is general idleness among refugees,

hopelessness, trauma, gender based violence within families, occasional conflict among refugee

communities and a high prevalence of diseases such as HIV/AIDS particularly among 15 to 45

year old.

Through the sport works program, sport and play activities were organized in Rhino, Imvepi and

Kyaka II Refugee Camps from 2002 to 2008.

Since 2008, Right to Play has reached out to140,000 children and youth; 1,315 coaches and

teachers; 275 schools in Uganda where a large number of refugees are stationed. Many of these

refugees are fleeing civil and ethnic conflicts from the neighboring countries.

This sports project targeted refugee camps and communities to give an opportunity to children,

youth and community members to participate in sport.

The goal of the project was to attain holistic child development, life skills in form fair play and

self esteem through promoting awareness and prevention of HIV/AIDS.

The project aimed at using sports as a pedagogic tool to develop life skills for children and youth

with a view that participation can enable strengthen their self esteem given their exposure to

challenging life circumstances in the internally displaced camps. It also believed that

participation would invoke a number of other skills within the youth, particularly creative skills

that are usually subdued due to conditions of severe suffering; Critical thinking that hardly exists

in situations of hardship; Problem solving skills that are essential to survive in routine harsh

situations; The practice of social justice to promote behavior that seeks to conduct actions in a

fair manner to one another with equal chances to succeed in life.

Right To Play‟s intervention through sport and play activities in these refugee camps also

strengthened the capacity of its local staff, volunteers and partner organizations. Participation in

sport and play activities aimed at promoting children's physical, emotional and social

development. The sport and play activities also integrated HIV and AIDS preventative

education; Gender equality; Child protection and rights messages to children and youth.

Programs focused on providing regular and inclusive sport and play activities to refugee children

and youth. The project philosophy was based on the idea that children who possess these crucial

life skills will serve as catalysts for healthier, happier and more peaceful communities. However

the development of these life skills is dependent on the amount of time youth spend participating

in sports each week or intensity (Simpkins et al. 2005). The participation stability/duration across

adolescence or continuity (Zaff et al. 2003) and the time they spend in other types of activities in

addition to their sports participation (Zarrett 2006). All these determine the extent to which

sports participation will bring about youth development.

Indications have shown that through regular participation in sport and play activities, children are

able to demonstrate new life skills and adopt healthy practices as a result of ongoing/regular

participation in sport and play activities.

As a result of the implemented sport and play activities in communities, Coaches and children

developed sense of ownership to the Right To Play program. There was increased knowledge on

HIV and AIDS preventative methods and general acceptance of people living with HIV and

AIDS among teachers, coaches, children and community members. Parents and community

leaders were sensitized on girls‟ right and need to participate in sport and play activities. Coaches

and communities employed child protection system of referral.

In 2009, Right To Play reached out to children who needed help most in the Nakivale refugee

camp and used the value of sport and play as a tool for development. The camp is home to

almost 50,000 displaced persons who fled their countries in order to survive conflict, immense

poverty, hunger and rampant diseases.

Games added value to life in the refugee community. After playing each game, participants were

given an opportunity to reflect, connect, and apply the lessons from that particular session. The

Right To Play curriculum teaches kids how to say no to peer pressure, to resolve conflict, to set

aside gender barriers, and to learn about caring for their own health and that of the others.

Through sport, children learnt how to look after themselves and others. Different field projects in

Kampala and Navikale have unique own special stories. In Naguru, a suburb of Kampala city,

Right To Play organized an outreach programme. This targeted children living in the poor slum

communities among which some children and volunteer project leaders were living with HIV

and were orphans. At least 1 out of every 5 children was an orphan.

The Right To Play games

The Right To Play model is based on a variety of games targeting different age groups of

children and youth. Among games organized include: Organizing Your Rights Survival,

Development, Protection, Participation Fact or Fiction Football; True or False; Steal the Ball;

Families; What a Wonderful World; Rights; Mobile Snakes and Ladders; Step By Step; What

We Know. These games and activities aim at developing and boosting children mental

capabilities helping them to remember and understand the meaning of their rights. Whereas the

children rights are well stipulated in the UN Convention on Rights of Children, they are easily

adopted, understood and remembered by children if they are presented in form of playing

activities and games that are enjoyable. They eventually become more aware with what each

right truly means in the world and in their lives and each game has been designed to develop

different skills among the children and youth.

There are indications that participation in sport activities has generally improved the life skills of

the children and youth in the community. The challenge however is that there is no conclusive

study and that more research would be needed in this area to confirm such assertion.

Among the games introduced included “The mosquito tag" where once you were tagged, you

remained frozen until the doctor came by with medicine (a red soccer ball), rolled it under your

legs, and healed you to run again. This game aimed at creating awareness of HIV and AIDS and

the need to help treat the sick without stigmatization. Many children developed empathy and

improved their awareness on their health status and that of people around them. They learned

how to help others who were in need.

The Boda Boda was another game introduced. Here a person was blindfolded and other steered

them by tapping them on various spots on their bodies. After playing they engaged in a

discussion on how it feels to be blind or lost, and what one can do to help those people around

him or her who may be in need of guidance or help. The game equips children with a sense of

responsibility towards others by helping and guiding those who are in need.

The “White Blood Cells" is another game used to fight off diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria,

and other common illnesses. A child labeled white blood cell finally succumbs to a child labeled

"HIV/AIDS". When children are asked who then should rescue the white blood cell, they all say

"ARVs". Given the average age of the children (8 years), the game is able to make them

understand the need for treatment and the kind of medication needed. It also creates awareness

among the children about a health concern, how it can be treated and managed. This reduces

stigmatization against those affected by the disease at the community.

Leadership roles created

Right to play also introduced the Junior Leaders Program and today it has about 1700 Junior

leaders in its projects across the country. These junior leaders are kids who volunteer to lead

sport and play activities when a coach is late or unable to attend games and activities. They are

identified and mentored by coaches to lead their peers during sport and play activities. These

junior leaders eventually develop leadership skills and character. They improve on self esteem;

ability to make decisions; learn inclusive skills; they feel empowered and they have become a

significant part of the implementation process of Right to Play programmes.

This role has ensured sustainability of sport and play activities at the community level. These life

skills are developed gradually and become more pronounced with individual continuity and

intensity of participation in the sporting activity. The development of these skills may depend on

individual to individual however indications suggest that overall participation has improved

character and leadership skills of the youth. Some participants may not display these skills right

away as they would prefer to be led, but they are most likely to demonstrate them in a different

environment and in a different way. Overall, the youth are able to improve their personal

potential and develop given life skills such leadership, character and self esteem. This role

encourages youth and motivates them to engage in various community initiatives and programme

ownership.

About 1800 coaches have reached out to over 150,000 children and young people participating in

Right To Play programmes in Uganda. In partnership with the ministry of education and sport,

the junior leaders approach has also been introduced in all primary schools to demonstrate

leadership to young children. The program has empowered young people to lead others through

their day to day experience as junior leaders.

In northern Uganda, Lira district, internally displaced camps were created to accommodate

civilians fleeing from the Lords Resistance insurgency. Girls participating in the Right To Play

sport and play activities as junior leaders have had an opportunity to develop their leadership

skills. They have healed from their psychological trauma resulting from the war. When leading

the games, they feel empowered to make decisions, make right choices in their lives and learning

by leading fellow children.

Right To Play Uganda, in September 2012 also launched another project in the Teso region of

Uganda, targeting 10,000 children, youth, teachers and volunteers from thirty schools and five

communities within and outside school environment. The project aimed at promoting sports and

leisure among children and youth in this region. With a view to promoting post conflict

reconstruction in the Teso sub region through encouraging an interactive learning for the

children and youth especially the girl child in a safe environment. It also aimed at harnessing

leadership skills to enable them play an active role within their communities and ensure a better

future for themselves and their peers. The project objectives include promoting sports and games

as a tool for learning self confidence and tolerance; ensuring regular practice of sports and

participation in leisure activities as a means of promoting child development. It uses sport

activities to sensitize and create awareness on the environment. The sport activities are also

gender focused and they are aimed at promoting gender equality and equity. The project has also

increased awareness on child protection and rights in the community. It has developed and

strengthened the capacity of community volunteers, teachers and partner organizations to offer

these activities to children.

6.0. Counter views on Sport in Development

Despite the growing recognition and integration of sport in peace building initiatives and

development service delivery, sport alone cannot ensure peace or solve complex social problems.

Instead, sport should be positioned as a highly effective tool in a broader toolkit of development

practices, and should be applied in a holistic and integrated manner with other interventions and

programs to achieve optimal results. “The impact of sport and exercise on personality

development exists, however is not necessarily existing and not always positive” (Isidori,

2009:15)

Sport activity and participation has been challenged on the ground that it does not necessarily

support resistance to dominant political and economic structures, nor does it focus on

dismantling unequal power relations. Even though it can be used for change, it can also be used

as a tool of discipline and control in a manner aimed at avoiding “subversion and resistance”

(Saavedra, 2009:130). In this way, it can undermine the tenets and aspirations of peace education

if used for this purpose.

The available data on sport in development bases its claim on purely descriptive case studies of

projects in the field which have not conducted reliable investigation with empirical tests and

evidence. The lack of scientific tests to hypothetical claims has put a doubt on whether sports

actually can bring about social change.

Sport in development has not accumulated enough data and scientific evidence necessary for

meaningful comparative analysis. This presents a challenge to advocates who urge that

participation in sports enhances other personal skills and behavioral change. It still hard to

measure attitude and behavioral change especially on people‟s perceptions regarding culturally

sensitive issues on gender, and preventing health related diseases such as HIV. In this regard,

more scientific evidence can be beneficial to support the benefits of sports.

There are doubts and concern about the linear development from new acquired sporting skills

leading to perceived reduction in engaging in risky sexual behavior. The complexity of context

and the role of environmental factors in any sport in development programme are as decisive

factors for success or failure of sustainable behavioral change (Levermore & Beacom, 2009).

There is general lack of empirical evidence to support some of these claims that are currently

dominating the discussion on sport in development. However, greater evidence is required to

clearly determine the pedagogical benefits of utilizing sports especially within educational

programming. For example, how does incorporating sports in educational programming support

learning objectives? How can sport contribute to the quality of education in a post-emergency

context? Can sports in education programming serve to increase educational access?, such

questions still pose a dilemma with no clear answer. Whereas some studies have indicated a

significant correlation between sport participation and school attendance in some cases, there is

need for further studies to conclusively confirm the relationship. In many post conflict contexts,

other determining factors related to harsh life circumstances usually prevalent in many

communities can be crucial. And as such claims of sport benefits may not be substantial.

There are also concerns raised about elite sport that demands support and spectators and is seen

as “a mechanizing factor and some athletes regard their bodies as a vehicle for money” (Isidori,

2009:15). This is very common for Athletes from developing world who now look at sport as an

avenue for getting rich quickly due to the big cash prizes for winners. This is particularly

common in long distance marathons that are dominated by athletes from Africa. This then

challenges the ethical claim to development of life skills that promote a peaceable society as it is

used purely as a wealth accumulation opportunity for participants and their teams.

Sport commercialization has also introduced social habits of betting similar to gambling and

these are associated with Elite sport. In some parts of the developing world betting has become a

source of income for idle youth who spend more time betting on games instead of engaging in a

meaningful activity.

Some sporting activities such as football are sometimes associated with rivalry among clubs

leading to aggression and sometimes violence during competitions between fans of competing

teams. This situation instead creates and brings out a negative trait in individuals when they

confront with the other when they regard them as enemies (Isidori, 2009).

Female dominated sport may also be exposed to the risk of harassment and sexual abuse

particularly against female athletes due to predominant influence and control by male coaches,

teachers and officials. However this can be controlled through establishing policies and

procedures aimed at protecting girls and women to ensure they have safe spaces in which to train

and compete.

Some critics regard some sport from the west as a tool for cultural hegemony over the

developing world and that it distracts the communities and policy makers from pressing

development realities. It is seen as diverting the marginalized from protesting against serious

social and political problems they face at community level.

7.0. Conclusion

It is true that sport possesses pedagogical benefits as a tool for peace education in development.

It has a unique ability to act as driver for life skill development among youth and a platform for

information dissemination. The increasing recognition and adoption of sport interventions in

development and service delivery today is based on the conviction that skill development is key

to promoting positive values among youth and communities in developed and developing

regions. These positive values form the foundation for nurturing a peace culture in society.

The process of social and behavioral change is gradual and positive values can be developed

through sport participation. To a large extent, this is determined by the level of participation in

terms of intensity, continuity and pattern of involvement across different sporting activities and

subsequently the nature of environment.

The role of sport therefore cannot be underestimated but rather will require a more integrated and

holistic approach. Sport interventions can seek to empower participants and communities

through engaging them in the design and delivery of activities hence building local capacity.

Also more research is needed in this displine to present a body of scientifically tested and proven

data to support the validity of current claims.

8.0 References

Amoo-Adare, E. A. , (2012) "Sports as pedagogy?: Uses of sport in international education

development" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 56th Annual Conference of the

Comparative and International Education Society, Caribe Hilton, San Juan, Puerto Rico <Not

Available>. 2013-08-17 from http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p552771_index.html

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioural change.

Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bennett, W.L.A. (2010). Idle Youth: Using Sport to Address the Youth Bulge in Sierra Leone.

Vol. 2 No. 05.http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/249/5/idle-youth-using-sport-to-address-the-

youth-bulge-in-sierra-leone

Biddle, S. (2006). Defining and Measuring indicators of psycho-social well-being in

youth sport and physical activity in Vanden Auweele, Y, Malcom, C and Meulders,

B (eds) Sports and Development Leuven, Lnoocampus,

Brady, M. and Kahn, A.B. (2002). Letting Girls Play: The Mathare Youth Sports

Association‟s Football Program for Girls, New York, The Population Council

Burnett, C. (2001) Social Impact Assessment and Sport Development: Social Spin-

Offs of the Australia-South Africa Junior Sport Programme, International Review for

the Sociology of Sport, 36(1), 41-57

Cairnduff, S. (2001).Sport and Recreation for Indigenous Youth in the Northern Territory

.ASC: Canberra.

Catania, A.C. (2003). B.F. Skinners 's Science and Human behavior: Its Antecedents and its

Consequences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Nov, Vol. 80 Issue 3, p313

Coalter, F (2006). Sport-in-Development: A Monitoring and Evaluation Manual

UK Sport, London

Coalter, F., Allison, M. and Taylor, J. (2000). The Role of Sport in Regenerating

Deprived Urban Areas, Edinburgh, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit

Cooper, C. R., Denner, J., and Lopez, E. M. (1999) „Cultural brokers: Helping Latino children on

pathways toward success‟, Future of Children, 9: 51–7.

Deane, J. (1998). Community Sports Initiatives - An Evaluation of UK Policy

Attempts to Involve the Young Unemployed - The 1980's Action Sport Scheme, In

Sport in the City: Conference Proceedings Volume 1, Sheffield, 2-4 July 1998,

pp.140-159, Loughborough University / Sheffield Hallam University / The University

of Sheffield

Department for International Development. (2005). Guidance on Evalaution and

Review for DFID Staff Evaluation Department,Department for International

Development, London

Eckhardt, W. (1984). Peace studies and Attitude Change: A value Theory of Peace Studies”

Peace and Change. pp79-86

Eickoff,J., Thorland,W., & Ansorge, C. (1983). “ Selected Physiological and Psychological

Effects of Aerobic Dancing Among Young Adult Women”23 Journal of Sports Medicine at 273-

280; 15

Ennis, C.D. Solomon, M.A., Satina, B., Loftus, S., Mensch, J., & McCauley, M.T. (1999).

Creating a sense of family in urban schools using the sport for peace curriculum. Research

quarterly for exercise and sport, 70, 273-285.

Galtung , J. (2008). Forms and Content of Peace Education. pp.51

Granger, Robert C (1998). Establishing causality in evaluations of comprehensive

community initiatives. In: New approaches to evaluating communityinitiatives. Vol 2: Theory,

measurement, and analysis. Ed Karen Fulbright-Anderson, Anne C Kubisch and James P

Connell. Washington, DC: Aspen Institute.

www.aspenroundtable.org/vol2/granger.htm

Grantcraft, (2006). Mapping Change: Using a Theory of Change To Guide Planning and

Evaluation.

Haag, H. (1989). Research in sports pedagogy: One field of theoretical study in the science of

sport. International review of education. 35(1), 5-16

Harris, I.M. (1988). Peace Education. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, P.7

Harris, I.M. (1990). Princinples of Peace pedagogy: Peace and Change, Vol.15. No 3, July pp

254 – 271. Council on Peace research in History and Consortium on Peace research, education

and development.

Hellison, D., Martinek, T & Walsh, D. (2008). Positive Youth Development through sports:

International studies in physical education and youth sports.

Hognestad, H. (2005). Norwegian Strategies on Culture – and Sports Development

with Southern Countries, A presentation to the Sports Research Forum, Australian

Sports Commission, Canberra, 13-15 April 2005

Innovative learning : Behaviorist Learning Theory.

http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/behaviorism/index.html)

Isidori, E. (2009).Introduction to Sport Pedagogy 11 stead of performance, on emotional

experience and intelligence; Outline of sport pedagogy, introduction and research essays.

Jewett, A.E., & Bain, L.L. (1985). The curriculum process in Physical Education. Dubuque, I.A:

William Brown

Johnson, D. W & Johnson, R.T. (2010). Theory into practice. This Issue: Peace Education.

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15430421tip4404_1

Kenen, R.H. (1987). “Double Messages, Double Images: Physical Fitness, Self-Concepts and

Women in Exercise Classes”. 58 Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance at 76-79;

Killoran, I. (2003). Current Research:Why Is Your Homework Not Done? How Theories of

Development Affect Your Approach in the Classroom. Journal of Instructional Psychology, Dec,

Vol. 30 Issue 4, p309

Kotze, J.C. (1993). In their Shoes, Kenwyn, Johannesburg, Juta

Larkin, J. (1978). “Gender, Sport and Development.

Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development

American Psychologist, Vol 55(1), Jan 2000, 170-183. doi

Larson, R. W., Hansen, D., and Moneta, G. (2006) „Differing profiles of developmental

experiences across types of organized youth activities‟, Developmental Psychology, 42:849–63.

Larson, R., and Verma, S. (1999) „How children and adolescents spend time across cultural

settings of the world: work, play and developmental opportunities‟, Psychological Bulletin,125:

701–36.

Lederach, J.P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies.

Washington: United States Institute of Peace.

Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J. B., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Naudeau, S., et al.

(2005) „Positive youth development, participation in community youth development

programs, and community contributions of fi fth-grade adolescents: fi ndings from the

fi rst wave of the 4-H study of Positive Youth Development‟, Journal of Early Adolescence, 25:

17–71.

Levermore, R., Beacom, A., et al., (2009). Sport and International Development. Publisher:

Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2009, ISBN 978-0-230-54256-3, 276. Reviewed by:

Engelhardt, Jutta. Development in practice: 20 years of stimulating thought for action:

http://www.developmentinpractice.org/reviews/sport-and-international-development.

Locke, L. (1979). Teaching and learning processes in physical activity: The central problem of

sport pedagogy. Keynote address to the international Council for Health, Physical Education and

Recreation (ICHPER), Kiel, Germany: Congress.

Mahoney, J. L., Cairns, B. D., & Farmer, T. (2003). „Promoting interpersonal competence

and educational success through extracurricular activity participation‟, Journal of

Educational Psychology, 95: 409–18.

Mandigo, J., Corlett, J & Anderson, A. (2008). Using quality physical education to promote

positive youth development in a developing nation striving for peace education.

Malone, J.C. (2003). Advances in Behaviorism: It's Not What It Used to Be. Journal of

Behavioral Education, Jun, Vol. 12 Issue 2, p85

Markula,P. (1993). “Looking Good, Feeling Good. Strengthening Mind and Body in Aerobics”

in On the Fringes of Sport Germany: Akademia Verlag, at 93-99;

Miller, K.E., Sabo, D.F., Farrell, M.P., Barnes, G.M & Melnick, M.J. (1998). Athletic

Participation and Sexual Behavior in Adolescents: The Different Worlds of Boys and Girls. Page

108 of 108-123

Munro, B. (2004). Greed vs Good Governance: The fight for corruption-free football

in Kenya. A paper presented at Play the Game 2005 - Governance in Sport: The

Good, The Bad and The Ugly Copenhagen

http://www.playthegame.org

Munro, B (2005). Role Models: Is anything more important for future development?,

Role Models Retreat, Laureus Sport for Good Foundation, South Africa, November

23-24, 2005, in Pretoria, South Africa

Mwaanga, O. (nd) Kicking Aids Out Through Movement Games and Sports Activities

http://www.norad.no/items/1028/38/3357469240/Kicking_AIDS_out.pdf

Patriksson, M. (1995) Scientific Review Part2, In, The Significance of Sport for

Society – Health, Socialisation, Economy: A Scientific Review, prepared for the 8

th Conference of European Ministers responsible for Sport, Lisbon, 17-18 May 1995,

Council of Europe Press

Pawson, R. (2006). Evidence-based Policy: A Realist Perspective, London, Sage

Publications Ltd

Payne, W, Reynolds, M, Brown, S and Fleming, A (2003). Sports role models and

their impact on participation in physical activity: a literature review Victoria,

VicHealth

Peretti-Watel, P., Guagliardo, V., Verger, P., Pruvost, J., Mignon, P & Obadia, Y. (2003).

Sporting activity and drug use: alcohol, cigarette and cannabis use among elite student athletes

Pollard, A. and Court, J. (2005). How Civil Society Organisations Use Evidence to

Influence Policy Processes: A Literature Review, Working Paper 249, London.

Overseas Development Institute

Putnam, R.D. (2000). Bowling Alone: the collapse and revival of American

community, New York, Simon and Schuster

Read, H. (1985). Education for Peace (New york: Harper Colophon).

Right To Play. Impact benefits of sports: Contribution of Sport to the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs)

http://www.righttoplay.com/International/ourimpact/Pages/MillenniumDevelopmentGoals.aspx

Right To play: Junior leaders.

http://www.righttoplay.com/uk/news-and-media/Pages/JuniorLeaders-thefutureofUganda.aspx

Right To Play: Creating a safer world. Child Rights, |Participation and Protection: Play based

Learning Manual.

Right To Play. Sport for Development. http://www.righttoplay.com/International/our-

impact/Pages/SportforDevelopment.aspx

Rumball Jane, (2009). Olympian and Athlete Ambassador. http://www.righttoplay.com/fr-

ca/nouvelles-et-medias/Pages/NewsArticles/JaneRumball2009Uganda.aspx

Saavedra, M. (2009). Dilemmas and Opportunities in Gender and Sport in Development.

http://www.imd.inder.cu/adjuntos/article/553/Sport%20and%20International%20Development.p

df#page=145

Scanlan, T. K., and Lewthwaite, R. (1986) „Social psychological aspects of competition for

male youth sport participants: IV: predictors of enjoyment‟, Journal of Sport Psychology, 8: 25–

35.

Shah, M.K., Kambou, S., Goparaju, L., Adams, M.K. & Matarazzo, J.M. (eds) (2004).

Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation of Community- and Faith-based

Programs: A step-by-step guide for people who want to make HIV and AIDS services

and activities more effective in their community, Core Initiative

Simpkins, S. D., Ripke, M., Huston, A., and Eccles, J. S. (2005) „Predicting participation

and outcomes in out-of-school activities: similarities and differences across social ecologies‟,

New Directions for Youth Development, 105: 51–69.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.

Skinner, J., Zakus, D.H. & Cowell, J. (2008). Development through Sport: Building Social Capital in Disadvantaged Communities. http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/20873/51369_1.pdf;jsessionid=A9B3169BF74933644E0AA93D33757D8C?sequence=1

Sport Coaches‟ Outreach (2005). Partnership in Practice: assessing our capacity to

deliver sustainable sport and development: Workshop Report .

Sports for Development and Peace International Working Group (SPD IWG) and Right to Play.

(2010). Harnessing the Power of Sport for Development and Peace: Recommendations to

Governments. Toronto:

Strand, P.S. et al. (2003). Educating the Whole Child: Implications of Behaviorism as a Science

of Meaning. Journal of Behavioral Education, Jun, Vol. 12 Issue 2, p105

Tinning, R. (2008). Pedagogy, sport pedagogy and the field of kenesiology: National Association

for Kenesiology and physical Education in higher education. 60, 405- 424

United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace.(2003). Sport as a

tool for development and Peace: Towards Achieving the United Nations Millennium

Development Goals. Geneva.

University of Toronto and Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group (SDP

IWG) (2007). Literature Reviews on Sport for Development and Peace. Toronto:

Van Rooy, A. (ed) (2004). Global Legitimacy Game: Civil Society, Globalisation and

Protest, London, Palgrave Macmillan

Weiss, C (1997) How can theory-based evaluation make greater headway? Evaluation Review

Vol 21 No 4 501-524

Warrick, R. & Tinning, R. (1989). “Women‟s Bodies, Self Perceptions, and Physical Activity. A

Naturalistic Study of Women‟s Participation in Aerobic Classes, Part 2” 126 The ACHPER

National Journal at 19-23.

Watson, J. (1930). Behaviorism. Norton: New York.

Willis, O. (2000). Sport and Development: The Significance of Mathare Youth Sports

Association, Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 21(3), 825-849

Witt, P.A. and Crompton, J.L. (eds) (1996). Recreation Programs that Work for At-

Risk Youth, Pennsylvania, Venture Publishing Inc.

http://citation.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/7/8/8/9/pages178890/p178

890-12.php

Zaff, J. F., Moore, K. A., Papillo, A. R., and Williams, S. (2003) „Implications of

extracurricular activity participation during adolescence on positive outcomes‟, Journal

of Adolescent Research, 18: 599–630.

Zakus, D.H.(1999).The Saskatchewan Roughriders and the construction of identity and regional resistance in Saskatchewan, Canada. Football Studies,2 (2),57-76.

Zarrett, N., Lerner, R.M., Carrano, J., Fay, K., Peltz, J.S. & Yibing Li. (2008). Variations in

adolescent engagement in sports and its influence on positive youth development